ML20235B303
| ML20235B303 | |
| Person / Time | |
|---|---|
| Site: | 05000000, Bodega Bay |
| Issue date: | 12/31/1985 |
| From: | Benioff H AFFILIATION NOT ASSIGNED |
| To: | |
| Shared Package | |
| ML20234A767 | List:
|
| References | |
| FOIA-85-665 NUDOCS 8709240057 | |
| Download: ML20235B303 (24) | |
Text
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p' lbvements and Seismic Destructiveness Associated O vith the San Andreas Fault HuBo Benioff Description of the Fault . The San Andreas fault is a fracture in the earth's crust extending south easterly from a point under the ocean some 300 miles from the Oregon - coast at about latitude 45' north, longitude 130' vest to the lower reaches i of the Gulf of California. It intersects the California coastline at Point Arena and continues in a very nearly straiBht line to the vicinity of Gorman where it curves eastward in response to a sinistral shearing stress directed roughly perpendicular to the coast. This stress is also responsible for the sinistral strike slip cc::;ponent of the Garlock fault. A few miles south of German the fault curves vestward sli6htly to become parallel to its original
- lO, 0, l
.> direction. The fault branches in the vicinity of San Bernardino, where one i
l member, the San Jacinto fault, deviates vestward slightly and passes through , I the towns of Hemet and San Jacinto. The other member continues on through San GorConio Pass into Coachella Valley where it appears as several parallel
- breaks extending into the Gulf of California.
s Earthquake Mechanism l The, manner in which earthquakes are generated by this fault is illustrated in Fig.1 where the heavy line represents a segment of the fault as seen from above. Suppose that after an earthquake has occurred, parallel lines are drawn on the 6round perpendicular to the fault as shova at A. After a l sufficient interval of time the rock masses on either side of the fault are , lq
- sd displaced horizontally relative to each other. Owing to friction and cementing, C 870924O'057 851217 i PDR FOIA ,
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q x. _ . . . _ ..._ - - . . _ c_ _ - _ _. - -- _ a_ -_ - a . o (2) ! 1 q the fault surfaces remain locked together and consequently the rock masses or l blocks become distorted or strained in the _ vicinity of the fault as indicated by the curved lines at B. As the blocks continue to move there comes a time when l
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at some point along the fault the stress exceeds the restraints and the fault surfaces suddenly slip past each other as drawn at C. The slip at this point j
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increases the existing stress at adjacent points on the fault, indicated in the' fi6ure by crowding of the lines in the direction of slip and separation in the reverse direction. The augmentad stress is sufficient to cause these points to
- l slip also with the result that the slip or break is propagated along the fault.
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After the faulting is completed the configuration of the lines vill be as at D. The sudden movements in opposite directions of the two fault lips thus generate seismic vaves which propagate outward throughout the earth as body waves and . around the earth er, surface waves. The break is propagated along the fault with 3
- a speed of about 3 5 kilometers (2.2 miles) per second. The total extent of the break varies Mth the size of the earthquake from a few feet in the smallest i up to about k80 kilometers (2)8 miles) in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. j The relative slip displacement also varies with the size of the earthquake frc:s 1
a few inches up to the 21 feet observed in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. ' Fig. 2 shows the accumulated secular ground displacement in the vicinity of the fault as a function of distance from the fault just prior to the 1906 San Francisco earthquake as deduced by Byerly and De Noyer from the displacements measured after the earthquake. The fault lies along the Y - axis and the curve i j is equivalent to one of the parallel lines represented at B Fig.1. Note that the Y - axis scale is given in centimeters while the X axis scale is in kilometers. , (In'the equation shown on the figure both X and Y are in centimeters). At the onset of slip the line breaks where it crosses the origin and the two broken ends
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fling in opposite directions. After the earthquake the curve has the form of l 1 l l o - - - ...,,,-. ,, - - y, .
.. m ... m -. m w p m .. . ,, p -..cm. - m y.;q,7 p y , ..,gp ppq v. ;, .. ?' ' ,
w: $. o. ., h..s . . f .. . n# two parallel lines 610 centimeters apart represented by the two dashed lines in i { the Figure. At the fault the displacement of each lip is thus 305 centimeters, indicated in the figure by the distance from the origin at 0 to each of the two e, dashed lines. The displacement falls off rapidly with distance frcra the fault ' so that at 10 kilometers it is only ST centimeters and at 30 kilometers it.is essentially zero. i In order to estimate the character of the displacement as a function of time it may be assumed that during slip the blocks on either side of the fault behave as quarter wave oscillators damped by friction of the fault and by radiation resistance. The displacement after break of each lip can then be expressed as Y =[ of where T is the oscillator period, o( is a - damping coefficient, and A = 305 cm is the displacement before break. From 1 3 several lines of evidence we know that the dan: ping is large so that overshoot is ' either small or zero. The period T is estimated from the dimensions of the strain zone, the shear wave velocity, and other considerations to be about 10 . seconds. At the fault, the moti:n is thus effectively a unidirectional fling or pulse having an amplitude of about 305 cm. and a duration of about 10 seconds. The fling is the source of the seismic waves which radiate outward from the fault. Although the waves begin in the form of a sin 61 e unidirectional pulse or heave they are quickly transformed into oscillatory forms by reflections, refractions and change of type owing to the layering of the crust and the varia-tions of wave speed with depth. In the immediate vicinity of the fault oscillatory wave motion is small since it must arrive at nearly grazing incidence to the ' fault plane where the radiation pattern for both P and S vaves approaches zero amplitude. Although the vibratory wave amplitude is very small at the fault it j increases rapidly with distance from the fault so that from about 2 miles to ' l
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N i b 12 miles it is approximately constant, if the local geology is uniform, with a f
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maximum accelerat(on of approximately 0 5G on deep firm alluvium, and a peak acceleration of about 0 3G on rock as extrapolated by Housner from the 1940 ' l Imperial Valley earthquake. ' { i Since the slip at any one point on the fault lasts for about 10 seconds I and is propagated along the fault at the rate of approximately 3 5 kilometers /see., { 1 the active source at any one time during the earthquake is a moving segment about ! 1 35 kilometers in length. The total duration of faulting in the San Francisco J 190.6 earthquake was approximately equal to the length of break divided by the speed of rupture or MO = 137 seconds assuming that the break propagated essentially 35 in one direction from the focus. The duration of strong motion is a minimum in
...e the vicinity of the fault and increases with distance from the fault due to the ,
l greater effectiveness of radiation from the remote segments of the fault and from l
- the increase of time interval between the arrival of longitudinal and transverse waves resulting from their unequal velocities. For an observer situated a few miles from the epicenter, of a 1906 size earthquake, the total duration of radiation received by him directly from the fault is approximately equal to the j time required for faulting to reach the terminal point plus the time for the l
transverse waves to return the same distance or about 250 seconds. The duration l of intence shaking is of course much less than this. l Over much of its length the fault is represented by a zone of fracture such as occurs in the Bodega Head region rather than by a single break. In addition, the fault is accompanied by many small auxiliary fractures located at varying distances from it and oriented in the majority of cases at acute angles
~
with respect to it. One of these was found traversing the bed rock at the reactor
) site. These fractures have been developed over the more than 50 million years during which the fault has been in existence, from local stresses generated by the movements of the opposing fault surfaces of the principal fault past segments
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(5) of mutually unlike clastic and structural characteristics. In view of the slov , i rate of movement of the principal fault blocks, the auxiliary fault stresses build l up and decay over long periods of time so that any fracture which has been inactive v for a long period of time vill not suddenly exhibit significant movements durin6 slip on the principal fault. Likewise those auxiliary faults which have exhibited movement during recent slips on the principal fault are likely to show movement during many subsequent slips. On those auxiliary faults which. are active, the . intermittent displacements are small' since in general the maximum slip on a fault ) is roughly proportional to the fault length. i I Structural Response to Earthquakes i i In the early days of engineerin6 seismology it was postulated that seismic destructiveness is proportional to the peak horizontal Ground acceleration. ' T That this is not true can be demonstrated by the following exagle. Suppose ve ! consider a water tower in the form of an elevated tank supported by a skeleton l structure. To simplify the problem we assume the tank to be cogletely filled ' to avoid sloshing of the water. The tower thus forms an inverted pendulum. . We assume further that the tower has a free period of 1 second. If the ground on which the tower is located is subjected to a horizontal sinusoidal oscillation having a period of 0.1 second with a peak acceleration of 1.0 G (where G is the acceleration of gravity) the tank vill respond with an oscillatory deflection equal to the ground displacement which is approximately 0.1 inch peak aglitude. Such a small deflection is entirely negligible from a destruction point of view. If the ground oscillation has a period of 10 seconds and a peak acceleration of 1.0,G (an inoscibly larSe movement) the deflection of the tank vill be proportional to the Ground acceleration and would have a peak aglitude of abotit 9 8 inches which would not produce any dama6e in a well constructed tower. However, if the period of the ground oscillation is 1 second corresponding with that of the tover,
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'the deflection peak amplitude of the tower can become indefinitely great depending ,
upon its dagin6 and the duration of the ground oscillation. Thus if the daq ing '
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1 factor h is 0.1 of critical the tank peak deflection aglitude is 4.1, feet '- , ; i-. , enou6h to destroy it. .; ! The ground movement produced by an earthquake is a transient having a j spectrum made up of a theoretically infinite number of. frequencies. The destructive
~
action of the ground motion to any particular structure depends upon.the velocity spectrum of the 6round motion and the response spectrum of the structure. In the case of a structure exhibitin6 brittle fracture where a member breaks immediately _ i whenever its strain aglitude exceeds a definite value and where its vibratory 'N I aglitude is linear in relation to the applied force, its destruction by seismic - l motion can be predicted directly from the velocity spectrum of the 6round and the ' frequencies and damping of the structure. The breaking point depends only on 5) the amplitude of the spectrum at the structural frequencies and not on any other -) character of the source such as its duration or whether it is a unidirectional 3-fling or train of oscillations. However ordinary structural materials are not brittle. In response to increasin6 stress they strain linearly up to a certain limit beyond which they are nonlinear. Fracture occurs in the nonlinear range and depends upon the number of strain cycles to which they are subjected as well as the otrain aq 11tudes. An iron wire can be bent through a large an61e without fracturin6 but if it is bent to and fro 10 or 20 times throuSh the same angle it l v111 break. In seismic destruction involving nonbrittle elements the fling of the fault is thus less effective in producing fracture than oscillatory movements of lesser spectral aglitudes since in the nonlinear range of strains the duration 4
, is imortant as well es the amplitude. Even at distances from the fault where the ~
a=plitude of oscillation is decreasing with distance the destructiveness decreases
)
at a slower rate since the duration of shaking increases with distance. 0
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h,yf p; r t (7) . The effect of the nonlinear response in most structures is to substantially ' increase their resistance to seismic destruction. This results from the motional ' l dampin6 introduced by the nonlinear member. The damping involves dissipation , of energy and consequent reduction of acplitude of motion of the structure in response to seismic motion as comparedt with a similar structure having linear strain properties. Strictly speakin6 nonlinear strain of a member involves some darage even thou6h the member is not destroyed. This may be understood by reference ' i to the water tower mentioned earlier. If the tower motional amplitude is large ' enough to involve nonlinear response this would most likely appear first as strain
~
of the diagonal bracin6 rods beyond their elastic limits. This vould result in t permanent extension or distortion. Thus if the tower were still standing after the earthquake it would be dama6ed to the extent of the stretched or bent rods. Of course the dama6e in any given structure may be too small to be significant. Conclusions
- 1. The San Andreas Fault is one of the great fractures of the carth's crust.
It extends from a point off the Oregon Coast at about latitude h5' N, lon61tude 130' vest to the lover portion of the Gulf of California. The sense of its motion is dextral. Since the advent of white men to California the fault has produced two great earthquakes, the 1857 shock in southern California and the 1906 San Francisco chock. In each of these the maximum relative slip was about 21 feet and the total extent of break was about 300 miles. Similar earthquakes can be expected to recur on a given segment at intervals oi' one to two centures. The segment between the southern terminus of the 1906 earthquake at San Juan Bautista and the northern terminus of the 1857 shock has not slipped since the advent of the white man l and consequently it is the most likely segment to slip next. The recently observed l l creep of the fault at the site of the vinery near Hollister is strong evidence l that the stress in this se6 ment is high and perhaps nearing the breakin6 point. '
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o , (8) -- J W j v7 2. During an earthquake of the size of the San Francisco 1906 shock the ! fault movement can be expected to exhibit' a relative slip of about 20 feet in the ;.1o region of maximum displacement and a total length of break of some 300 miles. The duration of slipping at any one point vould be about 10 seconds. The active i~ F I segment at any one time during the earthquake would be rou6 h ly 22 miles long and 1 would travel along the fault at a speed of about 2 2 miles per second. ! l 3 At the fault the ground motion is principally a single 10 foot displacement I with a duration of about 10 seconds. Oscillatory movement is small at the fault
- but increases rapidly with distance 'from the fault and is roughly constant. in i i
intensity from about 2 miles'to 12 miles. k
- 4. In places such as in the vicinity of Bodega Head the fault has broken -
l
, the surface at numerous places within a zone more than a mile vide. This vandering i
)
of the break has occurred over an interval of more than 50 million years as a result of departures from linearity of segments of the fault and of structural differences and inhomogeneities of the opposing fault lips. In view of the slow rate of movement of the fault, it is very unlikely that succeeding slips will ) i break the surface on appreciably different traces. , S. Minor auxiliary faults such as the one found traversing the site of the reactor are very unlikely to clip during future breaks of the principal fault if, . as in this case, they have been inactive for at least some 40,000 years during , which the primary fault must have slipped some 200 to 400 times.
- 6. The use of a sin 61 e nnximum constant acce?.aration factor in the design
. o of structures to resist earthquake motion is unsound and can lead to gross errors, i
particular in those structures departing from conventional forms in size and shape. The continued use of such factors is justified only on the basic that any structure j ,,.,...,-.,1,...;-,-,,.,, ,y....4 . . - - . - - . . . - . . ...s. . ,. .,-.: n.4,., ~,.-,~,~.+.+.m...n.. ..!...~.-
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(9)- L b desi6ned to withstand a horizontal acceleration of any magnitude vill in general be better able to withstand earthquake motion than one designed to support only the yertical force of Bravity. Rational aseismic design involves the frequency spectrum of seismic motion together with the spectrum and darping of the structure.
'l The use of socalled intensity scales (such as the modified Mercalli '
scale) for engineerin6 design is unsound practice. These scales represent , qualitative subjective descriptions only. They are not founded on measurements of any kind. In particular, quantitative use of the scales such as those in which l the maximum ground acceleration is calculated from the equation loga=I/3-1/2 represent pure nonsense. (In the equation a is the acceleration and I is the modified Mercalli intensity).
] .. 7 With reference to risk of damage from earthquakes, Bodega Head is an ^*'
1 excellent location for the construction of a nuclear reactor for the following j . l l reasons: l
)
- a. At the proposed site the reactor can be sunk into granitic rock. j 1
- b. The nearest possible location for future breaks on the San Andreas 1
Fault is at the vestern boundary of the fault zone, at least 10008 i l from the reactor site, although a break that far from the 1906 break ) 1
. is extremely improbable. f I
- c. The lack of evidence for movement during the last k0,000 years ,
on the small auxiliary fracture that traverses the site makes the probability of movement on this feature during the life of the reactor extremely r' emote. ;
- d. The character of the Ground motion in the site generated by a great earthquake on the San Andreas Fault is such that with good engineering practice structures can be built which will suffer no significant I
, damage. -
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