Text

E-Mail: FW: VT Yankee Alternative Pdf References - (NPA-PD-LR)
	ML063620166
Person / Time
Site:	Vermont Yankee File:NorthStar Vermont Yankee icon.png
Issue date:	12/12/2006
From:	O'Rourke D; Argonne National Lab (ANL)
To:	Emch R, Hernandez-Quinones S, Miller D; Argonne National Lab (ANL), NRC/NRR/ADRO/DLR
References
	%dam200702, TAC MD2297
	Download: ML063620166 (118)
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1:Richard Emch - FW: VT Yankee Alternative PDF References Paae i d I Richard Emch - FW: VT Yankee Alternative PDF References Paae 1 I From: "O'Rourke, Daniel J." <danorourke@anl.gov>

To: "Samuel Hernandez-Quinones" <SHQ @nrc.gov>, "Richard Emch" <RLE @nrc.gov>,

"Miller, David S." <david.s.miller@anl.gov>

Date: 12/12/2006 5:32:48 PM

Subject:

FW: VT Yankee Alternative PDF References Sam, Attached are pdf's of the webpages used in the Vermont Yankee Alternatives chapter.

Dan

> From: Moret, Ellen N.

> Sent: Tuesday, December 12, 2006 2:29 PM

> To: O'Rourke, Daniel J.

Subject:

VT Yankee Alternative PDF References

> <<Efficiency Vermont Program.pdf>> <<Obstruction Marking and

> Lighting.log.pdf>> <<Coal Combustion-Nuclear Resource or Danger.pdf>>

> <<Wind Farm Area Calculator.pdf>> <<U.S. Wind Energy Resource

> Map.pdf>> <<,Vermont Wind Activities.pdf>> <<Alternative Energy

>, Resources in Vermont.pdf>> <<Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells.pdf>> <<Fuel

>: Cells Powering Arnerica.pdf>> <<Municipal Solid Waste.pdf>>

> <<Mercury--Controlling Power Plant Emissions-Overview.pdf>> <<NRC

>'Organizes FutureLicensing Project Organization.pdf>> <<Biomass

>'Feedstock Availability in the-United States.pdf>>>

CC: "Moret, Ellen N." <moret@anl.gov>, "Wescott, Konstance L." <wescott@anl.gov>

1ý c:\temp\GW)00001.TMP Page 1 !1 c:...... TM P..... ...... . .. ............ Page....1 II Mail Envelope Properties (457F2DF4.1DB:13 : 475)

Subject:

FW: VT Yankee Alternative PDF References Creation Date 12/12/2006 5:31:22 PM From: "O'Rourke, Daniel J." <danorourke@anl.gov>

Created By: danorourke@anl.gov Recipients nrc.gov TWGWPO03.HQGWDOO1 SHQ (Samuel Hernandez-Quinones) nrc.gov OWGWPOO2.HQGWDOO1 RLE (Richard Emch) anl.gov wescott CC (Konstance L. Wescott) moret CC (Ellen N. Moret) david.s.miller (David, S Miller)

Post Office Route TWGWPO03.HQGWDOO1I nrc.gov OWGWPOO2.HQGWDOO1 nrc.gov anl.gov Files Size Date & Time MESSAGE 936 12/12/21006 5:31:22 PM TEXT.htm 2656 Efficiency Vermont Program.pdf 77679 Obstruction Marking and Lighting.log.pdf 50845323 Coal Combustion-Nuclear Resource or Danger.pdf 183199 Wind Farm Area Calculator.pdf 62082 U.S. Wind Energy Resource Map.pdf 83905 Vermont Wind Activities.pdf 103813 Alternative Energy Resources in Vermont.pdf 88933 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells.pdf 120890 Fuel Cells Powering America.pdf 809308 Municipal Solid Waste.pdf 64597 Mercury--Controlling Power Plant Emissions-Overview.pdf 34065 NRC Organizes Future Licensing Project Organization.pdf 30601 Biomass Feedstock Availability in the United States.pdf 125601 Mime.822 9409676

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Etliclency VermontP Page I of 2 Efficiency Vermont Home About Us Contact Us Site Map Search Site I a Re I a Business Lower your energy bills, figure out why your Get technical help and financial incentives fi electric bills are high, get rebates for your energy- energy-efficient buildings, equipment and efficient purchases, and more. lighting.

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itticiency Vermont Page 2 ot'2 For more information, call 802-860-4095, or call toll-free 1-888-921-5990.

Please c.onta.ct.us with comments, questions or suggestions.

C U.S. Department of Transportation ADVISORY Federal Aviation Administration CIRCULAR AC 70/7460-1K Obstruction Marking and Lighting PI-C. :A-O 1401.-I5hO (427.-&..)

7101'111 1 (Sol'-700 1 11 152213)11 B-2 B-3 B-4 0-5 B-6 Prepared by the Air Traffic Effective: 8/1/00 Effective: 8/1/00 Prepared by the Air Traffic Airspace Management

oADVISORY U.S. Department CIRCULAR Of Transportation Federal Aviation Administration

Subject:

CHANGE 1 TO OBSTRUCTION Date: 4/15/00 AC No: 70/7460-1K MARKING AND LIGHTING Initiated by: ATA-400 Change: 1

1. PURPOSE. This change amends the Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) standards for marking and lighting structures to promote aviation safety. The Change Number and date of the change material are located at the top of the page.

2. EFFECTIVE DATE. This change is effective August 1, 2000.

3. EXPLANATION OF CHANGES.

a. Table of Contents. Change pages i through iii.

b. Change pages 19 through 32 beginning at Chapter 7. High Intensity Flashing White Obstruction Light Systems to read 21 thro-ugh 34.,

c. .Page 1. Paragraph 1. Reporting Requirements. Owner changed to read sponsor.

d. Page 1. Paragraph 5. Modifications and Deviations. Owner changed to read sponsor.

e. Page 1. Paragraph 5.b.3. Voluntary Marking and/or Lighting. Owner/s changed to read sponsor.

(f. Page 2. Paragraph d. Chapter 6 changed to read Chapter 12, Table 4.

g. Page 2. Paragraph d. Owners/proponents changed to read sponsors.

h. Page 2. Paragraph 6. Additional Notification. Proponents changed to read sponsors.

i. Page 2. Paragraph 7. Metric Units. Proponents changed to read sponsors.

j. Page 3. Paragraph 23. Light Failure Notification. Proponents changed to read sponsors.

k. Page 4. Paragraph 24. Notification of Restoration. Owner changed to read sponsor.

1. Page 7. Note. Change proponents to read sponsors.

m. Page 11. Paragraph 49. Distraction. Owner changed to read sponsor

n. Replace Pages Al-1 through A1-19. New illustrations. In addition, mid-level lighting on structures beginning at 250 feet above ground level (AGL) has been corrected to reflect lighting beginning at 350 feet AGL.

k*OHN S.WALKER Program Director for Air Traffic Airspace Management

PAGE CONTROL CHART AC 70/7460-1K, CHG. 1 Remove Pages Dated Insert Pages Dated i through iii 3/1/00 i through iii 8/1/00 1 through 4 3/1/00 1 through 4 8/1/00 7 3/1/00 7 8/1/00 11 3/1/00 11 8/1/00 Al-i through Al-19 3/1/00 Al-i through Al-19 8/1/00

8/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHG I Table of Contents CHAPTER 1. ADMINISTRATIVE AND GENERAL PROCEDURES

1. REPO RTING REQ UIREM ENTS .......................................................................................................................................... 1

2. PRECONSTRUCTION NOTICE ........................................................................................................................

3. FAA ACKNOW LEDGEM ENT ............................................................................................................................................... 1

4. SUPPLEM ENTAL NOTICE REQUIREM ENT ............................................................................................................ 1

5. M ODIFICATIONS AND DEVIATIONS ............................................................................................................................... 1

6. ADDITIO NAL NOTIFICATION ........................................................................................................................................... 2

7. M ETRIC UNITS ...................................................................................................................................................................... 2 CHAPTER 2. GENERAL

20. STRUCTURES TO BE M ARKED AND LIGH TED .................................................................................................... 3

21. G UYED STRUCTURES ....................................................................................................................................................... 3

22. MARKING AND LIGHTING EQUIPMENT ..................................................... 3

23. LIGHT FAILURE NOTIFICATION .................................................................................................................................... 3

24. NOTIFICATION O F RESTORATION ............................................................................................................................... 4

25. FCC REQ UIREM ENT ........................................................................................................................................................... 4 CHAPTER 3. MARKING GUIDLINES

30. PURPO SE ................................................................................................................................................................................ 5

31. PAINT CO LORS .................................................................................................................................................................... 5

32. PAINT STANDARDS .......................................................................................................................................... .............. 5

33. PAINT PATTERNS ......................................................................................................................... ................. ............. 5

34. M ARKERS ......................................................................................................................... ................................... .............. 6

35. UNUSUAL COM PLEXITIES ................................................................................................................... ... ... .. 7

36. OM ISSION O R ALTERN ATIVES TO M ARK ING ........................................................... .. ........ 7.........................

7 CHAPTER 4. LIGHTING GUIDELINE

40. PURPO SE ............................................................................................................................................................. ................. 9

41. STANDARDS .......................................................................................................................................................................... 9

42. LIGHTING SYSTEM S ........................................................................................................................................................... 9

43. CATENARY LIGHTING ..................................................................................................................................................... 10

44. INSPECTIO N, REPAIR AND M AINTENANCE ............................................................................................................. 10

45. NONSTANDARD LIGH TS ................................................................................................................................................. 10

46. PLACEM ENT FACTORS .................................................................................................................................................. 10

47. M ONITO RING OBSTRUCTION LIG HTS ................................................................................................................. .... 11

48. ICE SHIELDS ...................................................................................................................................................................... 11

49. DISTRACTION .................................................................................................................................................................... 11 CHAPTER 5. RED OBSTRUCTION LIGHT SYSTEM

50. PURPO SE ............................................................................................................................................................................. 13

51. STANDARDS ....................................................................................................................................................................... 13

52. CONTRO L DEVICE ........................................................................................................................................................... 13

53. PO LES, TO W ERS, AND SIM ILAR SKELETAL STRUCTURES ........................................................................... 13

54. CHIMNEYS, FLARE STACKS, AND SIMILAR SOLID STRUCTURES ................................................................ 14

55. W IND TURBINE STRUCTURES ...................................................................................................................................... 14

56. GRO UP O F O BSTRUCTIONS .......................................................................................................................................... 14

57. ALTERNATE METHOD OF DISPLAYING OBSTRUCTION LIGHTS ................................................................. 15

58. PROMINENT BUILDINGS, BRIDGES, AND SIMILAR EXTENSIVE OBSTRUCTIONS ................................. 15 Table of Contents i

AC 70/7460-1K CHG 1 8/1/00 CHAPTER 6. MEDIUM INTENSITY FLASHING WHITE OBSTRUCTION LIGHT SYSTEMS

60. P U RPO SE ............................................................................................................................................ ................................... 17

61. ST A N D A R D S ....................................................................................................................................................................... 17

62. RADIO AND TELEVISION TOWERS AND SIMILAR SKELETAL STRUCTURES ......................................... 17

63. C ON TRO L DEV IC E ........................................................................................................................................................... 17

64. CHIMNEYS, FLARE STACKS, AND SIMILAR SOLID STRUCTURES ................................................................ 18

65. WIND TURBINE STRUCTURES ...................................................................................................................................... 18

66. GROUP OF OBSTRUCTIONS ................ .............................................................................................. 18

67. SPE C IA L C A SE S ................................................................................................................................................................. 18

68. PROMINENT BUILDINGS AND SIMILAR EXTENSIVE OBSTRUCTIONS ............................... 18 CHAPTER 7. HIGH INTENSITY FLASHING WHITE OBSTRUCTION LIGHT SYSTEMS

70. PU RPO SE ............................................................................................................................................................................. 21

71. ST A N D A RD S ........................................................................................................................................................................ 21

72. C ON TRO L D EV IC E ........................................................................................................................................................... 21

73. UN ITS PER LEV EL ........................................................................................................................................................... 21

74. INSTALLATION GUIDANCE ........................................................................................................................................... 21

75. ANTENNA OR SIMILAR APPURTENANCE LIGHT .............................................................................................. 22

76. CHIMNEYS, FLARE STACKS, AND SIMILAR SOLID STRUCTURES ................................................................ 22

77. RADIO AND TELEVISION TOWERS AND SIMILAR SKELETAL STRUCTURES .................... 22

78. HYPERBOLIC COOLING TOWERS ....................................................................................... I ............ :........ ................. 22

79. PROMINENT BUILDINGS AND SIMILAR EXTENSIVE OBSTRUCTIONS ........................................................ 23-CHAPTER 8. DUAL LIGHTING WITH RED/MEDIUM INTENSITY FLASHING WHITE"SYSTEMS4 .

80. PURPOSE ......... . . . . . . ........................

81. 81.~~~

IN STA LLA T ION .............................................................................................................................. ~

INSTALATIN...........................................

".................... ' .... '......"'..25

82. O PE R A T IO N ............................................................................................................................. J....1......... .. *. ........... 2.

82. COPRTON ......................... 2 .

83.: CONTROL DEVICE..................................................................................5............................. ............... ................... 25

84. ANTENNA OR SIMILAR APPURTENANCE LIGHT ............................. :......................................... ...................... ;..25

85. WIND TURBINE STRUCTURES ...................................................................................................................................... 25

86. O M ISSIO N O F M A RKIN G ................................................................................................................................................ 25 CHAPTER 9. DUAL LIGHTING WITH RED/HIGH INTENSITY FLASHING WHITE SYSTEMS

90. PU R P O SE ............................................................................................................................................................................. 27

91. IN ST A LL A T IO N ................................................................................................................................................................. 27

92. O P E R A TIO N ........................................................................................................................................................................ 27

93. C O N T R O L D EV IC E ........................................................................................................................................................... 27

94. ANTENNA OR SIMILAR APPURTENANCE LIGHT ............ ................................................................................. 27

95. O M ISSIO N O F M A R KIN G ................................................................................................................................................ 27 CHAPTER 10. MARKING AND LIGHTING OF CATENARY AND CATENARY SUPPORT STRUCTURES 100. P U R P O SE ............................................................................................................................................................................ 29 101. CATENARY MARKING STANDARDS ......................................................................................................................... 29 102. CATENARY LIGHTING STANDARDS ........................................................................................................................ 29 103. C O N TR O L D EV IC E .............................................................................................................................. ........................... 30 104. AREA SURROUNDING CATENARY SUPPORT STRUCTURES ....................................................................... 30 105. THREE OR MORE CATENARY SUPPORT STRUCTURES ............................................................................... 30 ii Table of Contents

8/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHG I CHAPTER 11. MARKING AND LIGHTING MOORED BALLOONS AND KITES 110. PU R PO SE ........................................................................................................................................................................... 31' 111. STA N D A RD S ..................................................................................................................................................................... 31 112. M A R K IN G .......................................................................................................................................................................... 31 113. PU R PO SE ........................................................................................................................................................................... 31 114. OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS .......................................................................................................................... 31 CHAPTER 12. MARKING AND LIGHTING EQUIPMENT AND INFORMATION 120. PU RP O SE ........................................................................................................................................................................... 33 121. PA INT STA N D A R D ......................................................................................................... ................................................ 33 122. AVAILABILITY OF SPECIFICATIONS ....................................................................................................................... 33 123. LIGHTS AND ASSOCIATED EQUIPMENT ................................................................................................................. 33 124. A V A ILA BILIT Y ................................................................................................................................................................ 34 APPENDIX 1: SPECIFICATIONS FOR OBSTRUCTION LIGHTING EQUIPMENT CLASSIFICATION A PPEN D IX ............................................................................................................................................................................. A l-I APPENDIX 2. MISCELLANEOUS

1. RATIONALE FOR OBSTRUCTION LIGHT INTENSITIES .................. ;....................................... A2-I 2....................-.......

1..

2. DISTANCE VERSUS INTENSITIES ............................................................................................................................. A2-1

3. CONCLUSION ................. . ................................................................ ............................ A2-1

4. DE FIN IT IO N S ..................................................................................................................................... .......................... A 2-1

5. LIGHTING SYSTEMWCONFIGURATION ................... . .................................................. ............ ....... A2-2 Table of Contents iii

8/1/00 AC 70/7460-IK CHG 1 8/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHG I CHAPTER 1. ADMINISTRATIVE AND GENERAL PROCEDURES

1. REPORTING REQUIREMENTS permit the FAA the necessary time to change affected procedures and/or minimum flight altitudes, and to I A sponsor proposing any type of construction or alteration of a structure that may affect the National otherwise alert airmen of the structure's presence.

Airspace System (NAS) is required under the Note-NOTIFICATIONAS REQUIRED IN THE DETERMINATION IS provisions of 14 Code of Federal Regulations (14 CRITICAL TO A VIA TION SAFETY.

CFR part 77) to notify the FAA by completing the

5. MODIFICATIONS AND DEVIATIONS Notice of Proposed Construction or Alteration form (FAA Form 7460-1). The form should be sent to the a. Requests for modification or deviation from the FAA Regional Air Traffic Division office having standards outlined in this AC must be submitted to jurisdiction over the area where the planned the FAA Regional Air Traffic Division office serving construction or alteration would be located. Copies the area where the structure would be located. The of FAA Form 7460-1 may be obtained from any FAA sponsor is responsible for adhering to approved Regional Air Traffic Division office, Airports District marking and/or lighting limitations, and/or Office or FAA Website at recommendations given, and should notify the FAA www.faa.gov/ats/ata/ata400. and FCC (for those structures regulated by the FCC) prior to removal of marking and/or lighting. A

2. PRECONSTRUCTION NOTICE request received after a determination is issued may The notice must be submitted: require a new study and could result in a new

a. At least 30 days prior to the date of proposed determination.

construction or alteration is to begin. b. Modifications. Modifications will be based on b., On or before the date an application for a whether or not they impact aviation safety. Examples cons truction permit, is, filed with the Federal of modifications that may be considered:

Communications Commission (FCC). (The FCC 1. Marking and/or Lighting Only a zPortion'of advises its applicants to file with the FAA well in an Object., The object may be so located ,'ithf respect advance of the ,30-day period in order to expedite to other objects or terrain that only a portion of it FCC processing.) needs to be marked or lighted.

3. FAA ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 2. No Marking and/or Lighting. The .object The FAA will acknowledge, in writing, receipt of may be so located with respect to other objects or each FAA Form 7460-1 notice received. terrain, removed from the general flow of air traffic, or may be so conspicuous by its shape, size, or color

4. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE REQUIREMENT that marking or lighting would serve no useful

a. If required, the FAA will include a FAA Form purpose.

7460-2, Notice of Actual Construction or Alteration,

3. Voluntary Marking and/or Lighting. The with a determination.

object may be so located with respect to other objects

b. FAA Form 7460-2 Part I is to be completed and or terrain that the sponsor feels increased conspicuity sent to the FAA at least 48 hours5.555556e-4 days 0.0133 hours 7.936508e-5 weeks 1.8264e-5 months prior to starting the actual construction or alteration of a structure.

would better serve aviation safety. Sponsors who desire to voluntarily mark and/or light their structure I

Additionally, Part 2 shall be submitted no later than 5 should request the proper marking and/or lighting.

days after the structure has reached its greatest from the FAA to ensure no aviation safety issues are height. The form should be sent to the Regional Air impacted.

Traffic Division office having jurisdiction over the

4. Marking or Lighting an Object in area where the construction or alteration would be Accordance with the Standards for an Object of located.

GreaterHeight or Size. The object may present such

c. In addition, supplemental notice shall be an extraordinary hazard potential that higher submitted upon abandonment of construction. standards may be recommended for increased

d. Letters are acceptable in cases where the conspicuity to ensure the safety to air navigation.

construction/alteration is temporary or a proposal is c. Deviations. The FAA regional office conducts abandoned. This notification process is designed to an aeronautical study of the proposed deviation(s)

Chap I I

8/1/00 AC 70/7460-IK CHG 1 8/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHG 1 and forwards its recommendation to FAA or optional upgrade to white lighting on structures headquarters in Washington, DC, for final approval. which are regulated by the FCC, must also be filed Examples of deviations that may be considered: with the FCC prior to making the change for proper

1. Colors of objects. authorization and annotations of obstruction marking and lighting. These structures will be subject to

2. Dimensions of color bands or rectangles. inspection and enforcement of marking and lighting

3. Colors/types of lights. requirements by the FCC. FCC Forms and Bulletins

4. Basic signals and intensity of lighting. can be obtained from the FCC's National Call Center at 1-888-CALL-FCC (1-888-225-5322). Upon

5. Night/day lighting combinations.

completion of the actual change, notify the

6. Flash rate. Aeronautical Charting office at:

d. The FAA strongly recommends that sponsors become familiar with the different types of lighting NOAA/NOS systems and to specifically request the type of Aeronautical Charting Division lighting system desired when submitting FAA Form Station 5601, N/ACCI 13 7460-1. (This request should be noted in "item 2.D" 1305 East-West Highway of the FAA form.) Information on these systems can Silver Spring, MD 20910-3233 be found in Chapter 12, Table 4 of this AC. While the FAA will make every effort to accommodate 7. METRIC UNITS the request, sponsors should also request To promote an orderly transition to metric units, information from system manufacturers. In order to determine which system best meets their needs sponsors should include , both English and metric (SI units) dimensions. The metric conversions may I

based on purpose, installation, and maintenance costs. not be exact equivalents, and until there is an official

-6. ADDITIONAL NOTIFICATION changeover 'to the metric system, 'the English-Sponsors are reminded that any change to the dimensions will goveimn..!i; submitted information on which the FAA has based, its determination, including modification, deviation 2 Chap I

8/1/00 AC 70/7460-IK CHG I 8/1/0 AC 0/740-1KCHCI CHAPTER 2. GENERAL

20. STRUCTURES TO BE MARKED AND to identify an obstruction to air navigation and may, LIGHTED on occasion be recommended, the FAA will Any temporary or permanent structure, including all recommend minimum standards in the interest of appurtenances, that exceeds an overall height of 200 safety, economy, and related concerns. Therefore, to feet (61m) above ground level (AGL) or exceeds any provide an adequate level of safety, obstruction obstruction standard contained in 14 CFR part 77, lighting systems should be installed, operated, and should normally be marked and/or lighted. However, maintained in accordance with the recommended an FAA aeronautical study may reveal that the standards herein.

absence of marking and/or lighting will not impair 23. LIGHT FAILURE NOTIFICATION aviation safety. Conversely, the object may present such an extraordinary hazard potential that higher standards may be recommended for increased

a. Sponsors should keep in mind that conspicuity is achieved only when all recommended lights are working. Partial equipment outages decrease the I

conspicuity to ensure safety to air navigation.

margin of safety. Any outage should be corrected as Normally outside commercial lighting is not soon as possible. Failure of a steady burning side or considered sufficient reason to omit recommended intermediate light should be corrected as soon as marking and/or lighting. Recommendations on possible, but notification is not required.

marking and/or lighting structures can vary depending on terrain features, weather patterns, b. Any failure or malfunction that lasts more than geographic location, and in the case of wind turbines, thirty (30) minutes and affects a top light or flashing number of structures and overall layout of design. obstruction light, regardless of its position, should be The FAA may also recommend marking and/or reported immediately to the nearest flight service Jighting, a structure -that does not exceed 200 (61m) station (FSS) so a Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) can feet AGL or 14 CFR part 77 standards because of its be issued. Toll-free numbers for FSS are listed in particular location. most telephone books or on the FAA's Website at www.faa.gov/ats/ata/ata400. This, report should

21. GUYED STRUCTURES contain the following information:

The guys of a 2,000-foot- (610m) skeletal tower are anchored from 1,600 feet (488m) to 2,000 feet 1. Name of persons or organijzations reporting (610m) from the base of the sructure. This places a light failures including any title, address, and portion of the guys 1,500 feet (458m) from the tower telephone number.

at a height of between 125 feet (38m) to 500 feet 2. The type of structure.

(153m) AGL. 14 CFR part 91, section 119, requires 3. Location of structure (including latitude and pilots, when operating over other than congested longitude, if known, prominent structures, landmarks, areas, to remain at least 500 feet (153m) from man- etc.).

made structures. Therefore, the tower must be

4. Height of structure above ground level cleared by 2,000 feet (61 Om) horizontally to avoid all (AGL)/above mean sea level (AMSL), if known.

guy wires. Properly maintained marking and lighting are important for increased conspicuity since the guys 5. A return to service date.

of a structure are difficult to see until aircraft are 6. FCC Antenna Registration Number (for dangerously close. structures that are regulated by the FCC).

22. MARKING AND LIGHTING EQUIPMENT Note-Considerable effort and research have been expended I. When the p'imnaly lamp in a double obstruction light fails, and the secondory lamp comes on, no report is requiired. However, when one of in determining the minimum marking and lighting the lamps in an incandescentL-864 flashing red beacon/fails, it should be systemns or quality of materials that will produce an reported.

acceptable level of safety to air navigation. The FAA 2. A/ier 15 days, the NOTAM is automatical/, deletedfriom the system.

will recommend the use of only those marking and lighting systems that meet established technical standards. While additional lights may be desirable The sponsor is requested to call the nearest FSS to extend the outage date. In addition, the sponsor is required to report a return to service date. I Chap 2 3

8/1/00 AC 70/7460-IK CHG I 8/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CRC I

24. NOTIFICATION OF RESTORATION 25. FCC REQUIREMENT As soon as normal operation is restored, notify the FCC licensees are required to file an environmental same AFSS/FSS that received the notification of assessment with the Commission when seeking failure. The FCC advises that noncompliance with authorization for the use of the high intensity flashing I notification procedures could subject its sponsor to penalties or monetary forfeitures.

white lighting system on structures located in residential neighborhoods, as defined by the applicable zoning law.

4 Chap 2

3/1/00 AC 70/7460-IK 3/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHAPTER 3. MARKING GUIDLINES

30. PURPOSE completion of construction. This applies to catenary support structures, radio and television towers, and This chapter provides recommended guidelines to similar skeletal structures. To be effective, paint make certain structures conspicuous to pilots during should be applied to all inner and outer surfaces of daylight hours. One way of achieving this the framework.

conspicuity is by painting and/or marking these structures. Recommendations on marking structures 33. PAINT PATTERNS can vary depending on terrain features, weather Paint patterns of various types are used to mark patterns, geographic location, and in the case of wind structures. The pattern to be used is determined by turbines, number of structures and overall layout of the size and shape of the structure. The following design. patterns are recommended.

31. PAINT COLORS a. Solid Pattern. Obstacles should be colored Alternate sections of aviation orange and white paint aviation orange if the structure has both horizontal should be used as they provide maximum visibility of and vertical dimensions not exceeding 10.5 feet an obstruction by contrast in colors. (3.2m).

32. PAINT STANDARDS b. CheckerboardPattern.Alternating rectangles of aviation orange and white are normally displayed on The following standards should be followed. To be the following structures:

effective, the paint used should meet specific color requirements when freshly applied to a structure. 1. Water, gas, and grain storage tanks.

Since, all outdoor paints, deteriorate with time and it. 2. Buildings, as required.

is not practical to give a maintenance schedule for all 3., Large structures exceeding 10.5 feet (3.2m) climates, surfaces should be repainted when the color across having a horizontal dimension that is equal to changes noticeably or its effectiveness is reduced by or greaterthan the vertical dimension. '

scaling, oxidation, chipping, . or layers of contamination. c. Size of Patterns. Sides of the checkerboard pattern should measure not less than 5 feet (1.5m) or

a. Materials and Application. Quality paint and more than 20 feet (6m) and should be as nearly materials should be selected to provide extra years of square as possible. However, if it is impractical service. The paint should be compatible with the because of the size or shape of a structure, the surfaces to be painted, including any previous patterns may have sides less than 5 feet (1.5m).

coatings, and suitable for the environmental When possible, corner surfaces should be colored conditions. Surface preparation and paint application orange.

should be in accordance with manufacturer's

d. Alternate Bands. Alternate bands of aviation recommendations.

orange and white are normally displayed on the Note-In-Service Aviation Orange Color Tolerance Charts are availablefrom following structures:

private suppliersfor determining when repaintingis required. The color

1. Communication towers and catenary support should be sampled on the upper ha f of the structure, since weatheringis greaterthere. structures.

b. Surfaces Not Requiring Paint. Ladders, decks, 2. Poles.

and walkways of steel towers and similar structures

3. Smokestacks.

need not be painted if a smooth surface presents a potential hazard to maintenance personnel. Paint 4. Skeletal framework of storage tanks and may also be omitted from precision or critical similar structures.

surfaces if it would have an adverse effect on the 5. Structures which appear narrow from a side transmission or radiation characteristics of a signal. view, that are 10.5 feet (3.2m) or more across and the However, the overall marking effect of the structure horizontal dimension is less than the vertical should not be reduced. dimension.

c. Skeletal Structures. Complete all 6. Wind turbine generator support structures marking/painting prior to or immediately upon including the nacelle or generator housing.

Chap 3 5

3/1/00 AC 70/7460-IK 3/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K

7. Coaxial cable, conduits, and other cables structure. A minimum of three bands should be attached to the face of a tower. displayed on the upper portion of the structure.

e. Color Band Characteristics. Bands for i. Teardrop Pattern. Spherical water storage tanks structures of any height should be: with a single circular standpipe support may be

1. Equal in width, provided each band is not less marked in a teardrop-striped pattern. The tank should than 11/2 feet (0.5m) or more than 100 feet (31m) show alternate stripes of aviation orange and white.

wide. The stripes should extend from the top center of the tank to its supporting standpipe. The width of the

2. Perpendicular to the vertical axis with the stripes should be equal, and the width of each stripe bands at the top and bottom ends colored orange.

at the greatest girth of the tank should not be less than

3. An odd number of bands on the structure. 5 feet (1.5m) nor more than 15 feet (4.6m).

4. Approximately one-seventh the height if the j. Community Names. If it is desirable to paint the structure is 700 feet (214m) AGL or less. For each name of the community on the side of a tank, the additional 200 feet (61m) or fraction thereof, add one stripe pattern may be broken to serve this purpose.

(1) additional orange and one (1) additional white This open area should have a maximum height of 3 band. feet (0.9m).

5. Equal and in proportion to the structure's k. Exceptions. Structural designs not conducive to height AGL. standard markings may be marked as follows:

Structure Height to Bandwidth Ratio 1. If it is not practical to color the roof of a structure in a checkerboard pattern, it may be colored Example: If a solid orange.

Structure is: 2. If a spherical structure is not suitable for an Greater Than But Not More Band Width exact checkerboard pattern, the shape of the Than rectangles may be modified to fit the shape of the 10.5 feet 700 feet 1/7 of height surface.

(3.2m) (214m) 3. Storage tanks not suitable for a checkerboard 701 feet 900 feet, /9 of height pattern may be colored by alternating bands of (214m) (275m) __1/9of _eght_ aviation orange and white or a limited checkerboard 901 feet 1,100 feet 'I of height pattern applied to the upper one-third of the structure.

(275m) (336m) _/_1__fheight 4. The skeletal framework of certain water, gas, 1,100 feet 1,300 feet /13'of height and grain storage tanks may be excluded from the (336m) (397m) _/_3_ofheight checkerboard pattern.

TBL I 34. MARKERS

f. Structures With a Cover or Roof If the Markers are used to highlight structures when it is structure has a cover or roof, the highest orange band impractical to make them conspicuous by painting.

should be continued to cover the entire top of the Markers may also be used in addition to aviation structure. orange and white paint when additional conspicuity is

g. Skeletal Structures Atop Buildings. If a necessary for aviation safety. They should be flagpole, skeletal structure, or similar object is displayed in conspicuous positions on or adjacent to erected on top of a building, the combined height of the structures so as to retain the general definition of the object and building will determine whether the structure. They should be recognizable in clear marking is recommended; however, only the height air from a distance of at least 4,000 feet (1219m) and of the object under study determines the width of the in all directions from which aircraft are likely to color bands. approach. Markers should be distinctively shaped, i.e., spherical or cylindrical, so they are not mistaken

h. PartialMarking. If marking is recommended for items that are used to convey other information.

for only a portion of a structure because of shielding They should be replaced when faded or otherwise by other objects or terrain, the width of the bands deteriorated.

should be determined by the overall height of the 6 Chap 3

8/1/00 AC 70/7460-IK CHG I 8/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K dC I

a. SphericalMarkers. Spherical markers are used (b) Orange and White. Arrange two to identify overhead wires. Markers may be of triangular sections, one aviation orange and the other another shape, i.e., cylindrical, provided the projected white to form a rectangle.

area of such markers will not be less than that (c) Checkerboard. Flags 3 feet (0.9m) or presented by a spherical marker. larger should be a checkerboard pattern of aviation

1. Size and Color. orange and white squares, each 1 foot (0.3m) plus or The diameter of the markers used on extensive minus 10 percent.

catenary wires across canyons, lakes, rivers, etc., 3. Shape. Flags should be rectangular in shape should be not less than 36 inches (91cm). Smaller and have stiffeners to keep them from drooping in 20-inch (51cm) spheres are permitted on less calm wind.

extensive power lines or on power lines below 50 feet 4. Display. Flag markers should be displayed (15m) above the ground and within 1,500 feet (458m) around, on top, or along the highest edge of the of an airport runway end. Each marker should be a obstruction. When flags are used to mark extensive solid color such as aviation orange, white, or yellow. or closely grouped obstructions, they should be

2. Installations. displayed approximately 50 feet (15m) apart. The (a) Spacing. Markers should be spaced flag stakes should be of such strength and height that equally along the wire at intervals of approximately they will support the flags above all surrounding 200 feet (61m) or a fraction thereof. Intervals ground, structures, and/or objects of natural growth.

between markers should be less in critical areas near 35. UNUSUAL COMPLEXITIES runway ends (i.e., 30 to 50 feet (10m to 15m)). They The FAA may also recommend appropriate marking should be displayed on the highest wire or by another in an area where obstructions are so grouped as to means at the same height as the highest wire. Where present a common obstruction to air navigation.

there is more than one wire at the highest point, the markers may be installed alternately along each wire 36. OMISSION OR ALTERNATIVES TO MARKING if the distance between adjacent markers meets the There are two alternatives to marking. Either spacing standard. This method allows the weight and alternative requires FAA review and concurrence.

windloading factors to be distributed. a. High Intensity Flashing White Lighting (b) Pattern. An alternating color scheme Systems. The high intensity lighting systems are provides the most conspicuity against all more effective than aviation orange and white paint backgrounds. Mark overhead wires by alternating and therefore can be recommended instead of solid colored markers of aviation orange, white, and marking. This is particularly true under certain yellow. Normally, an orange sphere is placed at each ambient light conditions involving the position of the end of a line and the spacing is adjusted (not to sun relative to the direction of flight. When high exceed 200 feet (61m)) to accommodate the rest of intensity lighting systems are operated during the markers. When less than four markers are used, daytime and twilight, other methods of marking may they should all be aviation orange. be omitted. When operated 24 hours2.777778e-4 days 0.00667 hours 3.968254e-5 weeks 9.132e-6 months a day, other

b. Flag Markers. Flags are used to mark certain methods of marking and lighting may be omitted.

structures or objects when it is technically impractical b. Medium Intensity Flashing White Lighting to use spherical markers or painting. Some examples Systems. When medium intensity lighting systems are temporary construction equipment, cranes, are operated during daytime and twilight on derricks, oil and other drilling rigs. Catenaries structures 500 feet (153m) AGL or less, other should use spherical markers. methods of marking may be omitted. When operated

1. Minimum Size. Each side of the flag marker 24 hours2.777778e-4 days 0.00667 hours 3.968254e-5 weeks 9.132e-6 months a day on structures 500 feet (1 53m) AGL or should be at least 2 feet (0.6m) in length. less, other methods of marking and lighting may be omitted.

2. Color Patterns. Flags should be colored as Note-follows:

I SPONSORS MUST ENSURE THAT ALTERNATIVES TO MARKING ARE COORDINATED WITH THEIFCC FOR STRUCTURES UNDER (a) Solid. Aviation orange. ITS JURISDICTION PRIOR TO MA KING THE CHANGE.

Chap 3 7

3/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K 3/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHAPTER 4. LIGHTING GUIDELINE

40. PURPOSE This system should not be recommended on This chapter describes the various obstruction structures 500 feet (153m) AGL or less, unless an lighting systems used to identify structures that an FAA aeronautical study shows otherwise.

aeronautical study has determined will require added Note-Ali flashing lights on a structureshouldflash simultaneously exceptfor conspicuity. The lighting standards in this circular catenary support structures, which have a distinct sequence flashing are the minimum necessary for aviation safety. between levels.

Recommendations on lighting structures can vary d. Dual Lighting. This system consists of red depending on terrain features, weather patterns, lights for nighttime and high or medium intensity geographic location, and in the case of wind turbines, flashing white lights for daytime and twilight. When number of structures and overall layout of design. a dual lighting system incorporates medium flashing

41. STANDARDS intensity lights on structures 500 feet (153m) or less, or high intensity flashing white lights on structures of The standards outlined in this AC are based on the any height, other methods of marking the structure use of light units that meet specified intensities, beam may be omitted.

patterns, color, and flash rates as specified in AC 150/5345-43. e. Obstruction Lights During Construction. As the height of the structure exceeds each level at These standards may be obtained from:

which permanent obstruction lights would be Department of Transportation recommended, two or more lights of the type TASC specified in the determination should be installed at Subsequent Distribution Office, SVC-121.23 that level. Temporary high or medium. intensity Ardmore East Business.Center flashing white lights, as recommended in the 3341 Q 75th Avenue- determination, should be operated 24 hours2.777778e-4 days 0.00667 hours 3.968254e-5 weeks 9.132e-6 months a day Ldindover, MD 20785 -until all permanent lights are in operation. In either case, two or more lights should be ,installed. on the

42. LIGHTING SYSTEMS uppermost part of the structure any titme it exceeds Obstruction lighting may be displayed on structures the height of the temporary construction equipment.

as follows:

They may be turned off for periods when they would

a. Aviation Red Obstruction Lights. Use flashing interfere with construction personnel. If practical, beacons and/or steady burning lights during permanent obstruction lights should be installed and nighttime. operated at each level as construction progresses.

b. Medium Intensity Flashing White Obstruction The lights should be positioned to ensure that a pilot Lights. Medium intensity flashing white obstruction has an unobstructed view of at least one light at each lights may be used during daytime and twilight with level.

automatically selected reduced intensity for nighttime f. Obstruction Lights in Urban Areas. When a operation. When this system is used on structures structure is located in an urban area where there are 500 feet (153m) AGL or less in height, other methods numerous other white lights (e.g., streetlights, etc.)

of marking and lighting the structure may be omitted. red obstruction lights with painting or a medium Aviation orange and white paint is always required intensity dual system is recommended. Medium for daytime marking on structures exceeding 500 feet intensity lighting is not normally recommended on (153m) AGL. This system is not normally structures less than 200 feet (61m).

recommended on structures 200 feet (61m) AGL or

g. Temporary Construction Equipment Lighting.

less.

Since there is such a variance in construction cranes,

c. High Intensity Flashing White Obstruction derricks, oil and other drilling rigs, each case should Lights. Use high intensity flashing white obstruction be considered individually. Lights should be lights during daytime with automatically selected installed according to the standards given in Chapters reduced intensities for twilight and nighttime 5, 6, 7, or 8, as they would apply to permanent Operations. When this system is used, other methods structures.

of marking and lighting the structure may be omitted.

Chap 4 9

3/1/60o AC 70/7460-IK 3/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K

43. CATENARY LIGHTING build up, etc., to insure that the certified light output Lighted markers are available for increased night has not deteriorated. (See paragraph 23, for reporting conspicuity of high-voltage (69KV or greater) requirements in case of failure.)

transmission line catenary wires. These markers 45. NONSTANDARD LIGHTS should be used on transmission line catenary wires Moored balloons, chimneys, church steeples, and near airports, heliports, across rivers, canyons, lakes, similar obstructions may be floodlighted by fixed etc. The lighted markers should be manufacturer search light projectors installed at three or more certified as recognizable from a minimum distance of equidistant points around the base of each 4,000 feet (1219m) under nighttime conditions, obstruction. The searchlight projectors should minimum visual flight rules (VFR) conditions or provide an average illumination of at least 15 foot-having a minimum intensity of at least 32.5 candela. candles over the top one-third of the obstruction.

The lighting unit should emit a steady burning red light. They should be used on the highest energized 46. PLACEMENT FACTORS line. If the lighted markers are installed on a line The height of the structure AGL determines the other than, the highest catenary, then markers number of light levels. The light levels may be specified in paragraph 34 should be used in addition adjusted slightly, but not to exceed 10 feet (3m),

to the lighted markers. (The maximum distance when necessary to accommodate guy wires and between the line energizing the lighted markers and personnel who replace or repair light fixtures. Except the highest catenary above the lighted marker should for catenary support structures, the following factors be no more than 20 feet (6m).) Markers should be should be considered when determining the distinctively shaped, i.e., spherical, cylindrical, so placement of obstruction lights on a structure.

they are not mistaken for items that are used to a. Red Obstruction Lighting Systems. The overall convey other information. They should be visible in height of the structure including all appurtenances all directions from which aircraft are likely to such as rods, antennas, obstruction lights, etc.,

approach. The area in. the immediate vicinity of the determines the number of light levels.

supporting structure's base, should be clear of all

b. Medium Intensity Flashing White Obstruction items and/or objects of natural growth that could LightingSystems. The overall height of the structure interfere with the line-of-sight between a pilot and including all appurtenances such as rods, antennas, the structure's lights. Where a catenary wire crossing obstruction lights, etc., determines the number of requires three or more supporting structures, the inner light levels.

structures should be equipped with enough light units per level to provide a full coverage. c. High Intensity Flashing White Obstruction Lighting Systems. The overall height of the main

44. INSPECTION, REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE structure including all appurtenances such as rods, To ensure the proper candela output for fixtures with antennas, obstruction lights, etc., determines the incandescent lamps, the voltage provided to the lamp' number of light levels.

filament should not vary more than plus or minus 3

d. Dual Obstruction Lighting Systems. The percent of the rated voltage of the lamp. The input overall height of the structure including all voltage should be measured at the lamp socket with appurtenances such as rods, antennas, obstruction the lamp operating during the hours of normal lights, etc., is used to determine the number of light operation. (For strobes, the input voltage of the levels for a medium intensity white obstruction power supplies should be within 10 percent of rated light/red obstruction dual lighting system. The voltage.) Lamps should be replaced after being overall height of the structure including all operated for not more than 75 percent of their rated appurtenances is used to determine the number of life or immediately upon failure. Flashtubes in a light levels for a high intensity white obstruction light unit should be replaced immediately upon light/red obstruction dual lighting system.

failure, when the peak effective intensity falls below specification limits or when the fixture begins e. Adjacent Structures. The elevation of the tops skipping flashes, or at the manufacturer's of adjacent buildings in congested areas may be used recommended intervals. Due to the effects of harsh as the. equivalent of ground level to determine the environments, beacon lenses should be visually proper number of light levels required.

inspected for ultraviolet damage, cracks, crazing, dirt

!0 Chap 4.

8/1/00 AC 70/7460-1 K CH G I 8/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHG I f Shielded Lights. If an adjacent object shields lenses should be replaced if serious cracks, crazing, any light, horizontal placement of the lights should be dirt build up, etc., has occurred.

adjusted or additional lights should be mounted on 48. ICE SHIELDS that object to retain or contribute to the definition of the obstruction. Where icing is likely to occur, metal grates or similar protective ice shields should be installed directly over

47. MONITORING OBSTRUCTION LIGHTS each light unit to prevent falling ice or accumulations Obstruction lighting systems should be closely from damaging the light units.

monitored by visual or automatic means. It is 49. DISTRACTION extremely important to visually inspect obstruction lighting in all operating intensities at least once every a. Where obstruction lights may distract operators 24 hours2.777778e-4 days 0.00667 hours 3.968254e-5 weeks 9.132e-6 months on systems without automatic monitoring. of vessels in the proximity of a navigable waterway, In the event a structure is not readily accessible for the sponsor must coordinate with the Commandant, visual observation, a properly maintained automatic U.S. Coast Guard, to avoid interference with marine monitor should be used. This monitor should be navigation.

designed to register the malfunction of any light on b. The address for marine information and the obstruction regardless of its position or color. coordination is:

When using remote monitoring devices, the communication status and operational status of the Chief, Aids to Navigation system should be confirmed at least once every 24 Division (OPN) hours. The monitor (aural or visual) should be U.S. Coast Guard Headquarters located in an area generally occupied by responsible 2100 2nd Street, SW., Rm. 3610 personnel. In some cases, this may require a remote Washington, DC 20593-0001 monitor in an attended location. For each structure, a log should be maintained in which daily operations Telephone: (202) 267-0980 status of the lighting system is recorded. Beacon Chap 4 11

3/1/00 AC 70/7460-IK 3/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHAPTER 5. RED OBSTRUCTION LIGHT SYSTEM

50. PURPOSE 52. CONTROL DEVICE Red Obstruction lights are used to increase conspicuity Red obstruction lights should be operated by a during nighttime. Daytime and twilight marking is satisfactory control device (e.g., photo cell, timer, etc.)

required. Recommendations on lighting structures can adjusted so the lights will be turned on when the vary depending on terrain features, weather patterns, northern sky illuminance reaching a vertical surface geographic location, and in the case of wind turbines, falls below a level of 60 foot-candles (645.8 lux) but number of structures and overall layout of design. before reaching a level of 35 foot-candles (367.7 lux).

51. STANDARDS The control device should turn the lights off when the northern sky illuminance rises to a level of not more The red obstruction lighting system is composed of than 60 foot-candles (645.8 lux). The lights may also flashing omnidirectional beacons (L-864) and/or remain on continuously. The sensing device should, if steady burning (L-810) lights. When one or more practical, face the northern sky in the Northern levels is comprised of flashing beacon lighting, the Hemisphere. (See AC 150/5345-43.)

lights should flash simultaneously;

53. POLES, TOWERS, AND SIMILAR SKELETAL

a. Single Obstruction Light. A single (L-810) light STRUCTURES may be used when more than one obstruction light is required either vertically or horizontally or where The following standards apply to radio and television maintenance can' be accomplished within a reasonable towers, supporting structures for overhead time. transmission lines, and similar structures.

1. Top Level. A single light may be used to a. Top Mounted Obstruction Light.

identify low structures such as airport ILS buildings 1. Structures 150 Feet (46m) AGL or Less. Two and long horizontal structures such as perimeter fences or more steady burning (L-810) lights should be and building roof outlines. installed in a manner to ensure an unobstructed view of

2. Intermediate Level. Single lightsmay be used one or more lights by a pilot.

on skeletal and solid structures when more than one 2. Structures Exceeding 150 Feet (46m) A GL.

level of lights is installed and there are two or more At 1least one red flashing (L-864) beacon should be single lights per level. installed in a manner to ensure an unobstructed view of

b. Double Obstruction Light. A double (L-810) one or more lights by a pilot.

light should be installed when used as a top light, at 3. Appurtenances 40 Feet (12m) or Less. If a each end of a row of single obstruction lights, and in rod, antenna, or other appurtenance 40 feet (12m) or areas or locations where the failure of a single unit less in height is incapable of supporting a red flashing could cause an obstruction to be totally unlighted. beacon, then it may be placed at the base of the

1. Top Level Structures 150 feet (46m) AGL or appurtenance. If the mounting location does not allow less should have one or more double lights installed at unobstructed viewing of the beacon by a pilot, then the highest point and operating simultaneously. additional beacons should be added.

2. Intermediate Level. Double lights should be 4. Appurtenances Exceeding 40 Feet (12m). If a installed at intermediate levels when a malfunction of rod, antenna, or other appurtenance exceeding 40 feet a single light could create an unsafe condition and in (12m) in height is incapable of supporting a red remote areas where maintenance cannot be performed flashing beacon, a supporting mast with one or more within a reasonable time. Both units may operate beacons should be installed adjacent to the simultaneously, or a transfer relay may be used to appurtenance. Adjacent installations should not switch to a spare unit should the active system fail. exceed the height of the appurtenance and be within 40 feet (12m) of the tip to allow the pilot an unobstructed

3. Lowest Level. The lowest level of light units view of at least one beacon.

may be installed at a higher elevation than normal on a structure if the surrounding terrain, trees, or adjacent b. Mounting Intermediate Levels. The number of building(s) would obscure the lights. In certain light levels is determined by the height of the structure, instances, as determined by an FAA aeronautical including all appurtenances, and is detailed in study, the lowest level of lights may be eliminated. Appendix 1. The number of lights on each level is Chap 5 13

3/1/00 AC 70/7460-1 K 3/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K determined by the shape and height of the structure. with flare stacks, as well as any other structures These lights should be mounted so as to ensure an associated with the petrol-chemical industry, normal unobstructed view of at least one light by a pilot. lighting requirements may not be necessary. This

1. Steady Burning Lights (L-810). could be due to the location of the flare stack/structure within a large well-lighted petrol-chemical plant or the (a) Structures 350 Feet (107m) AGL or Less.

fact that the flare, or working lights surrounding the Two or more steady burning (L-810) lights should be flare stack/structure, is as conspicuous as obstruction installed on diagonally or diametrically opposite lights.

positions.

c. Mounting Intermediate Levels. The number of (b) Structures Exceeding 350 Feet (107m) light levels is determined by the height of the structure AGL. Install steady burning (L-810) lights on each including all appurtenances. For cooling towers 600 outside corner of each level.

feet (183m) or less, intermediate. light levels are not

2. FlashingBeacons (L-864). necessary. Structures exceeding 600 feet (1 83m) AGL (a) Structures 350 Feet (107m) AGL or Less. should have a second level of light units installed These structures do not require flashing (L-864) approximately at the midpoint of the structure and in a beacons at intermediate levels. vertical line with the top level of lights.

(b) Structure Exceeding 350 Feet (107m) 1. Steady Burning (L-810) Lights. The AGL. At intermediate levels, two beacons (L-864) recommended number of light levels may be obtained should be mounted outside at diagonally opposite from Appendix 1. At least three lights should be positions of intermediate levels. installed on each level.

54. CHIMNEYS, FLARE STACKS, AND SIMILAR 2. Flashing (L-864) Beacons. The recommended SOLID STRUCTURES number of beacon levels may be .obtained from

a. Number ofLight Units. Appendix 1. At least three lights should be installed on each level:

1. The number of units recommended depends on the diameter of the structure at the top. The number of (a) Structures 350 Feet (107m) AGL or Less.

lights recommended below are the minimum. These structures do not need intermediate levels of flashing beacons.

2. When the structure diameter is:

(b) Structures Exceeding 350 Feet (107m) AGL.

(a) 20 Feet (6m) or Less. Three light units per At least three flashing (L-864) beacons should be level.

installed on each level in a manner to allow an (b) Exceeding 20 Feet (6m) But Not More Than unobstructed view of at least one beacon.

100 Feet (31m). Four light units per level.

55. WIND TURBINE STRUCTURES (c) Exceeding 100 Feet (31m) But Not More Wind turbine structures should be lighted by mounting Than 200 Feet (61m). Six light units per level. two flashing red beacons (L-864) on top of the (d) Exceeding 200 Feet (61m). Eight light units generator housing. Both beacons should flash per level. simultaneously. Lighting fixtures are to be mounted at

b. Top Mounted Obstruction Lights. a horizontal separation to ensure an unobstructed view of at least one fixture by a pilot approaching from any

1. Structures 150 Feet (46m) AGL or Less. L-810 direction.

lights should be installed horizontally at regular intervals at or near the top. 56. GROUP OF OBSTRUCTIONS

2. Structures Exceeding 150 Feet (46m) AGL. At When individual objects, except wind turbines, within least three L-864 beacons should be installed. a group of obstructions are not the same height and are spaced a maximum of 150 feet (46m) apart, the

3. Chimneys, Cooling Towers, and Flare Stacks.

prominent objects within the group should be lighted Lights may be displayed as low as 20 feet (6m) below in accordance with the standards for individual the top to avoid the obscuring effect of deposits and obstructions of a corresponding height. If the outer heat generally emitted by this type of structure. It is structure is shorter than the prominent, the outer important that these lights be readily accessible for structure should be lighted in accordance with the cleaning and lamp replacement. It is understood that standards for individual obstructions of a 14 Chap 5

3/1/00 AC 70/7460-IK 3/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K corresponding height. Light units should be placed to b. StructuresExceeding 150 Feet (46m) in at Least ensure that the light is visible to a pilot approaching One Horizontal Direction. If the structure/bridge/

from any direction. In addition, at least one flashing extensive obstruction exceeds 150 feet (46m) beacon should be installed at the top of a prominent horizontally, display at least one steady burning light center obstruction or on a special tower located near for each 150 feet (46m), or fraction thereof, of the the center of the group. overall length of the major axis. At least one of these

57. ALTERNATE METHOD OF DISPLAYING lights should be displayed on the highest point at each OBSTRUCTION LIGHTS end of the obstruction. Additional lights should be When recommended in an FAA aeronautical study, displayed at approximately equal intervals not to lights may be placed on poles equal to the height of the exceed 150 feet (46m) on the highest points along the obstruction and installed on or adjacent to the structure edge between the end lights. If an obstruction is instead of installing lights on the obstruction. located near a landing area and two or more edges are the same height, the edge nearest the landing area

58. PROMINENT BUILDINGS, BRIDGES, AND should be lighted.

SIMILAR EXTENSIVE OBSTRUCTIONS

c. Structures Exceeding 150 Feet (46m) AGL.

When objects within a group of obstructions are Steady burning red obstruction lights should be approximately the same overall height above the installed on the highest point at each end. At surface and are located a maximum of 150 feet (46m) intermediate levels, steady burning red lights should be apart, the group of obstructions may be considered an displayed for each 150 feet (46m) or fraction thereof.

extensive obstruction. Install light units on the same The vertical position of these lights should be horizontal plane at the highest portion or edge of equidistant between the top lights and the ground level prominent obstructions. Light units should be placed as the shape and type of obstruction will permit. One to ensure that the light is visible to a pilot approaching such light should be displayed at each outside corner from any direction. If the structure is a bridge and is on each level with the remaining lights evenly spaced over navigable, water, the sponsor must obtain prior between the corner lights.

approval of the lighting installation from. the Commander of the District Office of the United States d. Exceptions. Flashing red beacons (L-864) may.

Coast Guard to avoid interference with marine be used instead of steady burning obstruction lights if navigation. Steady burning lights should be displayed early or special warning is necessary. These beacons to indicate the extent of the obstruction as follows: should be displayed on the highest points of an extensive obstruction at intervals not exceeding 3,000

a. Structures 150 Feet (46m) or Less in Any feet (915m). At least three beacons should be HorizontalDirection. If the structure/bridge/extensive displayed on one side of the extensive obstruction to obstruction is 150 feet (46m) or less horizontally, at indicate a line of lights.

least one steady burning light (L-810) should be displayed on the highest point at each end of the major e. Ice Shields. Where icing is likely to occur, metal axis of the obstruction. If this is impractical because grates or similar protective ice shields should be of the overall shape, display a double obstruction light installed directly over each light unit to prevent falling in the center of the highest point. ice or accumulations from damaging the light units.

The light should be mounted in a manner to ensure an unobstructed view of at least one light by a pilot approaching from any direction.

Chap 5 15

3/1/00 AC 70/7460-IK CHAPTER 6. MEDIUM INTENSITY FLASHING WHITE OBSTRUCTION LIGHT SYSTEMS

60. PURPOSE 3. Appurtenances Exceeding 40feet (12m). If a Medium intensity flashing white (L-865) obstruction rod, antenna, or other appurtenance exceeds 40 feet lights may provide conspicuity both day and night. (12m) above the tip of the main structure, a medium Recommendations on lighting structures can vary intensity flashing white light should be placed within depending on terrain features, weather patterns, 40 feet (12m) from the top of the appurtenance. If the geographic location, and in the case of wind turbines, appurtenance' (such as a whip antenna) is incapable of number of structures and overall layout of design. supporting the light, one or more lights should be mounted on a pole adjacent to the appurtenance.

61. STANDARDS Adjacent installations should not exceed the height of The medium intensity flashing white light system is the appurtenance and be within 40 feet (12m) of the tip normally composed of flashing omnidirectional lights. to allow the pilot an unobstructed view of at least one Medium intensity flashing white obstruction lights light.

may be used during daytime and twilight with b. Intermediate Levels. At intermediate levels, two automatically selected reduced intensity for nighttime beacons (L-865) should be mounted outside at operation. When this system is used on structures 500 diagonally or diametrically opposite positions of feet (153m) AGL or less in height, other methods of intermediate levels. The lowest light level should not marking and lighting the structure may be omitted. be less than 200 feet (61m) AGL.

Aviation orange and white paint is always required for

c. Lowest Levels. The lowest level of light units daytime marking on structures exceeding 500 feet may be installed at a higher elevation than normal on a (153m) AGL. This system is not normally structure if the surrounding terrain, trees, or adjacent recommended on structures 200 feet (61m) AGL or building(s) would obscure the lights. In certain less.

instances, as determined by an FAA aeronautical The use of a 24-hour medium intensity: flashing white study, the lowest level of lights may be eliminated..

light system in urban/populated areas in not -normally

d. Structures 500 Feet (153m) AGL or Less. When recommended due to their tendency to merge with white lights are used during nighttime 'and twilight background' lighting, in these areas at night. This only, marking is required for daytime. When operated makes it extremely difficult for some types of aviation 24 hours2.777778e-4 days 0.00667 hours 3.968254e-5 weeks 9.132e-6 months a day, other methods of marking and lighting operations, i.e., med-evac, and police helicopters to see are not required.

these structures. The use of this type of system in urban and rural areas often results in complaints. In e. Structures Exceeding 500 Feet (153m) AGL.

addition, this system is not recommended on structures The lights should be used during nighttime and within 3 nautical miles of an airport. twilight and may be used 24 hours2.777778e-4 days 0.00667 hours 3.968254e-5 weeks 9.132e-6 months a day. Marking is always required for daytime.

62. RADIO AND TELEVISION TOWERS AND SIMILAR SKELETAL STRUCTURES f Ice Shields. Where icing is likely to occur, metal

a. Mounting Lights. The number of levels grates or similar protective ice shields should be recommended depends on the height of the structure, installed directly over each light unit to prevent falling including antennas and similar appurtenances.

ice or accumulations from damaging the light units.

The light should be mounted in a manner to ensure an

1. Top Levels. One or more lights should be unobstructed view of at least one light by a pilot installed at the highest point to provide 360-degree approaching from any direction.

coverage ensuring an unobstructed view.

2. Appurtenances 40feet (12m) or less. If a rod, 63. CONTROL DEVICE antenna, or other appurtenance 40 feet (12m) or less in The light intensity is controlled by a device that height is incapable of supporting the medium intensity changes the intensity when the ambient light changes.

flashing white light, then it may be placed at the base The system should automatically change intensity of the appurtenance. If the mounting location does not steps when the northern sky illumination in the allow unobstructed viewing of the medium intensity Northern Hemisphere on a vertical surface is as flashing white light by a pilot, then additional lights follows:

should be added. a. Twilight-to-Night. This should not occur before the illumination drops below five foot-candles (53.8 Chap 6 17

3/1/00 AC 70/7460-IK 3/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K lux) but should occur before it drops below two foot- 67. SPECIAL CASES candles (21.5 lux). Where lighting systems are installed on structures

b. Night-to-Day. The intensity changes listed in located near highways, waterways, airport approach subparagraph 63a above should be reversed when areas, etc., caution should be exercised to ensure that changing from the night to day mode. the lights do not distract or otherwise cause a hazard to

64. CHIMNEYS, FLARE STACKS, AND SIMILAR motorists, vessel operators, or pilots on an approach to SOLID STRUCTURES an airport. In these cases, shielding may be necessary.

This shielding should not derogate the intended

a. Number of Light Units. The number of units purpose of the lighting system.

recommended depends on the diameter of the structure at the top. Normally, the top level is on the highest 68. PROMINENT BUILDINGS AND SIMILAR point of a structure. However, the top level of EXTENSIVE OBSTRUCTIONS

- chimney lights may be installed as low as 20 feet (6m) When objects within a group of obstructions are below the top to minimize deposit build-up due to approximately the same overall height above the emissions. The number of lights recommended are the surface and are located a maximum of 150 feet (46m) minimum. When the structure diameter is: apart, the group of obstructions may be considered an

1. 20 Feet (6m) or Less. Three light units per extensive obstruction. Install light units on the same level. horizontal plane at the highest portion or edge of

2. Exceeding 20 Feet (6m) But Not More Than prominent obstructions. Light units should be placed 100 Feet (31m). Four light units per level. to ensure that the light is visible to a pilot approaching

3. Exceeding 100 Feet (31m) But Not More Than from any direction. Lights should be displayed to 200 Feet (61m). Six light units per level. indicate the extent of the obstruction as follows:

4. Exceeding 200 Feet (61m). Eight light units per a. Structures 150 Feet (46m), or Less in Any level. Horizontal Direction. If the structure/extensive

65. WIND TURBINE STRUCTURES obstruction is 150 feet (46m). or less horizontally, at least one light should be displayed on the highest point Wind turbine structures should be lighted by mounting at each end of the major axis of the obstruction. If this.

two flashing white beacons (L'865) on top of the is impractical because of the overall shape, display a generator housing. Both 'beacons should flash double obstruction light in the center of the highest simultaneously. Lighting fixtures are to be mounted at point.

a horizontal separation to ensure an unobstructed view of at least one fixture by a pilot approaching from any b. Structures Exceeding 150 Feet (46m) in at Least direction. Intermediate light levels and other marking One Horizontal Direction. If the structure/extensive may be omitted on these structures. obstruction exceeds 150 feet (46m) horizontally, display at least one light for each 150 feet (46m) or

66. GROUP OF OBSTRUCTIONS fraction thereof, of the overall length of the major axis.

When individual objects within a group of obstructions At least one of these lights should be displayed on the are not the same height and are spaced a maximum of highest point at each end of the obstruction.

150 feet (46m) apart, the prominent objects within the Additional lights should be displayed at approximately group should be lighted in accordance with the equal intervals not to exceed 150 feet (46m) on the standards for individual obstructions of a highest points along the edge between the end lights.

corresponding height. If the outer structure is shorter If an obstruction is located near a landing area and two than the prominent, the outer structure should be or more edges are the same height, the edge nearest the, lighted in accordance with the standards for individual landing area should be lighted.

obstructions of a corresponding height. Light units should be placed to ensure that the light is visible to a pilot approaching from any direction. In addition, at least one medium intensity flashing white light should be installed at the top of a prominent center obstruction or on a special tower located near the center of the group.

18 Chap 6

3/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K 3/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K

c. Structures Exceeding 150 Feet (46m) A GL. level as the shape and type of obstruction will permit.

Lights should be installed on the highest point at each One such light should be displayed at each outside end. At intermediate levels, lights should be displayed comer on each level with the remaining lights evenly for each 150 feet (46m), or fraction thereof. The spaced between the comer lights.

vertical position of these lights should be equidistant between the top lights and the ground Chap 6 19

3/1/00 AC 70/7460-IK 3/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHAPTER 7. HIGH INTENSITY FLASHING WHITE OBSTRUCTION LIGHT SYSTEMS

70. PURPOSE 73. UNITS PER LEVEL Lighting with high intensity (L-856) flashing white One or more light units is needed to obtain the desired obstruction lights provides the highest degree of horizontal coverage. The number of light units conspicuity both day and night. Recommendations on recommended per level (except for the supporting lighting structures can vary depending on terrain structures of catenary wires and buildings) depends features, weather patterns, geographic location, and in upon the average outside diameter of the specific the case of wind turbines, number of structures and structure, and the horizontal beam width of the light overall layout of design. fixture. The light units should be installed in a manner to ensure an unobstructed view of the system by a pilot

71. STANDARDS approaching from any direction. The number of lights Use high intensity flashing white obstruction lights recommended are the minimum. When the structure during daytime with automatically selected reduced diameter is:

intensities for twilight and nighttime operations.

When high intensity white lights are operated 24 hours2.777778e-4 days 0.00667 hours 3.968254e-5 weeks 9.132e-6 months a. 20 Feet (6m) or Less. Three light units per level.

a day, other methods of marking and lighting may be b. Exceeding 20 Feet (6m) But Not More Than 100 omitted. This system should not be recommended on Feet (31m). Four light units per level.

structures 500 feet (153m) AGL or less unless an FAA c. Exceeding 100 Feet (31m). Six light units per aeronautical study shows otherwise. level.

72. CONTROL DEVICE 74. INSTALLATION GUIDANCE Light intensity is controlled by a device that changes Manufacturing specifications provide for the effective the intensity when the ambient light changes. The use peak intensity of the light beam to be adjustable from of a 24,hour high intensity flashing white light system zero to 8 degrees above the horizon. Normal in urban/populated areas is not normally recommended installation should place the top light at zero degrees to due to their tendency to merge with background the horizontal and all other light units installed in lighting in these areas at night. This makes it accordance with Table 2: -

extremely difficult for some types of aviation operations, i.e., med-evac, and police helicopters to see Light Unit Elevation Above the Horizontal these structures. The use of this type of system in Height of Light Unit Degrees of Elevation Above Terrain Above the Horizontal urban and rural areas often results in complaints.

Exceeding 500 feet AGL 0 The system should automatically change intensity 401 feet to 500 feet AGL 1 steps when the northern sky illumination in the 301 feet to 400 feet AGL 2 Northern Hemisphere on a vertical surface is as 300 feet AGL or less 3 follows:

TBL 2

a. Day-to-Twilight. This should not occur before

a. Vertical Aiming. Where terrain, nearby the illumination drops to 60 foot-candles (645.8 lux),

residential areas, or other situations dictate, the light but should occur before it drops below 35 foot-candles beam may be further elevated above the horizontal.

(376.7 lux). The illuminance-sensing device should, if The main beam of light at the lowest level should not practical, face the northern sky in the Northern strike the ground closer than 3 statute miles (5km)

Hemisphere.

from the structure. If additional adjustments are

b. Twilight-to-Night. This should not occur before necessary, the lights may be individually adjusted the illumination drops below five foot-candles (53.8 upward, in 1-degree increments, starting at the bottom.

lux), but should occur before it drops below two foot- Excessive elevation may reduce its conspicuity by candles (21.5 lux). raising the beam above a collision course flight path.

c. Night-to-Day. The intensity changes listed in b. Special Cases. Where lighting systems are subparagraph 72 a and b above should be reversed installed on structures located near highways, when changing from the night to day mode. waterways, airport approach areas, etc., caution should be exercised to ensure that the lights do not distract or otherwise cause a hazard to motorists, vessel operators, Chap 7 21

3/1/00 AC 70/7460-1 K 3/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K or pilots on an approach to an airport. In these cases, appurtenance. This light should operate 24 hours2.777778e-4 days 0.00667 hours 3.968254e-5 weeks 9.132e-6 months a shielding or an adjustment to the vertical or horizontal day and flash simultaneously with the rest of the light aiming may be necessary. This adjustment lighting system.

should not derogate the intended purpose of the

76. CHIMNEYS, FLARE STACKS, AND SIMILAR lighting system. Such adjustments may require review SOLID STRUCTURES action as described in Chapter 1, paragraph 5.

The number of light levels depends on the height of

c. Relocation or Omission of Light Units. Light the structure excluding appurtenances. Three or more units should not be installed in such a manner that the lights should be installed on each level in such a light pattern/output is disrupted by the structure. manner to ensure an unobstructed view by the pilot.

1. Lowest Level. The lowest level of light units Normally, the top level is on the highest point of a may be installed at a higher elevation than normal on a structure. However, the top level of chimney lights structure if the surrounding terrain, trees, or adjacent may be installed as low as 20 feet (6m) below the top building(s) would obscure the lights. In certain to minimize deposit build-up due to emissions.

instances, as determined by an FAA aeronautical 77. RADIO AND TELEVISION TOWERS AND study, the lowest level of lights may be eliminated. SIMILAR SKELETAL STRUCTURES

2. Two Adjacent Structures. Where two a. Mounting Lights. The number of levels structures are situated within 500 feet (153m) of each recommended depends on the height of the structure, other and.the light units are installed at the same excluding antennas and similar appurtenances. At levels, the sides of the structures facing each other least three lights should be installed on each level and need not be lighted. However, all lights on both mounted to ensure that the effective intensity of the structures must flash simultaneously, except for full horizontal beam coverage is not impaired by the adjacent catenary support structures. Adjust vertical structural members.

placement of the lights to either or both structures' b. Top Level. One level of lights should be installed intermediate levels to place the lights on the same.

at the highest point of the structure. If the highest:

horizontal plane. Where one structure is higher than point is a rod or antenna incapable of 'supporting a the other, complete level(s) of lights should be lighting system, then the top level o0f Jights should be installed on that part of the higher structure that installed at the highest portion of the main skeletal extends above the top of the'lower structure. If the structure. When guy wires come together at the top, it structures are of such heights that the levels of lights may be necessary to install this level of lights as low as cannot be placed in identical horizontal planes, then 10 feet (3m) below the top. If the rod or antenna the light units should be placed such that the center of exceeds 40 feet (12m) above the main structure, a the horizontal beam patterns do not face toward the medium intensity flashing white light (L-865) should adjacent structure. For example, structures situated be mounted on the highest point. If the appurtenance north and south of each other should have the light (such as a whip antenna) is incapable of supporting a units on both structures installed on a medium intensity light, one or more lights should be northwest/southeast and northeast/southwest installed on a pole adjacent to the appurtenance.

orientation. Adjacent installation should not exceed the height of

3. Three or More Adjacent Structures. The the appurtenance and be within 40 feet (12m) of the treatment of a cluster of structures as an individual or a top to allow an unobstructed view of at least one light.

complex of structures will be determined by the FAA

c. Ice Shields. Where icing is likely to occur, metal as the result of an aeronautical study, taking into grates or similar protective ice shields should be consideration the location, heights, and spacing with installed directly over each light unit to prevent falling other structures. ice or accumulations from damaging the light units.

75. ANTENNA OR SIMILAR APPURTENANCE

78. HYPERBOLIC COOLING TOWERS LIGHT Light units should be installed in a manner to ensure When a structure lighted by a high intensity flashing an unobstructed view of at least two lights by a pilot light system is topped with an antenna or similar approaching from any direction.

appurtenance exceeding 40 feet (12m) in height, a medium intensity flashing white light (L-865) should a. Number of Light Units. The number of units be placed within 40 feet (12m) from the tip of the recommended depends on the diameter of the structure 22 Chap 7

3/11100 AC 70/7460-IK 3/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K at the top. The number of lights recommended in the to ensure that the light is visible to a pilot approaching following table are the minimum. When the structure from any direction. These lights may require diameter is: shielding, such as louvers, to ensure minimum adverse

1. 20 Feet (6m) or Less. Three light units per impact on local communities. Extreme caution in the level. use of high intensity flashing white lights should be exercised.

2. Exceeding 20 Feet (6m) But Not More Than 100 Feet (31m). Four light units per level. a. If the Obstruction is 200 feet (61m) or Less in Either Horizontal Dimension, install three or more

3. Exceeding 100 Feet (31m) But Not More Than light units at the highest portion of the structure in a 200 Feet (61m). Six light units per level.

manner to ensure that at least one light is visible to a

4. Exceeding 200 Feet (61m). Eight light units per pilot approaching from any direction. Units may be level. mounted on a single pedestal at or near the center of

b. Structures Exceeding 600 Feet (183m) AGL. the obstruction. If light units are placed more than 10 Structures exceeding 600 feet (183m) AGL should feet (3m) from the center point of the structure, use a have a second level of light units installed minimum of four units.

approximately at the midpoint of the structure and in a b. If the Obstruction Exceeds 200 Feet (61m) in vertical line with the top level of lights. One Horizontal Dimension, but is 200 feet (61m) or

79. PROMINENT BUILDINGS AND SIMILAR less in the other, two light units should be placed on EXTENSIVE OBSTRUCTIONS each of the shorter sides. These light units may either When objects within a group of obstructions are be installed adjacent to each other at the midpoint of approximately the same overall height above the the edge of the obstruction or at (near) each comer surface and are located not more than 150 feet (46m) with the light unit aimed to provide 180 degrees of apart, the group of obstructions may be considered an coverage at each edge. One or more light units, should

.extensive obstruction. Install light units on the same be installed along the overall.:length of the, major axis.

horizontal plane at the highest portion or edge of These lights should be installed at approximately equal' prominent obstructions. Light units should be placed intervals not to exceed a distance of 100 feet (3 lm) from the comers or from each other.

c. If the Obstruction Exceeds 200 Feet (61m) in Both Horizontal Dimensions, light units should be equally spaced along the overall perimeter of the obstruction at intervals of 100 feet (31m) or fraction thereof.

Chap 7 23

3/1/00 AC 70/7460-IK CHAPTER 8. DUAL LIGHTING WITH RED/MEDIUM INTENSITY FLASHING WHITE SYSTEMS

80. PURPOSE the northern sky illumination in the Northern This dual lighting system includes red lights (L-864) Hemisphere on a vertical surface is as follows:

for nighttime and medium intensity flashing white a. Twilight-to-Night. This should not occur before lights (L-865) for daytime and twilight use. This the illumination drops below 5 foot-candles (53.8 lux) lighting system may be used in lieu of operating a but should occur before it drops below 2 foot-candles medium intensity flashing white lighting system at (21.5 lux).

night. There may be some populated areas where the b. Night-to-Day. The intensity changes listed in use of medium intensity at night may cause significant subparagraph 83 a above should be reversed when environmental concerns. The use of the dual lighting changing from the night to day mode.

system should reduce/mitigate those concerns.

Recommendations on lighting structures can vary 84. ANTENNA OR SIMILAR APPURTENANCE LIGHT depending on terrain features, weather patterns, geographic location, and in the case of wind turbines, When a structure utilizing this dual lighting system is number of structures and overall layout of design. topped with an antenna or similar appurtenance exceeding 40 feet (12m) in height, a medium intensity

81. INSTALLATION flashing white (L-865) and a red flashing beacon (L-The light units should be installed as specified in the 864) should be placed within 40 feet (12m) from the appropriate portions of Chapters 4, 5, and 6. The tip of the appurtenance. The white light should number of light levels needed may be obtained from operate during daytime and twilight and the red light Appendix 1 during nighttime. These lights -should flash

82. OPERATION simultaneously with the rest of the lighting system.

Lighting systems should be operated as specified in 85. WIND TURBINE STRUCTURES.

Chapter 3. Both systems should not be operated at the Wind turbine structures should be -lighted by mounting same time; however, there should be no more than a 2- two flashing dual beacons (L-864/L-865) on top of the second delay when changing from one system to the generator housing. Both beacons: -should flash other. Outage of one of two lamps in the uppermost simultaneously. Lighting fixtures are to be mounted at red beacon (L-864 incandescent unit) or outage of any a horizontal separation to ensure an unobstructed view uppermost red light shall cause the white obstruction of at least one fixture by a pilot approaching from any light system to operate in its specified "night" step direction. Intermediate light levels and other marking intensity. may be omitted on these structures.

83. CONTROL DEVICE 86. OMISSION OF MARKING The light system is controlled by a device that changes When medium intensity white lights are operated on the system when the ambient light changes. The structures 500 feet (153m) AGL or less during daytime system should automatically change steps when and twilight, other methods of marking may be omitted.

Chap 8 25

3/!/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHAPTER 9. DUAL LIGHTING WITH RED/HIGH INTENSITY FLASHING WHITE SYSTEMS

90. PURPOSE The system should automatically change intensity This dual lighting system includes red lights (L-864) steps when -the northern sky illumination in the for nighttime and high intensity flashing white lights Northern Hemisphere on a vertical surface is as (L-856) for daytime and twilight use. This lighting follows:

system may be used in lieu of operating a flashing a. Day-to-Twilight. This should not occur before the white lighting system at night. There may be some illumination drops to 60 foot-candles (645.8 lux) but populated areas where the use of high intensity lights should occur before it drops below 35 foot-candles at night may cause significant environmental concerns (376.7 lux). The illuminance-sensing device should, if and complaints. The use of the dual lighting system practical, face the northern sky in the Northern should reduce/mitigate those concerns. Hemisphere.

Recommendations on lighting structures can vary b. Twilight-to-Night. This should not occur before depending on terrain features, weather patterns, the illumination drops below 5 foot-candles (53.8 lux) geographic location, and in the case of wind turbines,. but should occur before it drops below 2 foot-candles number of structures and overall layout of design. (21.5 lux)..

91. INSTALLATION c. Night-to-Day. The intensity changes listed, in The light units should be installed as specified in the subparagraph 93 a and b above should be reversed appropriate portions of Chapters 4, 5, and 7. The when changing from the night to day mode.

number of light levels needed may be obtained from 94. ANTENNA OR SIMILAR APPURTENANCE Appendix 1. LIGHT

92. OPERATION When a structure utilizing this dual lighting system is Lighting systems should be operated as specified in topped with an antenna or isimilar appurtenance Chapters 4, 5, and 7. Both systems should not be exceeding 40 feet (12m) in height,. a medium intensity operated at the same time; however, there should be no flashing white light (L-865) and-.a, red flashing beacon more than a 2-second delay when changing from one (L-864) should be placed within 40 feet, (12m). from system to the other. Outage of one of two lamps in the the tip of the appurtenance. The white, light should uppermost red beacon (L-864 incandescent unit) or operate during daytime and twilight and the red light outage of any uppermost red light shall cause the white during nighttime.

obstruction light system to operate in its specified 95. OMISSION OF MARKING "night" step intensity.

When high intensity white lights are operated during

93. CONTROL DEVICE daytime and twilight, other methods of marking may The light intensity, is controlled by a device that be omitted.

changes the intensity when the ambient light changes.

Chap 9 27

3/1/00 AC 70/7460-IK CHAPTER 10. MARKING AND LIGHTING OF CATENARY AND CATENARY SUPPORT STRUCTURES 100. PURPOSE 200 feet (61 m) or a fraction thereof. Intervals between This chapter provides guidelines for marking and markers should be less in critical areas near runway lighting catenary and catenary support structures. The ends, i.e., 30 to 50 feet (10m to 15m). If the markers recommended marking and lighting of these structures are installed on a line other than the highest catenary, is intended to provide day and night conspicuity and to then markers specified in paragraph 34 should be used assist pilots in identifying and avoiding catenary wires in addition to the lighted markers. The maximum and associated support structures. distance between the line energizing the lighted markers and the highest catenary above the markers 101. CATENARY MARKING STANDARDS can be no more than 20 feet (6m). The lighted markers Lighted markers are available for increased night may be installed alternately along each wire if the conspicuity of high-voltage (69KV or greater) distance between adjacent markers meets the spacing transmission line catenary wires. These markers standard. This method allows the weight and wind should be used on transmission line catenary wires loading factors to be distributed.

near airports, heliports, across rivers, canyons, lakes, 2. Pattern. An alternating color scheme provides etc. The lighted markers should be manufacturer the most conspicuity against all backgrounds. Mark certified as recognizable from a minimum distance of overhead wires by alternating solid colored markers of 4,000 feet (1219m) under nighttime conditions, aviation orange, white, and yellow. Normally, an minimum VFR conditions or having a minimum orange marker is placed at each end of a line and the intensity of at least 32.5 candela. The lighting unit spacing is adjusted (not to exceed 200 feet (61m)) to should emit a steady burning red light. They should be accommodate the rest of the markers. When less than used on the highest energized line. If the lighted four markers are used, they should all be aviation markers are installed on a line other than the highest orange.

catenary, then markers specified in paragraph 34 102. CATENARY LIGHTING STANDARDS should be'used in addition to the lighted markers. (The maXimum distance between the line energizing the When using medium intensity flashingwhite (L-866),

lighted markers' and the highest catenary above the high intensity flashing white .(L-857), dual medium lighted marker should be no more than 20 feet (6m).) intensity (L-866/L-885) or dual high intensity (L-Markers should be distinctively shaped, i.e., spherical, 857/885) lighting systems, operated 24 hours2.777778e-4 days 0.00667 hours 3.968254e-5 weeks 9.132e-6 months a day, cylindrical, so they are not mistaken for items that are other marking of the support structure is not necessary.

used to convey other information. They should -be a. Levels. A system of three levels of sequentially visible in all directions from which aircraft are likely flashing light units should be installed on each to approach. The area in the immediate vicinity of the supporting structure or adjacent terrain. Install one supporting structure's base should be clear of all items level at the top of the structure, one at the height of the and/or objects of natural growth that could interfere lowest point in the catenary and one level with the line-of-sight between a pilot and the approximately midway between the other two light structure's lights. Where a catenary wire crossing levels. The middle level should normally be at least 50 requires three or more supporting structures, the inner feet (15m) from the other two levels. The middle light structures should be equipped with enough light units unit may be deleted when the distance between the top per level to provide a full coverage. and the bottom light levels is less than 100 feet (30m).

a. Size and Color. The diameter of the markers used 1. Top Levels. One or more lights should be on extensive catenary wires across canyons, lakes, installed at the top of the structure to provide 360-rivers, etc., should be not less than 36 inches (91cm). degree coverage ensuring an unobstructed view. If the Smaller 20-inch (51cm) markers are permitted on less installation presents a potential danger to maintenance extensive power lines or on power lines below 50 feet personnel, or when necessary for lightning protection, (15m) above the ground and within 1,500 feet (458m) the top level of lights may be mounted as low as 20 of an airport runway end. Each marker should be a feet (6m) below the highest point of the structure.

solid color such as aviation orange, white, or yellow. 2. Horizontal Coverage. The light units at the

b. Installation. middle level and bottom level should be installed so as

1. Spacing. Lighted markers should be spaced to provide a minimum of 180-degree coverage equally along the wire at intervals of approximately centered perpendicular to the flyway. Where a Chap 10 29

3/1/00 AC 70/7460-IK 3/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K catenary crossing is situated near a bend in a river, 103. CONTROL DEVICE canyon, etc., or is not perpendicular to the flyway, the The light intensity is controlled by a device (photocell) horizontal beam should be directed to provide the most that changes the intensity when the ambient light effective light coverage to warn pilots approaching changes. The lighting system should automatically from either direction of the catenary wires. change intensity steps when the northern sky

3. Variation. The vertical and horizontal illumination in the Northern Hemisphere on a vertical arrangements of the lights may be subject to the surface is as follows:

structural limits of the towers and/or adjacent terrain. a. Day-to-Twilight (L-857 System). This should not A tolerance of 20 percent from uniform spacing of the occur before the illumination drops to 60 foot-candles bottom and middle light is allowed. If the base of the (645.8 lux), but should occur before it drops below 35 supporting structure(s) is higher than the lowest point foot-candles (376.7 lux). The illuminant-sensing in the catenary, such as a canyon crossing, one or more device should, if practical, face the northern sky in the lights should be installed on the adjacent terrain at the Northern Hemisphere.

level of the lowest point in the span. These lights

b. Twilight-to-Night (L-857 System). This should should be installed on the structure or terrain at the not occur before the illumination drops below 5 foot-height of the lowest point in the catenary.

candles (53.8 lux), but should occur before it drops

b. Flash Sequence. The flash sequence should be below 2 foot-candles (21.5 lux).

middle, top, and bottom with all lights on the same

c. Night-to-Day. The intensity changes listed in level flashing simultaneously. The time delay between subparagraph 103 a. and b. above should be reversed flashes of levels is designed to present a unique system when changing from the night to day mode.

display. The time delay between the start of each level

d. Day-to-Night (L-866 or L-885/L-866). This of flash duration is outlined in FAA AC 150/5345-43, should not occur before the illumination drops below 5 Specification for Obstruction Lighting Equipment.

foot-candles (563.8 lux) but should occur before it

c. Synchronization. Although desirable, the drops below 2 foot-candles (21.5 lux).

corresponding light levels on associated supporting

e. Night-to-Day. The intensity changes listed in towers of a catenary crossing need not flash subparagraph d. above should be reversed when simultaneously.

changing from the night to day mode.

d. Structures 500 feet (153m) AGL or Less. When

f. Red Obstruction (L-885). The red fights should medium intensity white lights (L-866) are operated 24 not turn on until the illumination drops below 60 foot-hours a day, or when a dual red/medium intensity candles (645.8 lux) but should occur before reaching a system (L-866. daytime & twilight/L-885 nighttime) is level of 35 foot-candles (367.7 lux). Lights should not used, marking can be omitted. When using a medium turn off before the illuminance rises above 35 foot-intensity while light (L-866) or a flashing red light (L-candles (367.7 lux), but should occur before reaching 885) during twilight or nighttime only, painting should 60 foot-candles (645.8 lux).

be used for daytime marking.

104. AREA SURROUNDING CATENARY SUPPORT

e. Structures Exceeding 500 Feet (153m) AGL.

STRUCTURES When high intensity white lights (L-857) are operated 24 hours2.777778e-4 days 0.00667 hours 3.968254e-5 weeks 9.132e-6 months a day, or when a dual red/high intensity The area in the immediate vicinity of the supporting system (L-857 daytime and twilight/L-885 nighttime) structure's base should be clear of all items and/or is used, marking can be omitted. This system should objects of natural growth that could interfere with the not be recommended on structures 500 feet (153m) or line-of-sight between a pilot and the structure's lights.

less unless an FAA aeronautical study shows 105. THREE OR MORE CATENARY SUPPORT otherwise. When a flashing red obstruction light (L- STRUCTURES 885), a medium intensity (L-866) flashing white Where a catenary wire crossing requires three or more lighting system or a high intensity white lighting supporting structures, the inner structures should be system (L-857) is used for nighttime and twilight only, equipped with enough light units per level to provide a painting should be used for daytime marking. full 360-degree coverage.

30 Chap 10

3/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K 3/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHAPTER 11. MARKING AND LIGHTING MOORED BALLOONS AND KITES 110. PURPOSE 113. PURPOSE The purpose of marking and lighting moored balloons, Flashing obstruction lights should be used on moored kites, and their cables or mooring lines is to indicate balloons or kites and their mooring lines to warn pilots the presence and general definition of these objects to of their presence during the hours between sunset and pilots when converging from any normal angle of sunrise and during periods of reduced visibility. These approach. lights may be operated 24 hours2.777778e-4 days 0.00667 hours 3.968254e-5 weeks 9.132e-6 months a day.

111. STANDARDS a. Systems. Flashing red (L-864) or white beacons These marking and lighting standards pertain to all (L-865) may be used to light moored balloons or kites.

moored balloons and kites that require marking and High intensity lights (L-856) are not recommended.

lighting under 14 CFR, part 101. b. Display. Flashing lights should be displayed on 112. MARKING the top, nose section, tail section, and on the tether cable approximately 15 feet (4.6m) below the craft so Flag markers should be used on mooring lines to warn as to define the extremes of size and shape. Additional pilots of their presence during daylight hours.

lights should be equally spaced along the cable's

a. Display. Markers should be displayed at no more overall length for each 350 feet (107m) or fraction than 50-foot (15m) intervals and should be visible for thereof.

at least 1 statute mile.

c. Exceptions. When the requirements of this

b. Shape. Markers should be rectangular in shape paragraph cannot be met, floodlighting may be used.

and not less than 2 feet (0.6m) on a side. Stiffeners should be used in the borders so as to expose a large 114. OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS area, prevent drooping in calm wind, or. wrapping The light intensity is controlled by a device that around the cable. changes the intensity when the ambient light changes.

The system should automatically turn the lights on and

c. Color. Patterns., One of the following color change intensities as ambient light condition change.

patterns should be used:

The reverse order should apply in changing from

1. Solid Color. Aviationorange. nighttime to daytime operation. The lights should

2. Orange and White. Two triangular sections, flash simultaneously.

one of aviation orange and the other white, combined to form a rectangle.

Chap 11 31

3/1/00 AC 70/7460-IK 3/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHAPTER 12. MARKING AND LIGHTING EQUIPMENT AND INFORMATION 120. PURPOSE Note-

1. Federalspecification T1-P-59, aviation surfacepaint, ready mixed This chapter lists documents relating to obstruction internationalorange.

marking and lighting systems and where they may be 2. Federalspecification TI-102, aviationsurface paint, oil titanium zinc.

obtained.

3. Federalspecification TI-102, aviation surface paint, oil, exterior, 121. PAINT STANDARD ready mixed, white and light tints.

Paint and aviation colors/gloss, referred to in this 122. AVAILABILITY OF SPECIFICATIONS publication should conform to Federal Standard Federal specifications describing the technical FED-STD-595. Approved colors shall be formulated characteristics of various paints and their application without the use of Lead, Zinc Chromate or other techniques may be obtained from:

heavy metals to match International Orange, White GSA- Specification Branch and Yellow. All coatings shall be manufactured and labeled to meet Federal Environmental Protection 470 L'Enfant Plaza Act Volatile Organic Compound(s) guidelines, Suite 8214 including the National Volatile Organic Compound Washington, DC 20407 Emission Standards for architectural coatings. Telephone: (202) 619-8925

a. Exterior Acrylic Waterborne Paint. Coating 123. LIGHTS AND ASSOCIATED EQUIPMENT should be a ready mixed, 100% acrylic, exterior latex The lighting equipment referred to in this publication formulated for application directly to galvanized should conform to 'the latest edition of one of the surfaces. Ferrous iron and steel or non-galvanized following specifications, as applicable:

surfaces shall be primed with a manufacturer a. ObstructionLighting Equipment.

recommended primer compatible with the finish coat.

1. AC 150/5345-43, FAA Specification for

b. Exterior Solventborne ,Alkyd Based Paint. Obstruction Lighting Equipment.

Coating should be ready mixed, alkyd-based, exterior enamel for application directly to non-galvanized 2. Military. Specifications MIL-L-6273, Light, surfaces such as ferrous iron and steel. Galvanized Navigational, Beacon, Obstacle or Code, Type G-1.

surfaces shall be primed with a manufacturer primer 3. Military Specifications MIL-L-7830, Light compatible with the finish coat. Assembly, Markers, Aircraft Obstruction.

Paint Standards Color Table COLOR NUMBER Orange 12197 White 17875 Yellow 13538 TBL 3 Chap 12 33

3/1/00 AC 70/7460-IK 3/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K

b. CertifiedEquipment. 124. AVAILABILITY

1. AC 150/5345-53, Airport Lighting The standards and specifications listed above may be Certification Program, lists the manufacturers that obtained free of charge from the below-indicated have demonstrated compliance with the specification office:

requirements of AC 150/5345-43. a. Military Specifications:

2. Other manufacturers' equipment may be used Standardization Document Order Desk provided that equipment meets the specification 700 Robbins Avenue requirements of AC 150/5345-43. Building #4, Section D

c. Airport LightingInstallation andMaintenance. Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094

1. AC 150/5340-21, Airport Miscellaneous b. FAA Specifications:

Lighting Visual Aids, provides guidance for the Manager, ASD- 110 installation, maintenance, testing, and inspection of Department of Transportation obstruction lighting for airport visual aids such as Document Control Center airport beacons, wind cones, etc. Martin Marietta/Air Traffic Systems

2. AC 150/5340-26, Maintenance of Airport 475 School St., SW.

Visual Aid Facilities, provides guidance on the Washington, DC 20024 maintenance of airport visual aid facilities. Telephone: (202) 646-2047

d. Vehicles. FAA Contractors Only

c. FAA Advisory Circulars:

1. AC 150/5210-5, Painting, Marking, and Lighting of Vehicles Used on an Airport, contains Department of Transportation provisions for marking yehicles principally used on TASC airports. Subsequent Distribution Office, SVC- 121.23 Ardmore East Business Center

2. FAA:Facilities. Obstruction marking for FAA.

3341 Q 75th Avenue facilities shall conform-to FAA Drawing Number D-Landover, MD 20785 5480, referenced in FAA Standard FAA-STD-003, Telephone: (301) 322-4961 Paint Systems for Structures.

34 Chap 12

8/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHG I APPENDIX 1: Specifications for Obstruction Lighting Equipment Classification APPENDIX Type Description L-810 Steady-burning Red Obstruction Light L-856 High Intensity Flashing White Obstruction Light (40 FPM)

L-857 High Intensity Flashing White Obstruction Light (60 FPM)

L-864 Flashing Red Obstruction Light (20-40 FPM)

L-865 Medium Intensity Flashing White Obstruction Light (40-FPM)

L-866 Medium Intensity Flashing White Obstruction Light (60-FPM)

L-864/L-865 Dual: Flashing Red Obstruction Light (20-40 FPM) and Medium Intensity Flashing White Obstruction Light (40 FPM)

L-885 Red Catenary 60 FPM FPM = Flashes Per Minute TBL 4 Appendix I Al-I

AC 70/7460-IK CHG 1 8/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHG I 8/1/00 PAINTING AND/OR DUAL LIGHTING OF CHIMNEYS, POLES, TOWERS, AND SIMILAR STRUCTURES

~N[]-856

= L.864 or (L-864/L-865)

A L-810 As low as 20 feet (6m) ianco (I 2m)

L n 500t (1 rn)Moro 1kmn 25011. (77m) n SOOft(5hm) but not mote than o)e thar 700ft. (213m)

A 12 ppn-x FIG I AI-2 Appendix I

8/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHG I LIGHTING FOR TOP OF STRUCTURES

---.L-864 OR L-865 1,*L-864 OR L-865

\ OR (L-864tL-865) in-",. OR (L-864A.-865)

Top of Structure 10, Max.

Overall AGL height when Overall AGL height when determining light levels determining light levels Obstruction light should be mounted above all appurtenances Obstruction lights can be mounted within excluding anything less than 7P3-inch (2.2cm) diameter. 10' (3m) trom the overall height.

Intermediiate lighting not showvn. Overall .AOGL height if more than 2110' (61 m), but not more than 500' (153rn).

FIG 2 Appendix I At-3

AC 70/7460-1K CHG 1 8/1/00 PAINTING AND LIGHTING OF WATER TOWERS, STORAGE TANKS, AND SIMILAR STRUCTURES The number of light units recommended depends on the More than 150ft.

(45m) but not more than 250ft. (77m)

More than 150ft.

I (45m) but not more than 250ft. (77m)

-- I FIG 3 AI1-4 Appendix I

8/l/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHG 1 PAINTING AND LIGHTING OF WATER TOWERS ANDE SIMILAR STRUCTURES t4 = L-864

= L-810 m

More than 150 ft.

(45m) but not more than 250ft. (77m)

FIG 4 Appendix 1 A1-5

AC 70/7460-1K CHG I 8/l/00 AC 7O/746O-ll~ CHG I 8/1/00 PAINTING OF SINGLE PEDESTAL WATER TOWER BY TEARDROP PATTERN ANYTOWN, UFSA FIG 5 A1-6 Appendix 1

8/1/00 AC 70/7460-IK CHG I 8/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHG 1 LIGHTING ADJACENT STRUCTURES Inboard lights recommended on all levels above height of shorter structure Minor adjustments in vertical placement may be made to place lights on same horizontal plane.

Lights on both structures be synchronized FIG 6 Appendix I A1-7

AC 70/7460-1K CHG I 8/1/00 0

Lighting Adjacent Structure AL-856 10 = L-856 o50 It Al levels omiy be omitted 750 AGL 600' (229.) (183m)

Lowest level should be above Structures of equal height. Number of levels adjacent structure depends upon height of structure.

Lights on both structures to be synchronized.

[= L-856 A2,(2300

(]506')

(154mn 76NGL , ,

(244m)1 (232.) * "

' (75m)

One structure higher than the adjacent structure and light levels are on same horizontal plane. One structure higher than the adjacent structure Lights on both structures to be synchronized. and light levels are on same horizontal plane.

FIG 7 AI1-8 Appendix I

8/1/00 AC 70/7460-IK CHG 1 8/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHG I Lighting Adjacent Structure a-20' (6m) or less b-Exceeding 20' (6m) but not more than 100' (31 m)

A C?)

Ce) 800' AGL (244m)

I 250' AGL (77m) C?)

FIG 8 Appendix I AI-9

AC 70/7460-1K CHG 1 8/1/00 HYPERBOLIC COOLING TOWER The number of light units recommended depends on the diameter of the structure K-a- .]

a-Exceeding 100' (31 m)

FIG 9 Al-10 Appendix I

8/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHG 1 BRIDGE LIGHTING

- tL-864 OR L-865 OR

(-8641L-865) 44..

N.

N

...... i FIG 10 Appendix 1 AI-11

AC 70/7460-1K CHG I 8/1/00 TYPICAL LIGHTING OF A STAND ALONE WIND TURBINE Front View Side View FIG /I Al-12 Appendix I

8/l/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHG 1 8/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHG I WIND TURBINE GENERATOR E

I FIG 12 Appendix I Al-13

AC 70/7460-1K CHG I 8/1/00 RED OBSTRUCTION LIGHTING STANDARDS (FAA Style A)

Day Protection = Aviation Orange/White Point Night Proteclion = 2,000cd Red Beacon and sidelights

-f 701'-1050' (21 3M-320m)10 1/2 but not lowerA 351'-700' than 200 feet (Sim)

(1 08m-21,3m) 151'-350' (46rn- 107m)

(Om-4.m) L AD Al A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 L-864 Flashing Beacon

- L-810 Obstruction Light FIG 13 Al-14 Appendix I

8/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHG I MEDIUM INTENSITY WHITE OBSTRUCTION LIGHTING STANDARDS (FAA Style D)

Day/Twilight Protection = 20,O00cd White Strobe Nrght Protection = 2,000cd WhRte Strobe Pointing of tower Is typlcolly not required.

1/2 but not lower._ \

351'-,500' (106m-152m) 200' -350' (61 m- 1 06m)

D-1 D-2

- L-B55 Flashing White Sibte FIG 14 Appendix I Ai-15

AC 70/7460-IK CHG I 8/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHG I 8/1/00 HIGH INTENSITY OBSTRUCTION LIGHTING STANDARDS (FAA Style B)

Day Protection = 200,000cd White Strobe Twilight Protection = 20,00cd White Strobe Night Protection = 2,000cd White Strobe (533m-671 m) 1401 '-1750' (427m-533m)

(320m-427m) t 701'-1050' (213m-320m)

H H H PIMEI 4 4 H H 4 4 501 '-700' (152m-213m)

B-2 B-3 B-4 B-5 B-6 requiredStrbe L-85'

(*3 High hntcnefty Floahheode .per*

revel for 36( coveragi)

FIG 15 Al-16 Appendix I

8/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHG I HIGH INTENSITY OBSTRUCTION LIGHTING STANDARDS (FAA Style C)

Dgy Protection = 200,O00cd White Strobe Twilight Protection = 20,O00cd White Strobe Night Protection = 2,000cd White Strobe 1751'-2200' (533m-671 m)

U LI I1 1401'-1750' (427m-53,3m) I 3

- L-856 High Intenrety Strobe (3 Roahhloewd requ,'ed per level for 350" coveroge)

S- L-865 Medium Inbenaity Strobe required far oppurtenoec of 40 or greotere oeet FIG 16 Appendix I AI-17

AC 70/7460-1K CHG I 8/1/00 MEDIUM INTENSITY DUAL OBSTRUCTION LIGHTING STANDARDS (FAA Style E)

Day/Twilight Protection = 20,O00cd White Strobe Night Protection = 2.000cd Red Strobe and sidelights Pointing of tower Is t'ypically not required.

i IF-ii It B! 551'-500' l (107m-152m) 200'-350' (61 m-107m)

A E-1 E-2

-- L-864/L-865 Flashing Dual (White/Red) Strobe

- L-810 Obstruction Light FIG 17 Al-18 Appendix I

8/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K CHG 1 DUAL HIGH INTENSITY OBSTRUCTION LIGHTING STANDARDS (FAA Style F)

Day Protection = 200,O00cd White Strobe Twilight Protection = 20.O00cd White Strobe M; hi PrMar-l'imn = nrinA P.A R.-- -4 .;A.i; ki--

ii -ii 1751 -2200' (533m-671 m) ii Ii I;

(213m-320m) 501 '-700' (152m-213m)

F-2 F-3 F-4 F-5 F-6

-- L-B64. Flushing Bmcn

- L-BiO Obab-uctton Ught

-- -L-BS High Int-nsity Strobe (3 Flashheads required per level tor 360. coverage)

FIG 18 Appendix I Al-19

3/1/00 AC 70/7460-1K APPENDIX 2. Miscellaneous

1. RATIONALE FOR OBSTRUCTION LIGHT governing the operation of aircraft, including INTENSITIES. helicopters, within the United States.

Sections 91.117, 91.119 and 91.155 of the FAR Part

2. DISTANCE VERSUS INTENSITIES.

91, General Operating and Flight Rules, prescribe TBL 5 depicts the distance the various intensities can aircraft speed restrictions, minimum safe altitudes, and be seen under 1 and 3 statute miles meteorological basic visual flight rules (VFR) weather minimums for visibilities:

Distance/Intensity Table Time Period MeteorologicalVisibility Distance Statute Miles Intensity Candelas Statute Miles Night 2.9 (4.7km) 1,500 (+/- 25%)

3 (4.8km) 3.1 (4.9km) 2,000 (+/- 25%)

1.4 (2.2km) 32 Day 1.5 (2.4km) 200,000 1 (1.6km) 1.4 (2.2km) 100,000 1.0 (1.6km) 20,000 (+/- 25%)

Day 3.0 (4.8km) 200,000 3 (4.8km) 2.7 (4.3km) 100,000 1.8 (2.9km) 20,000 (+/- 25%)

Twilight 1 (1.6km) 1.0 (1.6km) 20,000 (+/- 25%)?

to 1.5 (2.4km)

Twilight 3 (4.8km) 1.8 (2.9km) 20,000 (+/- 25%)?

to 4.2 (6.7km)

Note-I. DISTANCE CALCULATED FOR NORTH SKYILLUMINANCE.

TBL 5

3. CONCLUSION. 4. DEFINITIONS.

Pilots of aircraft travelling at 165 knots (190 a. Flight Visibility. The average forward horizontal mph/306kph) or less should be able to see obstruction distance, from the cockpit of an aircraft in flight, at lights in sufficient time to avoid the structure by at which prominent unlighted objects may be seen and least 2,000 feet (610m) horizontally under all identified by day and prominent lighted objects may be conditions of operation, provided the pilot is operating seen and identified by night.

in accordance with FAR Part 91. Pilots operating Reference-between 165 knots (190 mph/303 km/h) and 250 knots AIRMAN'S INFORMA TION MANUAL (288 mph/463 kph) should be able to see the PILOT/CONTROLLER GLOSSARY obstruction lights unless the weather deteriorates to 3 b. Meteorological Visibility. A term that denotes the statute miles (4.8 kilometers) visibility at night, during greatest distance, expressed in statute miles, that which time period 2,000 candelas would be required to selected objects (visibility markers) or lights of see the lights at 1.2 statute miles (1.9kmn). A higher moderate intensity (25 candelas) can be seen and intensity, with 3 statute miles (4.8 kilometers) identified under specified conditions of observation.

visibility at night, could generate a residential annoyance factor. In addition, aircraft in these speed ranges can normally be expected to operate under instrument flight rules (IFR) at night when the visibility is I statute mile (1.6 kilometers).

Appendix 2 A2-1

AC 70/7460-1K 3/1/00

5. LIGHTING SYSTEM CONFIGURATION. d. ConfigurationD. Medium Intensity White Lights

a. ConfigurationA. Red lighting system. (including appurtenance lighting).

b. Configuration B. High Intensity White e. Configuration E. Dual Lighting Systems -

Obstruction Lights (including appurtenance lighting). Medium Intensity White & Red (including

c. Configuration C. Dual Lighting System - High appurtenance lighting).

Intensity White & Red (including appurtenance Example-lighting). "CONFIGURATION B 3" DENOTES A HIGH INTENSITY LIGHTING SYSTEM WITH THREE LEVELS OF LIGHT A2-2 Appendix 2

Coal Combustion Page I of 10 Coal Cornbusfion: Nuclear Resource or Danger By Alex Gabbard

-17AAex Gabbard at the coal pile for ORNL's steam plant.

Over the past few decades, the American public has become increasingly wary of nuclear power because of concern about radiation releases from normal plant operations, plant accidents, and nuclear waste. Except for Chernobyl and other nuclear accidents, releases have been found to be almost:;

undetectable in comparison with natural background radiation. Another concern has been the cost of producing electricity at nuclear plants. It has increased largely for two reasons: compliance with; stringent government regulations that restrict releases of radioactive substances from nuclear facilities into the environment and construction delays as a result of public opposition.

.4wnrcans./;l#g =1 h.rea,"/,.'d zo ý4,'er,/q/ants ?re

e. h*o~ed to thgher rAc,)A2," C.tS~' toani toose .,Pi:,"ng .near nu/erp.,.'r *,n4 **a/ mneet oo:,.77tet'?/v*Yos Partly because of these concerns about radioactivity and the cost of containing it, the American public and electric utilities have preferred coal combustion as a power source. Today 52% of the capacity for generating electricity in the United States is fueled by coal, compared with 14.8% for nuclear energy.

Although there are economic justifications for this preference, it is surprising for two reasons. First, coal combustion produces carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases that are suspected to cause climatic warming, and it is a source of sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides, which are harmful to human health and may be largely responsible for acid rain. Second, although not as well known, releases from coal combustion contain naturally occurring radioactive materials--mainly, uranium and thorium.

Former ORNL researchers J. P. McBride, R. E. Moore, J. P. Witherspoon, and R. E. Blanco made this point in their article "Radiological Impact of Airborne Effluents of Coal and Nuclear Plants" in the December 8, 1978, issue of Science magazine. They concluded that Americans living near coal-fired power plants are exposed to higher radiation doses than those living near nuclear power plants that meet government regulations. This ironic situation remains true today and is addressed in this article.

The fact that coal-fired power plants throughout the world are the major sources of radioactive materials released to the environment has several implications. It suggests that coal combustion is more hazardous to health than nuclear power and that it adds to the background radiation burden even more than does nuclear power. It also suggests that if radiation emissions from coal plants were regulated, their capital and operating costs would increase, making coal-fired power less economically competitive.

http://www.ornl.gov/info/omlreview/rev26-34/text/coamaln.hti26 12/6/2006 0

Coal Combustion _Page 2 ot 10 Finally, radioactive elements released in coal ash and exhaust produced by coal combustion contain fissionable fuels and much larger quantities of fertile materials that can be bred into fuels by absorption of neutrons, including those generated in the air by bombardment of oxygen, nitrogen, and other nuclei with cosmic rays; such fissionable and fertile materials can be recovered from coal ash using known technologies. These nuclear materials have growing value to private concerns and governments that may want to market them for fueling nuclear power plants. However, they are also available to those interested in accumulating material for nuclear weapons. A solution to this potential problem may be to encourage electric utilities to process coal ash and use new trapping technologies on coal combustion exhaust to isolate and collect valuable metals, such as iron and aluminum, and available nuclear fuels.

Makeup of Coal and Ash Coal is one of the most impure of fuels. Its impurities range from trace quantities of many metals, including uranium and thorium, to much larger quantities of aluminum and iron to still larger quantities of impurities such as sulfur. Products of coal combustion include the oxides of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur; carcinogenic and mutagenic substances; and recoverable minerals of commercial value, including nuclear fuels naturally occurring in coal.

71ý.- amcu-71ol c'*zol7,eaed h'7 cva/ i' aZ9Lu/ .£5*' nsgi&~et&r *an .

4atnazn4? a/o/Zranw*w21.1 Coal ash is composed primarily of oxides of silic6n, aluminum, iron, calcium, inagnesium, titanium, sodium, potassium", arsenic, mercury, and sulfur plus"small quantities of uranium and thorium" Fly ashs primarily composed of non-c6mbustible silicon 'cofipounds'(glass) melted during combusti6n. Tiny glass spheres form the bulk of the fly ash.

Since the 1960s particulate precipitators have been used by U.S. coal-fired power plants to retain significant amounts of fly ash rather than letting it escape to the atmosphere. When functioning properly, these precipitators are approximately 99.5% efficient. Utilities also collect furnace ash, cinders, and slag, which are kept in cinder piles or deposited in ash ponds on coal-plant sites along with the captured fly ash.

Trace quantities of uranium in coal range from less than 1 part per million (ppm) in some samples to around 10 ppm in others. Generally, the amount of thorium contained in coal is about 2.5 times greater than the amount of uranium. For a large number of coal samples, according to Environmental Protection Agency figures released in 1984, average values of uranium and thorium content have been determined to be 1.3 ppm and 3.2 ppm, respectively. Using these values along with reported consumption and projected consumption of coal by utilities provides a means of calculating the amounts of potentially recoverable breedable and fissionable elements (see sidebar). The concentration of fissionable uranium-235 (the current fuel for nuclear power plants) has been established to be 0.7 1% of uranium content.

Uranium and Thorium in Coal and Coal Ash As population increases worldwide, coal combustion continues to be the dominant fuel source for electricity. Fossil fuels' share has decreased from 76.5% in 1970 to 66.3% in 1990, while nuclear energy's share in the worldwide electricity pie has climbed from 1.6% in 1970 to 17.4% in 1990.

Although U.S. population growth is slower than worldwide growth, per capita consumption of energy in this country is among the world's highest. To meet the growing demand for electricity, the U.S. utility industry has continually expanded generating capacity. Thirty years ago, nuclear power appeared to be a http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev26-34/text/colmain.html 12/6/2006

Coal Combustion Page 3 ot 10 viable replacement for fossil power, but today it represents less than 15% of U.S. generating capacity.

However, as a result of low public support during recent decades and a reduction in the rate of expected power demand, no increase in nuclear power generation is expected in the foreseeable future. As current nuclear power plants age, many plants may be retired during the first quarter of the 21 st century, although some may have their operation extended through license renewal. As a result, many nuclear plants are likely to be replaced with coal-fired plants unless it is considered feasible to replace them with fuel sources such as natural gas and solar energy.

U.S. AND WORLD COAL COMBUSTION (tMIlGo of tons)

As the world's population increases, the demands for all resources, particularly fuel for electricity, is expected to increase. To meet the demand for electric power,.the world population is expected to rely increasingly on combustion of fossil fuels, primarily coal. The world has about 1500 years of known coal resources at the current use rate. The graph above shows the growth in U.S. and world coal combustion for the 50 years preceding 1988, along with projections beyond the year 2040. Using the concentration of uranium and thorium indicated above, the graph below illustrates the historical release quantities of these elements and the releases that can be expected during the first half of the next century, given the predicted growth trends. Using these data, both U.S. and worldwide fissionable uranium-235 and fertile nuclear material releases from coal combustion can be calculated.

http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev26-34/text/colmain.html 12/6/2006

Coal Combustion rage 4 ot IU u.S. AND WORLD RELEASE OF URAMNUM AND THORIUM U.S. and world release of uranium and thordum (in metric tons) froi coal combustion has risen steadily since 1937.

It is projected to continue to increase through 2040 and beyond.

Because existing coal-fired power plants vary in size and electrical .output, to calculate the annual coal consumption of these facilities, assume that the typical plant has, an' electrical output of 1000 megawatts.

Existing coal-fired plants of this capacity annually-burn about 4 million tons of coal each year. Further, considering that in 1982 about 616 million short tons (2000 pounds.per ton) of coal was burned in the' United States (from 833 million -short tons mined, or 74%), the number of typical coal-fired plants, necessary to consume this quantity of coal is 154.

Using these data, the releases of radioactive materials per typical plant can be calculated for any year.

For the year 1982, assuming coal contains uranium and thorium concentrations of 1.3 ppm and 3.2 ppm, respectively, each typical plant released 5.2 tons of uranium (containing 74 pounds of uranium-235) and 12.8 tons of thorium that year. Total U.S. releases in 1982 (from 1.54 typical plants) amounted to 801 tons of uranium (containing 11,371 pounds of uranium-235) and 1971 tons of thorium. These figures account for only 74% of releases from combustion of coal from all sources. Releases in 1982 from worldwide combustion of 2800 million tons of coal totaled 3640 tons of uranium (containing 51,700 pounds of uranium-235) and 8960 tons of thorium.

Based on the predicted combustion of 2516 million tons of coal in the United States and 12,580 million tons worldwide during the year 2040, cumulative releases for the 100 years of coal combustion following 1937 are predicted to be:

U.S. release (from combustion of 111, 716 million tons).

Uranium: 145,230 tons (containing 1031 tons of uranium-235)

Thorium: 357,491 tons Worldwide release (from combustion of 63 7,409 million tons).

Uranium: 828,632 tons (containing 5883 tons of uranium-235) http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev26-34/text/colmain.html 12/6/2006

uoal uomtustion rage _-ot iu Thorium: 2,039,709 tons Radioactivity from Coal Combustion The main sources of radiation released from coal combustion include not only uranium and thorium but also daughter products produced by the decay of these isotopes, such as radium, radon, polonium, bismuth, and lead. Although not a decay product, naturally occurring radioactive potassium-40 is also a significant contributor.

The Loflao e/.?eC1A~ dose e8uP&alnt firom coalp/8ant /'5 788O Sines d*a/ fiomnealns According to the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP), the average radioactivity per short ton of coal is 17,100 millicuries/4,000,000 tons, or 0.00427 millicuries/ton. This figure can be used to calculate the average expected radioactivity release from coal combustion. For 1982 the total release of radioactivity from 154 typical coal plants in the United States was, therefore, 2,630,230 millicuries.

Thus, by combining U.S. coal combustion from 1937 (440 million tons) through 1987 (661 million tons) with an estimated total in the year 2040 (2516 million tons), the total expected U.S. radioactivity release to the, environment by 2040 can be determined. That total comes from the expected combustion of 111,716 million tons of coal with the release of 477,027,320 millicuries in the United States. Global releases of radioactivity. from the predicted combustion of 637,409 million tons of coal would .be,,,.'

.2,721,736,430 millicuries.

For comparison, according to NCRP Reports No. 92 and No. 95, population exposure from operation of 1000-MWe nuclear and coal-fired power plants amounts to 490 person-rem/year for coal plants and 4.8 person-rem/year for nuclear plants. Thus, the population effective dose equivalent from coal plants is "

100 times that from nuclear plants. For the complete nuclear fuel cycle, from mining to reactor operation to waste disposal, the radiation dose is cited as 136 person-rem/year; the equivalent dose for coal use, from mining to power plant operation to waste disposal, is not listed in this report and is probably unknown.

During combustion, the volume of coal is reduced by over 85%, which increases the concentration of the metals originally in the coal. Although significant quantities of ash are retained by precipitators, heavy metals such as uranium tend to concentrate on the tiny glass spheres that make up the bulk of fly ash.

This uranium is released to the atmosphere with the escaping fly ash, at about 1.0% of the original amount, according to NCRP data. The retained ash is enriched in uranium several times over the original uranium concentration in the coal because the uranium, and thorium, content is not decreased as the volume of coal is reduced.

All studies of potential health hazards associated with the release of radioactive elements from coal combustion conclude that the perturbation of natural background dose levels is almost negligible.

However, because the half-lives of radioactive potassium-40, uranium, and thorium are practically infinite in terms of human lifetimes, the accumulation of these species in the biosphere is directly proportional to the length of time that a quantity of coal is burned.

Although trace quantities of radioactive heavy metals are not nearly as likely to produce adverse health effects as the vast array of chemical by-products from coal combustion, the accumulated quantities of http://www.oml.gov/linfo/omlreview/rev26-34/text/colnain.html 12/6/2006

toai LomDusaon rage o ot iu these isotopes over 150 or 250 years could pose a significant future ecological burden and potentially produce adverse health effects, especially if they are locally accumulated. Because coal is predicted to be the primary energy source for electric power production in the foreseeable future, the potential impact of long-term accumulation of by-products in the biosphere should be considered.

re/!5saioh7*v/ *mL Y ii /s'geaA*,r Z)an/_hatl 0/ he coal COM,,TSLmd Energy Content: Coal vs Nuclear An average value for the thermal energy of coal is approximately 6150 kilowatt-hours(kWh)/ton. Thus, the expected cumulative thermal energy release from U.S. coal combustion over this period totals about 6.87 x 10E14 kilowatt-hours. The thermal energy released in nuclear fission produces about 2 x 10E9 kWh/ton. Consequently, the thermal energy from fission of uranium-235. released in coal combustion amounts to 2.1 x 10E12 kWh. If uranium-238 is bred to plutonium-239, using these data and assuming a "use factor" of 10%, the thermal energy from fission of this isotope alone constitutes about 2.9 x 10E14 kWh, or about half the anticipated energy of all the utility coal burned in this country through the year, 2040. If the thorium-232 is bred to uranium-233 and fissioned with a similar "use factor", the thermal energy capacity of this isotope is approximately 7.2 x 10E14 kWh, or 105% of the thermal energy released from U.S. coal combustion for a century. Assuming 10% usage, the total of thethermal energy capacities from each of these three fissionable isotopes is about 10.1 x 1OE 14 kWh, 1.5 times more than,.

the total from coal. World combustion of coal has the same ratio, similarly indicating that coal combustion wastes more energy than it produces.

Views of the Tennessee Valley Authority's Bull Run and Kingston Steam Plants. These coal-fired facilities generate electricity for Oak Ridge and the surrounding area.

Consequently, the energy content of nuclear fuel released in coal combustion is more than that of the coal consumed! Clearly, coal-fired power plants are not only generating electricity but are also releasing nuclear fuels whose commercial value for electricity production by nuclear power plants is over $7 trillion, more than the U.S. national debt. This figure is based on current nuclear utility fuel costs of 7 mils per kWh, which is about half the cost for coal. Consequently, significant quantities of nuclear materials are being treated as coal waste, which might become the cleanup nightmare of the future, and their value is hardly recognized at all.

How does the amount of nuclear material released by coal combustion compare to the amount consumed as fuel by the U.S. nuclear power industry? According to 1982 figures, 111 American nuclear plants consumed about 540 tons of nuclear fuel, generating almost 1.1 x 10E12 kWh of electricity. During the same year, about 801 tons of uranium alone were released from American coal-fired plants. Add 1971 tons of thorium, and the release of nuclear components from coal combustion far exceeds the entire U.S.

consumption of nuclear fuels. The same conclusion applies for worldwide nuclear fuel and coal http://www.ornl.gov/info/omlreview/rev26-34/text/colhnain.html 12/6/2006

uoal Lromtustion t'age /ot ItU combustion.

Another unrecognized problem is the gradual production of plutonium-239 through the exposure of uranium-238 in coal waste to neutrons from the air. These neutrons are produced primarily by bombardment of oxygen and nitrogen nuclei in the atmosphere by cosmic rays and from spontaneous fission of natural isotopes in soil. Because plutonium-239 is reportedly toxic in minute quantities, this process, however slow, is potentially worrisome. The radiotoxicity of plutonium-239 is 3.4 x lOEl 1 times that of uranium-238. Consequently, for 801 tons of uranium released in 1982, only 2.2 milligrams of plutonium-239 bred by natural processes, if those processes exist, is necessary to double the radiotoxicity estimated to be released into the biosphere that year. Only 0.075 times that amount in plutonium-240 doubles the radiotoxicity. Natural processes to produce both plutonium-239 and plutonium-240 appear to exist.

Conclusions For the 100 years following 1937, U.S. and world use of coal as a heat source for electric power generation will result in the distribution of a variety of radioactive elements into the environment. This prospect raises several questions about the risks and benefits of coal combustion, the leading source of electricity production.

First, the potential health effects of released naturally occurring radioactive elements are a long-term issue that has not been fully addressed. Even with improved efficiency in retaining stack emissions, the removal of 6oal .from its 'shielding overburden in the earth and subsequent combustion releases, large quantities of radioactive materials to the surface of the earth. The emissions by coal-fired:power plants of greenhouse gases, a 'vast array of chemical by-products, and natur'ally occurring radioactive elements make coal much less desirable as an energy source than is generally accepted.

Second, coal ash is rich in minerals, including large quantities of aluminum and iron. These and other products of commercial value have not been exploited.

Third, large quantities of uranium and thorium and other radioactive species in coal ash are not being treated as radioactive waste. These products emit low-level radiation, but because of regulatory differences, coal-fired power plants are allowed to release quantities of radioactive material that would provoke enormous public outcry if such amounts were released from nuclear facilities. Nuclear waste products from coal combustion are allowed to be dispersed throughout the biosphere in an unregulated manner. Collected nuclear wastes that accumulate on electric utility sites are not protected from weathering, thus exposing people to increasing quantities of radioactive isotopes through air and water movement and the food chain.

Fourth, by collecting the uranium residue from coal combustion, significant quantities of fissionable material can be accumulated. In a few year's time, the recovery of the uranium-235 released by coal combustion from a typical utility anywhere in the world could provide theequivalent of several World War Il-type uranium-fueled Weapons. Consequently, fissionable nuclear fuel is available to any country that either buys coal from outside sources or has its own reserves. The material is potentially employable as weapon fuel by any organization so inclined. Although technically complex, purification and enrichment technologies can provide high-purity, weapons-grade uranium-235. Fortunately, even though the technology is well known, the enrichment of uranium is an expensive and time-consuming process.

Because electric utilities are not high-profile facilities, collection and processing of coal ash for recovery http://www.ornl.gov/info/omlreview/rev26-34/text/colmain.html 12/6/2006

t.oai _omousnon rage 6 ot iu of minerals, including uranium for weapons or reactor fuel, can proceed without attracting outside attention, concern, or intervention. Any country with coal-fired plants could collect combustion by-products and amass sufficient nuclear weapons material to build up a very powerful arsenal, if it has or develops the technology to do so. Of far greater potential are the much larger quantities of thorium-232 and uranium-238 from coal combustion that can be used to breed fissionable isotopes. Chemical separation and purification of uranium-233 from thorium and plutonium-239 from uranium require far less effort than enrichment of isotopes. Only small fractions of these fertile elements in coal combustion residue are needed for clandestine breeding of fissionable fuels and weapons material by those nations that have nuclear reactor technology and the inclination to carry out this difficult task.

Fifth, the fact that large quantities of uranium and thorium are released from coal-fired plants without restriction raises a paradoxical question. Considering that the U.S. nuclear power industry has been required to invest in expensive measures to greatly reduce releases of radioactivity from nuclear fuel and fission products to the environment, should coal-fired power plants be allowed to do so without constraints?

// 4Ceasedreg417a1!07/?O/170O,"e'."/ rega,7/1J717Oft This question has significant economic repercussions. Today nuclear power plants are not as economical to construct as coal-fired plants, largely because of the high cost of complying with regulations to restrict emissions of radioactivity. If coal-fired power plants were regulated in a similar manner, the added cost of handling nuclear waste from coal combustion Would be significant and would, perhaps, make it difficult for coal-burning plants to compete economically with nuclear power.

Because of increasing public concern about nuclear power and radioactivity in the environment, reduction of'releases of nuclear materials from all sources has become a national priority known as "as low as reasonably achievable" (ALARA). If increased regulation of nuclear power plants is demanded, can we expect a significant redirection of national policy so that radioactive emissions from coal combustion are also regulated?

Although adverse health effects from increased natural background radioactivity may seem unlikely for the near term, long-term accumulation of radioactive materials from continued worldwide combustion of coal could pose serious health hazards. Because coal combustion is projected to increase throughout the world during the next century, the increasing accumulation of coal combustion by-products, including radioactive components, should be discussed in the formulation of energy policy and plans for future energy use.

One potential solution is improved technology for trapping the exhaust (gaseous emissions up the stack) from coal combustion. If and when such technology is developed, electric utilities may then be able both to recover useful elements, such as nuclear fuels, iron, and aluminum, and to trap greenhouse gas emissions. Encouraging utilities to enter mineral markets that have been previously unavailable may or may not be desirable, but doing so appears to have the potential of expanding their economic base, thus offsetting some portion of their operating costs, which ultimately could reduce consumer costs for electricity.

Both the benefits and hazards of coal combustion are more far-reaching than are generally recognized.

Technologies exist to remove, store, and generate energy from the radioactive isotopes released to the environment by coal combustion. When considering the nuclear consequences of coal combustion, http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev26-34/text/colmain.html 12/6/2006

uoal _omoustion rage v O1 iU policymakers should look at the data and recognize that the amount of uranium-235 alone dispersed by coal combustion is the equivalent of dozens of nuclear reactor fuel loadings. They should also recognize that the nuclear fuel potential of the fertile isotopes of thorium-232 and uranium-238, which can be converted in reactors to fissionable elements by breeding, yields a virtually unlimited source of nuclear energy that is frequently overlooked as a natural resource.

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//749. eqva/en/of do2nso.n'*'ar reactor~/*/ &ad:gs In short, naturally occurring radioactive species released by coal combustion are accumulating in the environment along with minerals such as mercury, arsenic, silicon, calcium, chlorine, and lead, sodium, as well as metals such as aluminum, iron, lead, magnesium, titanium, boron, chromium, and others that are continually dispersed in millions of tons of coal combustion by-products. The potential benefits and threats of these released materials will someday be of such significance that they should not now be ignored.--Alex Gabbardof the Metals and Ceramics Division References and Suggested Reading J. F. Ahearne, "The Future of Nuclear Power," American Scientist, Jan.-Feb 1993: 24-35.

E. Brown and R. B. Firestone, Table of Radioactive Isotopes, Wiley Interscience, 1986.

J; 0. Corbett, "The Radiation Dose From Coal Burning: A Review of Pathways and Data," Radiation ProtectionDosimetry, 4 (1): 5-19.

R. R. Judkins and W. Fulkerson, "The Dilemma of Fossil Fuel Use and Global Climate Change," Energy

& Fuels, 7 (1993) 14-22.

National Council on Radiation Protection, Public RadiationExposure From Nuclear Power Generation in the U.S., Report No. 92, 1987, 72-112.

National Council on Radiation Protection, Exposure of the Population in the United States and Canada from NaturalBackgroundRadiation, Report No. 94, 1987,90-128.

National Council on Radiation Protection, RadiationExposure of the U.S. Populationfrom Consumer Products and Miscellaneous Sources, Report No. 95, 1987, 32-36 and 62-64.

Serge A. Korff, "Fast Cosmic Ray Neutrons in the Atmosphere," Proceedings of International Conference on Cosmic Rays, Volume 5. High Energy Interactions,Jaipur, December 1963.

C. B. A. McCusker, "Extensive Air Shower Studies in Australia," Proceedings of International Conference on Cosmic Rays, Volume 4. Extensive Air Showers, Jaipur, December 1963.

T. L. Thoeln, et al., Coal FiredPower Plant Trace Element Study, Volume /: A Three Station Comparison,Radian Corp.for USEPA, Sept. 1975.

W. Torrey, "Coal Ash Utilization: Fly Ash, Bottom Ash and Slag," Pollution Technology Review, 48 (1978) 136.

http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev26-34/text/colmain.html 12/6/2006

t-oal _omDustion rage i u ot i u Where to?

Next article I Search I Mail IContents I Review Home Page IORNL Home Page]

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INKýLL: rower iecnnologles Energy uata fLOOK - wina r arm Area uaicuiator rage i oi z Innovation for Our EnergyFutui Fboý NREL NREL!s R&D Applying Technologies Learning About Rene-,,ýables NRE 9 More Search Options

Site Map N FEATURED LINKS A Data Book Home Wind Farm Area Biomass Energy Data Book Table-'of Contents Calculator Buildings Energy Data Book BroWse byTechnology This calculator estimates land-area Calculators requirements for wind power Transportation Energy Data systems. The results indicate a Book Rprenewable EnegyCon,.ersiori "footprint" of land that has to be Pghotooltaic Lanrd Area taken out of production to provide E FEATURES space for turbine towers, roads, and rid PorLýJand -H support structures. Strategic EnryI L Energy Growth Estimator The "footprint," which is typically E Analysis Center Archives between 0.25 and 0.50 acres per Contact Us turbine, does not include the 5-10 turbine diameters of spacing required between wind turbines.

Because of this spacing, the area included within the perimeter of the wind farm will be larger. However, it is important to note that the land between the turbines - minus the "footprint" area - is still usable for its original purpose.

Input 1000 (kW)

Value Area per 0.38 (Acres) turbine Size of 500 (kW) turbine submit, The estimated land area required is: 0.76 acres.

This calculation assumes 1,000 kW and 2 turbines each requiring an area of 0.38 acres.

Note: This value represents the area taken out of production on a farm.

The area within the perimeter of the wind farm will be larger due to spacing of the turbines, but is still useable by the farm.

Typical turbine spacing in wind farms is placing the towers 5 to http://www.nrel.gov/analysis/power databook/calc wind.php 12/6/2006

INt*_L: rower i ecnnoiogies energy vata 5JOOK - w ino r arm Area iaicuiator Fage 2 ot 2-10 turbine diameters apart, depending on local conditions.

Printable Version NREL is a national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable En(

operated by Midwest Research Institute

Battelle Webmaster I Secu rity &_Privacy I Disclaimer I NRRl.Home http://www.nrel.gov/analysis/power databook/calc wind.php 12/6/2006

w ino ana Hy1yropower I ecnnologies Frogram: winoa energy Kesource Potential Fage I ot ..i US. Departiment of Energy Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy EERE Home 1 AI N I I Search tions Search Help a More Search Options I Hydropowier Printable Version I EERE Information Center Wind Energy Wind Energy Resource Potential Wind Energy Basics Good wind areas, which cover 6% of the contiguous U.S. land area, have the. potential to supply more than one and a half times the

- How Wind Turbines Work current electricity consumption of the United States.

- Advantages &

Disadvantages Estimates of the wind resource are expressed in wind power classes

- History ranging from class 1 to class 7, with each class representing a range of SResource Potential mean wind power density or equivalent mean speed at specified Consumer FAQs heights above the ground. Areas designated class 4 or greater are Research & Development suitable with advanced wind turbine technology under development today. Power class 3 areas may be suitable for future technology.

Emerging Applications Class 2 areas are marginal and class 1 areas are unsuitable for wind energy development.

http://www 1 eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/wind potential.html?print 12/12/2006

w ino ana 1-lyaropower i ecnnoiogies r-rogram: w inu Energy Kesource rotennai irage z ot -

U.S. Annual Wind Power Resource and Wind Power Classes - Contiguous U.S.

States.

U.S. Annual Wind Power Resource and Wind Power Classes - Alaska and Hawaii.

Because techniques of wind resource assessment have improved greatly in recent years, work began in 2000 to update the U.S. wind atlas. The work will produce regional-scale maps of the wind resource with resolution dowr to one square kilometer. The new atlas will take advantage of modern techniques for mapping. It will also incorporate new meteorological, geographical, and terrain data. The program's advanced mapping of the wind resource is another important element necessary for expanding wind-generating capacity in the United States.

http:!/www 1.eere. energy.gov/windandhydro/wind potential.html?print 12/12/2006

w ma ana -yaropower I ecnnologies rrogram: w mia Energy Kesource rotentale rage j or 3 2000 1987 U.S. Wind Atlas Map vs. 2000 High-Resolution (1-kin2 ) Wind Map of North and South Dakota Visit the Wind Powering America State Wind Map page to see if your state or area of interest has a newer, more detailed map available.

If you have difficulty accessing the information on this page because of a disability, please contact the webmaster for assistance.

E Printable Version Wind and Hydropower Technologies Program Home I EERE Home I U.S. Department of Energy Webm aster I Web Site Policies I Security & Privacy I FirstG_v,_gov Content Last Updated: 09/14/2005 http://www 1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/wind potential.html?print 12/12/2006

w inar owering America: v ermont w mna Activities ,rage 1 o0: 4 U.S. Depmlrment of Energy Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy EERE Home Np Wind'& HydrDpower Technoto 9-ies, IM About the Program Program Areas intormation Resources I Financial Opportunities Technologies ý lioni e Search Help a More EERE Information Ce 4 Wind Powering America Home 0 NEWS Vermont Wind Activities About This Web page summarizes completed/implemented Wind Power Advi Wind Powering America Wind Powering America activities in Vermont, which Heather Rhoads-include a wind working group, anemometer loan Northwest Susta Program Areas Economic Develc program, wind maps, a small wind consumer's State guide, and state workshops. This page also SEED)

Regional highlights other wind activities for the state. Some December 1, 2006 Native Americans of the following documents are available as Adobe Hull, MassachusE Agricultural Sector Acrobat PDFs. Download Adobe Reader. Wind Power Pion Boston Suburb F Small Wind Wind Powering America Activities of Using Wind Pc Public Lands -l November 7, 2006 Public Power Wind Working Group j Not Cur rrently Wind Energy Gui Ecdnomic Development Anemometer Loan Program YES __ Commissioners Policy Validated Wind Map jYES, .(PDF 1.2 MB)

Schools.I Small Wind Consumer's Guide jYES.,, -.Download Adobe Events '.. INot,cur rently . October 31, 2006 Issues Wind and Radar Past Events (2). IYES Radar October 5, 2006 Resources & Tools Wind Powering A September 22, 20C Awards News More News Perspectives Total of 3 records found. 0 EVENTS Resources & Tools Page 1 of 1, Sorted by descending date Midwest Energy Wind Maps State A Topic Title A v More Taking Ownershi Softtware Date A V December 12, 2001 Details Publlications Wind Power Case Artists News Celebrate the January 11, 2007 Events Beauty of More Events Past Events Wind Turbines:

PUBLICATIONS 6/1/2006 aVT National ... more Exhibit Will Feature Wind Ene Original Wind County C(

Energy (PDF 1.2 Artwork Download October 31

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Topic 1 more Date Av Stat A Title A V Y Deta!Isj Vermont Small-Scale Small 3/22/20061VT Wind Energy ... more!

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w ina rowering America: v ermont w lna Actlvitles rage 4 014 Webmaster I Security & Privacy I Wind and Hydropower Technologies Program Home I EERE Home U.S. Department of Energy Last Updated: 12/8/2006 http://www.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/windpoweringaamerica/astate template.asp?st... 12/12/2006

-tate energy Alternatives: Alternative Energy Kesources in vermont Fage 1 ot 4 U.& Depaftent of Energy Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy StteInoratonI tae olcyI Tehia Assac Fn cil 0pot~iti e Search Help a More Search Options c State Energy EERE Information Center Alternatives Home Printable Version About State Energy Alternatives Alternative Energy Resources in Vermont Why Consider Below is a short summary of alternative energy resources Alternative Energy for Vermont. For more information on each technology, visit Technology Options the State Energy Alternatives Technology Options page.

Policy Options For more information, including links to resource maps, Alternative Energqy energy statistics, and contacts for Vermont, visit EERE's IlResources by State State Activities and Partnerships Web site's Vermont page.

Quick Links to Biomass States Studies indicate that Vermont has good biomass resource AK AL AR AZ CA potential. For more state-specific resource information, see CO CT DC DE FL Biomass Feedstock Availability in the United States: 1999 GA HI IA ID IL IN State Level Analys is.

i KS KY LA MA MD ME MI MN MO MS MT NC ND NE NH Geothermal NJ NM NV NY OH Vermont has vast low-temperature resources suitable for OK OR PA RI SC geothermal heat pumps. However, Vermont does not have SD TN TX UT VA sufficient resources to use the other geothermal VT WA WI WV WY technologies.

Hydropower Vermont has a good hydropower resource as a percentage of the state's electricity generation. For additional resource information, check out the Idaho National Laboratory's Virtual Hydropower Prospector (VHP). VHP is a convenient geographic information system (GIS) tool designed to assist you in locating and assessing natural stream water energy resources in the United States.

Solar To accurately portray your state's solar resource, we need two maps. That is because different collector types use the sun in different ways. Collectors that focus the sun (like a magnifying glass) can reach high temperatures and efficiencies. These are called concentrating collectors.

http://www.eere.energy.gov/states/alternatives/resources vt.cfm 12/12/2006

Mtate Lnergy Alternatives: Alternative Energy Kesources in Vermont rage z 01 4 Whr/sq mnper day I ~6 _Q600 Solar resource for a flat-plate collector Whr/sq m per day' U2-000 to 25.10 a-.60010a3.ceo tJaso i,.!oo 3 o,io?~

Solar resource for a concentrating collector ,cý oo i, -

Typically, these collectors are on a tracker, so they always face the sun directly. Because these collectors focus the sun's rays, they only use the direct rays coming straight-from the sun.

Other solar collectors are simply flat panels that can be mounted on a roof or on the ground. Called flat-plate collectors, these are typically fixed in a tilted position correlated to the latitude of the location. This allows the collector to best capture the sun. These collectors can use both the direct rays from the sun and reflected light that comes through a cloud or off the ground. Because they use all available sunlight, flat-plate collectors are the best choice for many northern states. Therefore, this site gives you two maps: one is the resource for a concentrating http://www.eere.energy.gov/states/altematives/resources vt.cfmn 12/12/2006

State trnergy Alternatives: Alternative tnergy Kesources in Vermont rage -i ot 4 collector and one is the resource for a flat-plate collector.

What does the map mean? Mainly, it means that, for flat-plate collectors, Vermont has useful resources throughout the state. The map shows that, for concentrating collectors, Vermont mostly has a relatively poor resource.

In the eastern edge of the state, certain technologies might be applicable, but most concentrating collectors are not effective with this resource.

Wind Wind Powering America indicates that Vermont has wind resources consistent with utility-scale production. The excellent wind resource areas in the state are on the ridge crests. In addition, small wind turbines may have applications in some areas. For more information on wind resources in Vermont including wind maps, visit Wind Powering America's State Wind Activities.

The Vermont Department of Public Service commissioned a study titled, Estimating the Hypothetical Wind Power Potentialon Public Lands in Vermont (PDF 1.9 MB)

(Download Adobe Reader) to determine the technical potential for wind power in the state. The State of Vermont commissioned a study to determine the technical potential for wind power in the state. From a resource availability estimate of all wind speeds, the methodology excluded the following areas:

Areas of less than class 4 wind.

" Private or sensitive land.

" Areas not within 7 kilometers (kin) (4.35 miles) of transmission lines.

On the remaining land larger than 2 kilometer square parcels, the methodology assumed specific turbine types in strings along ridgelines and determined the percentage of windy land likely to be compatible with wind development as shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Percentage of Windy Land Likely to Be Compatible with Wind Development iwind I Land M area Federalj state Muni cipal Wind I Power Speed, I m/s ( 0/% ( 0/ of (°/o of (0 /% of Class eW/m2syI (mph) of I VT) VT) V r) iW~m2 IVT)'

<1 ;Insignificant 55.7 1.1 2.5 0..4 160 5.1 (11.4) 30.1 1.1 3.3 . 0..1 240 5.9 (13.2) 8.7 3.6 1.8 0. 2 H3 320 6.5 (14.6) 2.6 1.1 0.4 0..03 4 400 7.0 (15.7) 1.2 0.2 0.4 http://www.eere.energy.gov/states/alternatives/resources vt.cfin 12/12/2006

tate Energy Alternatives: Atternative Energy Ktesources in v ermont rage 4+ oi ,+

5 480 7.4(16.6) 1.2 0.2 0.1 0.004 6 640 8.2 (18.3) 0.5 0.04 0.01 -0 7 16&6i11.o 24 7) 0.002 0 0 0 Tot.al: J_____10 7.30%/ 8.50%/ 0.70%

Source: Estimating the Hypothetical Wind Power Potential on Public Lands in Vermont, 2003.

Energy Efficiency Energy efficiency means doing the. same work, or more, and enjoying the same comfort level with less energy.

Consequently, energy efficiency can be considered part of your state's energy resource base - a demand side resource. Unlike energy conservation, which is rooted in behavior, energy efficiency is tech nology-based. This means the savings may be predicted by engineering calculations, and they are sustained over time. Examples of energy efficiency measures and equipment include compact fluorescent light bulbs (CFLs), and high efficiency air conditioners, refrigerators, boilers, and chillers.

Saving energy through efficiency is less expensive than building new power plants. Utilities can plan for, invest in, and .add up tech nology-based energy efficiency measures and, as a consequence, defer or avoid the need 'to build a new power plant. Tlh this way., Austin, Texas, aggregated enough energy savings to offset the need for a planned 450-megawatt coal-fired power plant. Austin achieved these savings during a decade when the local economy grew by 46%/ and the population doubled. In addition, the savings from energy efficiency are significantly greater than one might expect, because no energy is needed to generate, transmit, distribute, and store energy before it reaches the end user.

Reduced fuel use, and the resulting decreased pollution, provide short- and long-term economic and health benefits.

For more information on current state policiesnrelated to energy efficiency, visit the Alliance to Save Energy's State Energy Efficiency Index.

aEPrintable Version State Activities yERE & Partnerships Home I EERE Home I U.S. Department of Enery Webmaster IoWeb Site Policies I Securit & Privacy I FirstGov.ov Content Last Updated: October 24, 2006 http://www.eere.energy.gov/states/aIternatives/resources vt.cfrn 12/i12/2006

r-lrtii ruei t-ells: iypes oi rue* eiis rage 1 ot z U.& Depaftme"t of Energy SOtt IEnergy Efficiency and Renewable Energy EERE Home Abu h rgaI Prga ra* nom t oI .R"c..s.I. Fiani l Ogrui t Depoyi e Ikol Search Help s More Sea EERE Information Center 4 Fuel Cells Home Basics Types of Fuel Cells Fuel cells are classified primarily by the kind of Current Technology electrolyte they employ. This determines the Fuel Cell Systems kind of chemical reactions that take place in the Types of Fuel Cells cell, the kind of catalysts required, the Parts of a Fuel Cell temperature range in which the cell operates, the fuel required, and other factors. These Fuel Cell Technology Challenges characteristics, in turn, affect the applications for which these cells are most suitable. There are DOE R&D Activities several types of fuel cells currently under development, each with its own advantages, limitations, and potential applications. Learn Quick Links more about:

- Hydrogen Production

Hydrogen, Delivery e Polymer Electrolyte Membrane PEM) Fuel

Hydrogen Storage, Cells

Technology Validation

Direct Methanol Fuel Cells

Codes & Standards . Alkaline Fuel Cells

Education S Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells

Systems Analysis S Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells S Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

" Regenerative Fuel Cells

" Comparison of Fuel Cell Technologies Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM)

Fuel Cells Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells-also called proton exchange membrane fuel cells-deliver high power density and offer the advantages of low weight and volume, compared to other fuel cells.

PEM fuel cells use a solid polymer as an electrolyte and porous carbon electrodes containing a platinum catalyst. They need only hydrogen, oxygen from the air, and water to operate and do not require corrosive fluids like some fuel cells. They are typically fueled with pure hydrogen supplied from storage tanks or onboard reformers.

http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells//fc types.html 12/12/2006

I'-IPl- I1 ruet Lens: types oi tuei LteiLs rage /_ ot z Polymer PEM FUEL CELL electrolyte Eleial Curent membrane fuel cells opeateatFuel Excess Water and

_,HeatlOut operate at relatively low :

H2 N ~l Anode Cathode Electrolyte temperatures, around 80 0 C (176 0 F). Low temperature operation allows them to start quickly (less warm-up time) and results in less wear on system components, resulting in better durability. However, it requires that a noble-metal catalyst'(typically platinum) be used to separate the hydrogen's electrons and protons, adding to system cost. The platinum catalyst is also extremely sensitive to CO poisoning, making it necessary to employ an. additional reactor to reduce CO in the fuel gas if the hydrogen is derived from an alcohol or hydrocarbon fuel. This also adds cost. Developers are currently exploring platinum/ruthenium catalysts that are more resistant to CO.

PEM fuel cells are used primarily for transportation applications and some stationary applications. Due to their fast startup time, low sensitivity to orientation, and favorable power-to-weight ratio, PEM fuel cells are particularly suitable for use in passenger vehicles, such as cars and buses.

A significant barrier to using these fuel cells in vehicles is hydrogen storage. Most fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) powered by pure hydrogen must store the hydrogen onboard as a compressed gas in pressurized tanks. Due to the low energy density of hydrogen, it is difficult to store enough hydrogen onboard to allow vehicles to travel the same distance as gasoline-powered vehicles before refueling, typically 300-400 miles. Higher-density liquid fuels such as methanol, ethanol, natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, and http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfiIelcells/fuelcells//fc types.html 12/12/2006

-iri*il ruei t-eiis: iypes or ruei k.eus .rage .5 oi ?s gasoline can be used for fuel, but the vehicles must have an onboard fuel processor to reform the methanol to hydrogen. This increases costs and maintenance requirements. The reformer also releases carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas),

though less than that emitted from current gasoline-powered engines.

Direct Methanol Fuel Cells Most fuel cells are powered by hydrogen, which can be fed to the fuel cell system directly or can be generated within the fuel cell system by reforming hydrogen-rich fuels such as methanol, ethanol, and hydrocarbon fuels. Direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs), however, are powered by pure methanol, which is mixed with steam and fed directly to the fuel cell anode.

Direct methanol fuel cells do not have many of the fuel storage problems typical of some fuel cells since methanol has a higher energy density than hydrogen-though less than gasoline or diesel fuel. Methanol is also easier to transport and supply to the public using our current infrastructure since itis a liquid, like gasoline.

Direct methanol fuel cell technology is-relatively new compared tothat of fuel cells powered by pure hydrogen,:ahd DMFC research and development are:roughly 3-4 years behind that for other fuel cell types.

Alkaline Fuel Cells ALKAUNE FUEL CELL Elecrtcal Current Hydrogen In Oxygen In H2 t =

H20 t i=e.

Water and -

Heat Out Anode NCathode Elecronlyte Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs) were one of the first http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells//fc types.html 12/12/2006

1-itrk-i i ruei kens: i ypes 01 ruei i.-ens r'age 4+011~ Z5 ig fuel cell technologies developed, and they were the first type widely used in the U.S. space program to produce electrical energy and water onboard spacecraft. These fuel cells use a solution of potassium hydroxide in water as the electrolyte and can use a variety of non-precious metals as a catalyst at the anode and cathode.

High-temperature AFCs operate at temperatures between 100 0 C and 250 0 C (212 0 F and 482 0 F).

However, newer AFC designs operate at lower temperatures of roughly 23 0 C to 70 0 C (74 0 F to 1580F)

AFCs' high performance is due to the rate at which chemical reactions take place in the cell.

They have also demonstrated efficiencies near 60 percent in space applications.

The disadvantage of this fuel cell type is that it is easily poisoned by carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). In fact, even the small amount of CO 2 in the air can affect this cell's operation, making it necessary to purify both the hydrogen and oxygen used in the cell. This purification process is costly.

Susceptibility to poisoning also affects the cell's lifetime (the amount of time before it must be replaced), further adding to cost.

Cost is less of a factor for remote locations such as space or under the sea. However, to effectively compete inmost mainstream commercial markets, these fuel cells will have to become more cost-effective. AFC stacks have been shown to maintain sufficiently stable operation for more than 8,000 operating hours.

To be economically viable in large-scale utility applications, these fuel cells need to reach operating times exceeding 40,000 hours0 days 0 hours 0 weeks 0 months , something that has not yet been achieved due to material durability issues. This is possibly the most significant obstacle in commercializing this fuel cell technology.

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells Phosphoric acid fuel PAFC FUEL CELL cells use Electrical Current liquid Excess e Water and phosphoric acid as an Fuel

ý=I I Heat Out t~e- H+j http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells//fc types.htrnl 12/12/2006

1-Itii ruei Lelis: iypes o0 tuel _eltis rage :) oi electrolyte-the acid is contained in a Teflon-bonded silicon carbide matrix-and porous carbon electrodes containing a platinum catalyst.

The chemical reactions that take place in the cell are shown in the diagram to the right.

The phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) is considered the "first generation" of modern fuel cells. It is one of the most mature cell types and the first to be used commercially, with over 200 units currently in use. This type of fuel cell is typically used for stationary power generation, but some PAFCs have been used to power large vehicles such as city buses.

PAFCs are more tolerant of impurities in fossil fuels that have been reformed into hydrogen than PEM cells, which are easily "poisoned" by carbon monoxide-carbon monoxide binds to the platinum catalyst at the anode, decreasing the fuel cell's efficiency. They are 85 percent efficient when used for the co-generation of electricity and heat, but less efficient at generating electricity alone (37 to 42 percent). This is only slightly more efficient than combustion-based power plants, which.typically, operate at 33 to 35 percent efficiency. PAFCs~are*also less powerful than other fuel. cells, given the same weight and volume. As a result, these fuel cells are typically large and heavy. PAFCs are also expensive. Like PEM fuel cells, PAFCs require an expensive platinum, catalyst, which raises the cost of the fuel cell. A typical phosphoric acid fuel cell costs between $4,000 and $4,500 per kilowatt to operate.

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) are currently being developed for natural gas and coal-based power plants for electrical utility, industrial, and military applications. MCFCs are high-temperature fuel cells that use an electrolyte composed of a molten carbonate salt mixture suspended in a porous, chemically inert ceramic lithium aluminum oxide (LiAIO 2 ) matrix. Since they operate at extremely high temperatures of 6500 C (roughly 1,2001F) and above, non-precious metals can be used. as catalysts at the anode and cathode, reducing costs.

Improved efficiency is another reason MCFCs offer significant cost reductions over phosphoric http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfueIceIls/fuelcells//fc types.html1 12/12/2006

nr'r1i -truci _cnis- i ypes 01 r uci t-eiis rage geo1o 01 Z MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELL Electrical Current Hydrogen In I~-

I

~' ~~uI flyvdpn In H2 c=,">. fl= nI 7-1f2 C9 Water and Heal Out Dioxide 11ý

-* Anode Eledrolyte tahd CC-0 acid fuel cells (PAFCs). Molten carbonate fuel cells can reach efficiencies approaching 60 percent, considerably higher than the 37-42 percent efficiencies of a phosphoricýacid fuel cell plant. When the waste heat is'capture'd and used, overall fuel efficiencies can bea's high as 85 percent.

Unlike alkaline,'phosphoric acid, and polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, MCFCs don't require an external reformer to conv'ert more energy-dense fuels to hydrogen. Due to the high temperatures at which MCFCs operate, these fuels are converted to hydrogen within the fuel cell itself by a process called internal reforming, which also reduces cost.

Molten carbonate fuel cells are not prone to carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide "poisoning"

-they can even use carbon oxides as fuel-making them more attractive for fueling with gases made from coal. Because they are more resistant to impurities than other fuel cell types, scientists believe that they could even be capable of internal reforming of coal, assuming they can be made resistant to impurities such as sulfur and particulates that result from converting coal, a dirtier fossil fuel source than many others, into hydrogen.

The primary disadvantage of current MCFC technology is durability. The high temperatures http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells//fc types.html 12/12/2006

-r'i k Ii ruei Ltens: iypes oI ruei tesl0 .rage / oI z5 at which these cells operate and the corrosive electrolyte used accelerate component breakdown and corrosion, decreasing cell life.

Scientists are currently exploring corrosion-resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell designs that increase cell life without decreasing performance.

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells Solid oxide SOFC FUEL CELL fuel cells (SOFCs) use a Fuel in Air In hard, non-porous ceramic compound _

as the Excess , Unused Fuel and I Gases WateCat2ode'

" ',,*," Elecirolyte ' .:

electrolyte. Since the electrolyte is a solid, the cells do not have to be constr~ucted in the plate-like configuration typical of other fuel cell types.

SOFCs are expected to be around 50-60 percent efficient at converting fuel to electricity. In applications designed to capture and utilize the system's waste heat (co-generation), overall fuel use efficiencies cotuld top 80-85 percent.

Solid oxide fuel cells operate at very high temperatures-around 1,0000 C (1,830 0 F). High temperature operation removes the need for precious-metal catalyst, thereby reducing cost. It also allows SOFCs to reform fuels internally, which enables the use of a variety of fuels and reduces the cost associated with adding a reformer to the system.

SOFCs are also the most sulfur-resistant fuel cell type; they can tolerate several orders of magnitude more sulfur than other cell types. In addition, they are not poisoned by carbon monoxide (CO), which can even be used as fuel.

This allows SOFCs to use gases made from coal.

http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells//fc types.html 12/12/2006

t-ir 1 ruet uens: iypes OI ruei uells r-age z5oi High-temperature operation has disadvantages.

It results in a slow startup and requires significant thermal shielding to retain heat and protect personnel, which may be acceptable for utility applications but not for transportation and small portable applications. The high operating temperatures also place stringent durability requirements on materials. The development of low-cost materials with high durability at cell operating temperatures is the key technical challenge facing this technology.

Scientists are currently exploring the potential for developing lower-temperature SOFCs operating at or below 800 0 C that have fewer durability problems and cost less. Lower-temperature SOFCs produce less electrical power, however, and stack materials that will function in this lower temperature range have not been identified.

Regenerative Fuel Cells Regenerative fuel cells produce electricity from hydrogen and oxygen and generate heat and water as byproducts, just like.bther fuel cells.

However, regenerative fuel cell systems can also.

use electricity from solar power or some other source to divide the excess water into oxygen and hydrogen fuel-this process is called "electrolysis.". This is a comparatively young fuel cell technology being developed by NASA and others.

Comparison of Fuel Cell Technologies Each fuel cell technology has advantages and disadvantages. See how fuel cell technologies compare with each other.

Comparison Chart (PDF 123 KB) Download Adobe Reader.

M Printable Version Hydrogen, Fuel Cells and Infrastructure Technologies Program I EERE Home I U.S. Department of Energy Webmaster I Web Site Policies I Security & Privacy I FirstGov.gov Content Last Updated: 08/18/2006 http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells//fc types.html 12/12/2006

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mviunicipai *O1lQ waste - nasic r acts rage 1 01 U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency Municipal Solid Waste J Recent Additions I Contact Us I Print Version Search:.

EPA Home > Wastes > Municipal Solid Waste > Basic Facts Home Basic Facts Basic Facts Frequently Asked Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)

Questions Reduce, Reuse, and MSW-more commonly known as trash or Recycle garbage-consists of everyday items such as MSW Commodities product packaging, grass clippings, furniture, MSW Disposal clothing, bottles, food scraps, newspapers, appliances, paint, and batteries. To learn more MSW Programs about MSW, view our interactive presentation MSW State Data about Milestones in Garbage: 1990-Present.

MSW Topics In 2005, U.S. residents, businesses, and institutions produced more than 245 MSW Publications million tonsof MSW, which is approximately 4.5 pounds of waste per person per day.

20(XTotal Waste Generation'-

24S Million Tons 7 (before recycling) Several MSW: management, practices, such as source

.0 Paper 34.2%

E3 'Yard Trimmings13.1%

' reduction, recycling; and U Food S'craps 11.7% composting, prevent' or divert.

E Plastics 11.3% materials from the -*.',,-- ,

O Metals-,7.6% -"

wastestream. Source

Rubber., Leather, and Textiles 7.3%

" Glass 5.2%

reduction involves altering the 0 Wood 5.7% design, manufacture, oruse of O Other 34 % products and materials to reduce the amount and toxicity of what gets thrown away. Recycling diverts items, such as paper, glass, plastic, and metals, from the wastestream. These materials are sorted, collected, and processed and then manufactured, sold, and bought as new products.

Composting decomposes organic waste, such as food scraps and yard trimmings, with microorganisms (mainly bacteria and fungi), producing a humus-like substance.

Other practices address those materials that require disposal. Trends in MSW Generation 1960-200S Landfills are engineered areas 250 mil tons 237ý6 5 lbs.

45 7 236.2 2ý;ý where waste is placed into the land. Landfills usually have liner 4.5 200 mil tons 4.5 4.6 systems and other safeguards 205.24.5 4 lbs.

to prevent groundwater contamination. Combustion is 150 rmiltons

/3.315116 another MSW practice that has 3 lbs.

helped reduce the amount of 121.1 100 rail tons -2.7 landfill space needed.

Combustion facilities burn MSW 50 mil tons' 1 I 2 lbs.

at a high temperature, reducing lgf') 1607 1600 1000 2)D00 21)03 2106 waste volume and generating Per Capita Generation (Ibs/person/dayj) electricity. -- *-Tot.0l'MSV Generation (Mil tons)

Solid Waste Hierarchy http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/imuncpl/facts.htm 12/12/2006

Nluniclpai ;bOilQ waste - rsaslc racts rage /_ o* '+

EPA has ranked the most environmentally sound strategies for MSW. Source reduction (including reuse) is the most preferred method, followed by recycling and composting, and, lastly, disposal in combustion facilities and landfills.

Currently, in the United States, 32 percent is recovered and recycled or composted, 14 percent is burned at combustion facilities, and the remaining 54 percent is disposed of in landfills.

Source Reduction (Waste Prevention)

Source reduction can be a successful method of reducing waste generation.

Practices such as grasscycling, backyard composting, two-sided copying of paper, and transport packaging reduction by industry have yielded substantial benefits through source reduction.

Source reduction has many environmental benefits. It prevents emissions of many greenhouse gases, reduces pollutants, saves energy, conserves resources, and reduces the need for new landfills and combustors.

Recycling Recycling, including composting, MSW Recytling Rates 1960-2005

, diverted 79 million tons of material ..

away fromrdisposal in 2005, up 80 mill - .. "35%

from 15 million tons in 1,980, when 70mill . 69.1_ .0 the recycle rate was just 10% and 60 mil - 29.1 300 2. ":

90% f IISW a ýý6ei"`,25%

90% of MSW waS*being*S 50mill " '

combusted with energy recovery 40 mill - * ;

62 20%

or disposed of bylandfilling. 33.2 30 mll -16.2%

14.5 Typical materials that are recycled ld 20 10mil mill 516 10%

include batteries, recycled at a rate 10mill 5 .6 856%

of 99%, paper and paperboard at 60 1870 19800 180 1mi X00 2D03 2)05 50%, and yard trimmings at 62%. - Percent Recycling These materials and others may -- ,Total MSWRecycling (millions/year) be recycled through curbside programs, drop-off centers, buy-back programs, and deposit systems.

Recycling Recycling Rates of Selected Materials prevents 100 200S the emission of 80 many greenhouse 60 62.0 61 gases and

0. *500 44.8 water 40 34. 1 3.

pollutants, saves 2)2. 25.3 energy, supplies valuable F',At,-, Steel Y" ..I Paeer Alum, Tires Plsic Plastic Glass raw Beer Soft MIlk Containerc http ://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/muncpl/facts.htm 12/12/2006

iviunicipai 3onu waste - tiasic racts rage rg j 014 1~

materials to industry, creates jobs, stimulates the development of greener technologies, conserves resources for our children's future, and reduces the need for new landfills and combustors.

Recycling also helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions that affect global climate. In 1996, recycling of solid waste in the United States prevented the release of 33 million tons of carbon into the air-roughly the amount emitted annually by 25 million cars.

Combustion/incineration Burning MSW can generate energy while reducing the amount of waste by up to 90 percent in volume and 75 percent in weight.

EPA's Office of Air and Radiation is primarily responsible for regulating combustors because air emissions from combustion pose the greatest environmental concern.

In 2005, in the United States, there were 88 combustors with energy recovery with the capacity to burn up to 99,000 tons of MSW per day.

Landfills Under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), landfills that accept, MSW are primarily regulated by state, tribal, and local governments. EPA;, however, has established national standards these landfills mustmeet in,order to stay open.

Municipal landfills can, however, accept household hazardous waste.

The number of landfills in the iUnited States is steadily decreasing-frorM'8,000 in 1988 to 1,654 Resource Conservation in 2005. The capacity, however, has remained and Recovery Act relatively constant. New landfills are much larger than in the past. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) was enacted by Congress in 1976 and amended in 1984.

Household Hazardous Waste The act's primary goal is to protect human health and the Households often discard many common items environment from the such as paint, cleaners, oils, batteries, and potential hazards of waste pesticides, that contain hazardous components. disposal. In addition, RCRA Leftover portions of these products are called calls for conservation of hoLusehold. hazardous waste (HHW). These energy and natural products, if mishandled, can be dangerous to resources, reduction in waste your health and the environment. generated, and environmentally sound waste management practices.

Environmental Terms, Abbreviations, and Acronyms EPA provides a glossary that defines in non-technical language commonly used environmental terms appearing in EPA publications and materials. It also explains abbreviations and acronyms used throughout EPA.

http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/muncpl/facts.htm 12/12/2006

iviunicipai ý,oiia waste - nasic racis rage 4 01 4 Recommended Sources for MSW Information

Municipal Solid Waste in the United States: 2005 Facts and Figures:

Describes the national MSW stream based on data collected between 1960 and 2003. Includes information on MSW generation, recovery, and discard quantities; per capita generation and discard rates; and residential and commercial portions of MSW generation.

Decision-Maker's Guide to Solid Waste Management, Volume I1: Contains technical and economic information to assist solid waste management practitioners in planning, managing, and operating MSW programs and facilities. Includes suggestions for best practices when planning or evaluating waste and recycling collection systems, source reduction and composting programs, public education, and landfill and combustion issues.

Additional MSW materials can be found at Publications.

Top of Page EPA Home I Privacy an dSicguLrityNotice I Contact Us Last updated on Monday, December 11th, 2006 URL: http://www.epa~gov/epaoswer/non-hw/muncpl/facts.htm http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/muncpl/facts.htm 12/12/2006

rrA - iviercury - k-ontronung rower riani Emissions rage i ot z U~,Envlrnment#I ProtectionAgency Mercury Contact Us I Print Version Search: M EPA Home > Mercuy > Controlling Power Plant Emissions > Overview Mercury Home Basic Information Where You Live Controlling Power Plant Emissions: Overview Frequent Questions Spills, Disposal & On March 15, 2005, EPA issued the Clean Air Mercury Controlling Power Cleanup Rule to permanently cap and reduce mercury emissions Plant Emissions from coal-fired power plants for the first time ever. This Fish Consumption Advisories rule, combined with EPA's Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR), will significantly reduce emissions from the Oyelr.i.ew EPA's Roadmap nation's largest remaining source of human-caused

Decision Process_&

for Mercury mercury emissions. Chronology G.uGidng Principles Power Plant Control Technology Emissions Important progress on this issue began years ago. 9Global Context These pages cover this history; the proposed regulations 2 Public Comments Human Health Mercur P CoNODA Human Exposure to reduce mercury emissions in the power sector; the extensive comments received on these proposals; the

Clean Air Mercury Rule Health Effects Links & Resources process EPA pursued to best understand how.to finalize I these regulations, and information about existing and emerging technologies to reduce Environmental mercury emissions from power plants.

Effects Consumer Products Together, the Clean Air Mercury.Rule prioposal and CAIR create a multi-pollutant Data & Publications strategy to improve air quality throughout the U.S. The landmark Clean Air:Interstate Rule focuses on 28 eastern states having sulfur dioxide (SO 2) and nitrogen oxides Grants & Funding (NOx) emissions that contribute significantly to fine particle and ozone' pollution International problems in downwind states.

Actions Laws & President Bush's Clear Skies legislation would establish a mandatory program to Regulations reduce and cap emissions of mercury, as well as emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO 2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) from electric power generation to approximately70% below 2000 Science & emission levels. Clear Skies was first submitted as proposed legislation in the US Technology House of Representatives on July 26, 2002 and in the US Senate on July 28, 2002. The En espafiol legislation was reintroduced in both Houses of Congress as the Clear Skies Act of 2003 on February 27, 2003, and in the Senate as the Clear Skies Act of 2005 on January 24, Site Map 2005. EPA continues to believe this legislative approach is the preferred option to Related Links achieve these important reductions; however, since the Congress has yet to act, the Agency issued CAIR and the Clean Air Mercury Rule to provide communities with tools to solve the problem of pollution transported from other states.

Chronology of Actions to Date Since the Clean Air Act was amended in 1990, EPA has researched mercury, including how best to require reductions from power plants. This page provides a detailed chronology of events that led up to the proposal in January 2004, EPA's issuance of the final Clean Air Mercury Rule in March 2005, and of the reconsideration process that ended in May 2006.

Guiding Principles Reducing mercury from power plants must be done right. The Agency took into account relevant information about emissions, control technologies, health effects, and the impacts on our electrical system and economic competitiveness. Given the complexity surrounding all of these factors, EPA identified five principles for providing context for http://www.epa.gov/mcrcury/control emissions/index.htm 12/12/2006

trix - iviercury - k-ontrouing rower riant emissions rage /_oI /_

additional inquiry and focus entering the decision phase of the rulemaking. This page describes these principles and areas of additional inquiry.

Ap-plying Technology Approximately 75 tons of mercury are found in the coal delivered to power plants each year and about two thirds of this mercury is emitted to the air, resulting in about 50 tons being emitted annually. This 25-ton reduction is achieved in the power plant boilers and through existing pollution controls such as fabric filters (for particulate matter),

scrubbers (for SO 2) and SCRs (for NOx). As more scrubbers and SCRs are installed to comply with the Clean Air Interstate Rule and other regulations, mercury emissions are expected to decrease. This multipollutant approach is central to the Agency's plan to reduce mercury from power plants.

In addition to relying on existing technologies, several mercury-specific control technologies are in various stages of development, testing, and demonstration.

Currently none of these technologies are in commercial operation on power plants in the U.S. but EPA expects these technologies to play a role as EPA and states require reductions in mercury emissions.

This page provides more information on technologies to reduce mercury from power plants.

Global Context This page provides information about sources of mercury emissions throughout the world, the global distribution of emissions, and how U.S. mercury emissions fit into the global picture.

Public Comments EPA received a record number of comments on its proposed mercury rule. This page provides a summary of the comment process and information for people interested in reviewing comments.

Where to find moreý information Summary of the proposed Utility Mercury Reductions Rule - as well as a summary of the design of the program and the benefits it would provide.

Regulatory Actions - Links to proposed and final rules, fact sheets, and other rulemaking documents.

Technical Information - Technical support information and links to related information.

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!U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Home Hom I Who Are h We ArIhteD What We Do I Nuclear Reactors f Nuclear 0Materials f WaTen Radioactive Waste Fide FinderInfo Facility f Involemen Public Involvement Home > Electronic Reading Room > Document Collections > News Releases > 2001 > 01-035

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, Office of Public Affairs Telephone: 301/415-8200 Washington, DC 20555-0001 E-mail: opaanrc.gov www.nrc.gov No.01-035 M NRC ORGANIZES FUTURE LICENSING PROJECT ORGANIZATION NRC's Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation intends to staff the organization in phases with the objective of hav functional Future Licensing Project Organization by the end of September.

Several utilities and organizations have contacted the NRC to initiate discussions associated with the possible c new nuclear power plants in the United States. These include Exelon's request for a pre-application review of a Modular Reactor and Exelon's stated intention to submit an application to build the Pebble Bed Reactor.

Licensees have also indicated to the NRC that applications for early site permits could be submitted in the near These permits would allow pre-certification of sites for possible-construction of nuclear power plants. An applic.

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This first phase group will be responsible for establishing a project management function for future licensing ta include updating parts of NRC regulations, review of the AP 1000 reactor design, preparation for Pebble Bed re licensing review, coordination with NRC's Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research on Pebble Bed reactor pre-app issues, environmental and siting project management and other tasks, including interaction with interested sta The group will be formed initially through rotational assignment of staff experienced in regulatory programs, in design certification process.

Privacy Policy I Site Disclaimer Last revised Wednesday, June 25, 2003 http://www.nrc.gov/reading-nn/doc-collections/news/2001/01-035.html 12/12/2006

Diomass r eecistocK t-vauaouny in mhe unitec !tates: i Y

'3[ate Level Anaiysis r-age i oi i!),

Biomass Feedstock Availability in the United States: 1999 State Level Analysis Marie E. Walsha, Robert L. Perlacka, Anthony Turhollowa, Daniel de la Torre Ugarteb, Denny A.

Beckerc, Robin L. Grahama, Stephen E. Slinskyb, and Daryll E. Rayb aOak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6205 bUniversity of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37901-1071 CScience Applications International Corporation, Oak Ridge, TN 37830 April 30, 1999, Updated January, 2000 I. Introduction Interest in using biomass feedstocks to produce power, liquid fuels, and chemicals in the U.S. is increasing. Central to determining the potential for these industries to develop is an understanding of the location, quantities, and prices of biomass resources. This paper describes the methodology used to estimate biomass quantities and prices for each, state in' the continental U.S. An ExcelTM spreadsheet contains estimates of biomass quantities potentially available in fixve categories: mill xwastes; urban wastes, forest residues, agricultural residues and energy crops. Ava'ilabilities are sorted ýby anticipated delivered price. A presehtation that explains how'this information was used to support~the goal of increasing biobased products and bioenergy 3 times by 2010 expressed in Executive Order 13134 of August 12, 1999 is also available.

II. Biomass Feedstock Availability For the purpose of this analysis, biomass feedstocks are classified into five general categories: forest residues, mill residues, agricultural residues, urban wood wastes, and dedicated energy crops. Forestry is a major industry in the United States encompassing nearly 559 million acres in publicly and privately held forest lands in the continental U.S. (USDA, 1997). Nearly 16 million cubic feet of roundwood are harvested and processed annually to produce sawlogs, paper, veneers, composites and other fiber, products (USDA, 1998a). The extensive forest acreage and roundwood harvest generate logging residues and provide the potential to harvest non-merchantable wood for energy. Processing of the wood into fiber products creates substantial quantities of mill residues that could potentially be used for energy. Agriculture is another major industry in the United States. Approximately 337 million acres of cropland are currently in agricultural production (USDA, 1997). Following the harvest of many of the traditional agricultural crops, residues (crop stalks) are left in the field. A portion of these residues could potentially be collected and used for energy. Alternatively, crop acres could be used to grow dedicated energy crops. A final category of biomass feedstocks includes urban wood wastes. These wastes include yard trimmings and other wood materials that are generally disposed of in municipal solid waste (MSW) and construction/demolition (C/D) landfills. Following is a description of the potential availability of these biomass feedstocks in the United States.

A. Forest Residues http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/resourcedata/index.html 12/12/2006

1OIl*oss reCCUSOCK lk-vauaouuly in me uniteu tiates: i Y'i )tate Level Analysis rage 2 ot il Forest wood residues can be grouped into the following categories--logging residues; rough, rotten, and salvable dead wood; excess saplings; and small pole trees-l( 1-. The forest wood residue supplies that could potentially be available for energy use in the U.S. are estimated using an updated version of a model originally developed by McQuillan et al. (1984). The McQuillan model estimates the total quantities of forest wood residues that can be recovered by first classifying the total forest inventory by the above wood categories (for both softwood and hardwood), and by volume, haul distances, and equipment operability constraints. This total inventory is then revised downward to reflect the quantities that can be recovered in each class due to constraints on equipment retrieval efficiencies, road access to a site, and impact of site slope on harvest equipment choice-1).

The costs of obtaining the recoverable forest wood residues are estimated for each category. Prices include collection, harvesting, chipping, loading, hauling, and unloading costs, a stumpage fee, and a return for profit and risk. Prices are in 1995 dollars. For the purposes of this analysis, we have included only logging residues and rough, rotten, and salvable dead wood quantities. The potential annual forest waste residues available by state for three price scenarios are presented in Table 1. Quantities are cumulative quantities at each price (i.e., quantities at $50/dt include all quantities available at $40/dt plus quantities available between $40 and $50/dt).

Polewood, which represent the growing stock of merchantable trees, has not been included in the analysis due to the fact that it could potentially be left to grow and used for higher value fiber products.

It is doubtful that these trees will be harvested for energy use. However, if harvested, they could add another 17 million dry tons at less~than $30/dt delivered; 37.7 million dry tons at less than $40 delivered; and 65 million dry tons at less than $50/dt delivered. For a more detailed explanation of the methodology used~to estimate the, forest wood residue quantities. and. prices, see Walsh et al, 1998.,

Table 1: Estimated Annual Cumulative Forest*Residues Quantities (dry1 tons), by Delivered Price and State

< $30/dry ton < $40/dry ton < $50/dry ton delivered delivered delivered Alabama 1009011 1475000 1899000

!Arizona 11402000 261400 Arkansas 9280001737800 California 189000 1F 2364400 Colorado 11373554000 1720300 Connecticut 159000 1590000[

Delaware 237000 [48400 Florida 515000 ]755000 9757000 Georgia F1041000 [967800 idaho 6050001902000 F1179500 Illinois 330000 F0 423300 Indiana I2 [300370 470100 http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/resourcedati/index.htmi 12/12/2006

DowIlls rccu:itiuu tIVUgILLU.

Illlly 11 Iue UIIILCU 3LtULS. IYYY 3LULC LCVCI

, iIIUiySIS rage .. 01 11 Iowa 72000 1105000 J1135000 8100 1Kansas 147000 1168000 Kentucky F475000 690000 Louisiana 1I872000 1275000 1641800 Maine F806000 11182000 ][1529100 Maryland - 11890002 Massachusetts - 11960002 IMichigan 1710000 ][1327900 I 0874900 68nnesota000 Iisissippi 1[946000 i 380000 1774600 Missouri [ 00 938700 Montana J 676000 1007000 1316700 Nebraska 1[9000 2 INevada o1000.i

]F8000 New Hampshire 1299000 48. 564400 New Jersey 1170000 10 oo o30700 .

INew Mexic o 1125000 [241900:'

New York 1933000 1360000 1746400 North Carolina 10680001557000 2004900 North Dakota j 17 21700 Ohio ]220 300 430100 Oklahoma ]500 220022200 Oregon ]j1299000 j 1928000 2515900 Pennsylvania 981377000 1763000 Rhode Island 2000027000 35900 South Carolina I 100898000 1158400

[South Dakota 33000 49000 64300 Tennessee 9300001351000 1732600 Texas - ]557000 814000 1050700 Utah 90000 133000 173000 IVermont 265000 386000200 III I!III http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/resourcedata/index. html 12/12/2006

t~lomass r eeaStOCK ivaniaoluiy in me unieu 3tates: i Y* tate ievel Analysis rage ,,, o1i iY Virginia 1959000 111397000 111793600 Washington EllO OO J 1 02379600 IWest Virgini 727000 11300 108560001320 1500[320 Wisconsin 609000 0 1138400 1Wyoming 1132000 196000 256100 1U.S. Total 123747000 134771000 44871800 B. Primary Mill Residues The quantities of mill residues generated at primary wood mills (i.e., mills producing lumber, pulp, veneers, other composite wood fiber materials) in the U.S. are obtained from the data compiled by the USDA Forest Service for the 1997 Resource Policy Act (RPA) Assessment (USDA, 1998a). Mill residues are classified by type and include bark; coarse residues (chunks and slabs); and fine residues (shavings and sawdust). Data is available for quantities of residues generated by residue type and on uses of residues by residue type and use category (i.e., not used, fuel, pulp, composite wood materials, etc.). Data is available at the county, state, subregion, and regional level. In cases where a county has fewer than three mills, data from multiple counties are combined to maintain the confidentiality of the data provided by individual mills. Data represent short run average quantities.

Because primary mill residues are clean, concentratIed at one source, and relatively homogeneous, nearly 98 percent of all residues generated in the United States are currentiyused-as fuel -orto produce other:.

fiber products. Of the 24.2 million dry tons of bark.produced in the U.S', 2.2 percent is-not used while 79.4 percent is used for fuel and 18 percent is used for such things 'as mulch, bedding, and 'charcoal.

Only about 1.4 percent of the 38.7 million dry tons of coarse residues are not used. The remainder are used to produce pulp or composite wood products such as particle board, wafer board, and oriented strand board (78 percent) and about 13 percent are used for fuel. Of the 27.5 million dry tons of fine wood residues, approximately 55.6 percent are used for fuel, 23 percent are used to produce pulp or composite wood products, 18.7 percent are used for bedding, mulch and other such uses, and about 2.6 percent are unused.

The residues, while currently used, could potentially be available for energy use if utilities could pay a higher price for the residues than their value in their current uses. Data regarding the value of these residues in their current uses are difficult to obtain. Much of the residues used for fuel are used on site by the residue generator in low efficiency boiler systems to produce heat and steam. Conversations with those in the industry and other anecdotal evidence suggests that these residues could be purchased for

$15-25/dry ton for use in higher efficiency fuel systems. Similar anecdotal evidence suggests that residues used to produce fiber products (pulp, composite wood materials) sell for about $30-40/dry ton.

For the purposes of this analysis, we assume that the residues not currently used could potentially be available for energy uses at delivered prices of less than $20/dry ton (assuming transportation distances of less than 50 miles). For similar transportation distances, we assume that residues currently used for fuel could be available at less than $30/dry ton delivered and residues currently used for pulp, composite wood materials, mulch, bedding, and other such uses could potentially be available at delivered prices of less than $50/dry ton. Table 2 presents the cumulative annual quantities of mill residues by delivered price for each state.

http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/resourcedata/index.html 12/12/2006

tliomass reeostocK xvauaonity in mne unitea mtates:. i v'y ,tate jevei Analysis rage D oi i Y Table 2: Estimated Annual Cumulative Mill Residue Quantities (dry tons),

by Delivered Price and State

< $20/dry ton < $30/dry ton < $50/dry ton delivered delivered delivered IAlabama 1751 7802000 I'Arizona -07500251000 SArkansas 12000 2497000 14705000 Califomia II00 7-IF00 4823000 Colorado l86000 121180000 Connecticut 0 40[91000 Delaware 10 4000[16000 Florida [142000 4000 [26780000 Georgia - [F72000 3913OOOI969000 Idaho 169000 16290004400000

[Illinois F900117000 1 282000 Indiana 31000 213000 11699000 Iowa j2000 40 I i 158000.

Kansas 11000 9000 120000 Kentucky 11109000 40 " I 1940000 Louisiana 3245000 Maine [43000 1209000 154000 Maryland 0 166000 Massachusetts 0 IMichigan 10 F1564000 IMinnesota 711121000 Miisssippi 1200138006029000 Missouri 162000 1196000 Montana 17000 ]659000 2173000 Nebraska 12000 21000 69000 I INevada 0[0 0 New Hampshire123000 49 0 11109000 New Jersey 0 8000 1 II 121/2 0 http://bioenergy~ornl~gov/resourcedata/index~html 12/12/2006

biiomass t eeC[stocK Avallaoiity in tne unitea states: 1i*Y state Level Analysis rage 3oOI 1 New Mexico 125000 1[61000 125000 New York [28000 4950001274000 North Carolina 33000 206005028000 North Dakota 0 IOhio l00 0 IOklahoma Fo0 1318000 600 OIregon Piow 1738000 16834000 Pennsylvania 1720001628000 Rhode Island 0 [ [2500IFi South Carolina 40003382000 South Dakota F8 Tennessee [i202000 13250002018000 ETexas F18 111 1 0 4043000 IUtah 100670 1102000 '

ver'Mont 0F900':124000 - .. .i Virginia 12400 280000 2860000 Washington F5O 2220o j 5689000 West Virginia 136000 45900 9700 I Wisconsin 1400 12000 192000 1 Wyoming 1400124000 =2550 U.S. Total rj0000 1 459000 90418000 C. Agricultural Residues Agriculture is a major activity in the United States. Among the most important crops in terms of average total acres planted from 1995 to 1997 are corn (77 million acres), wheat (72 million acres), soybeans (65 million acres), hay (60.5 million acres), cotton (15 million acres), grain sorghum (10 million acres),

barley (7 million acres), oats (5 million acres), rice (3 million acres), and rye (1.5 million acres) (USDA, 1998b). After harvest, a portion of the stalks could potentially be collected for energy use. The analysis in this paper is limited to corn stover and wheat straw. Large acreage is dedicated to soybean production, but in general, residue production is relatively small and tends to deteriorate rapidly in the field, limiting the usefulness of soybean as an energy feedstock. However, additional residue quantities could be available from this source that have not been included in this analysis. Similarly, additional residue quantities could be available if barley, oats, rice, and rye production were included. Production of some of these crops (rice in particular) tends to be concentrated in a relatively small geographic area, and thus these crops could be an important local source of resources. Another potential source in the southern http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/resourcedata/index.html 12/12/2006

tnlomass reeostocK valiaDiinty in me unitea m~ates: i'Y' 3ate Levei Anaiysis r'age / oi 1 U.S. is cotton. A recent study (NEOS, 1998) suggests that approximately 500,000 dry tons of cotton gin trash is currently produced in the United States and this material is generally given away to farmers for use as a soil amendment. Another 171,000 dry tons of textile mill residues are produced, but much of this material is used to make other textiles and sells for prices in excess of $100/dry ton. These quantities are not included in this analysis.

The quantities of corn stover and wheat straw residues that can be available in each state are estimated by first calculating the total quantities of residues produced and then calculating the total quantities that can be collected after taking into consideration quantities that must be left to maintain soil quality (i.e.,

maintain organic matter and prevent erosion). Residue quantities generated are estimated using grain yields, total grain production, and a ratio of residue quantity to grain yield,-U3-The net quantities of residue per acre that are available for collection are estimated by subtracting from the total residue quantity generated, the quantities of residues that mustremain to maintain quality (Lightle, 1997). Quantities that must remain differ by crop type, soil type, typical weather conditions, and the tillage system used. A state average was used for this analysis. In general, about 30 to 40 percent of the residues can be collected.

The estimated prices of corn stover and wheat straw include the cost of collecting the residues, the premium paid to farmers to encourage participation, and transportation costs.

The cost of collecting the agricultural residues are estimated using an engineering, approach. For each harvest operation, an equipment complement is defined. Using typical engineering specifications, the time-per acre required to complete each operation and the cost per hour. of using each piece of equipment is calculated (ASAE, 1995; NADA, 1995; USDA, 1996; Doanes, 1995): For corn stovet,,the analysis assumes lx mow,--lx rake,.lx bale with a large round baler, and pickup, transport, and unloading of the%

bales at the side of the field where they are stored until transport to the user facility. Thesame operations are assumed for wheat straw minus the mowing. The operations assumed are conservative--mowing is often eliminated and the raking operation is also eliminated in some circumstances. The.-method used to estimate collection costs is consistent with that used by USDA to estimate the costs of producing agricultural crops (USDA, 1996).

An additional cost of $20/dry ton is added to account for the premium paid to farmers and the transportation cost from the site of production to the user facility. Currently, several companies purchase corn stover and/or wheat straw to produce bedding, insulating materials, particle board, paper, and chemicals (Gogerty, 1996). These firms typically pay $10 to $15/dry ton to farmers to compensate for any lost nutrient or environmental benefits that result from harvesting residues. The premium paid to farmers depends, in part, on transportation distance with fanrers whose fields are at greater distances from the user facility receiving lower premiums. Studies have estimated that the cost of transporting giant round bales of switchgrass are $5 to $10 per dry ton for haul distances of less than 50 miles (Bhat et al, 1992; Graham et al, 1996; Noon et al, 1996). Agricultural residue bales are of similar size, weight, and density as switchgrass bales, and a similar transportation cost is assumed. This cost is similar to the reported transportation costs of facilities that utilize agricultural residues (Schechinger, 1997). Prices are in 1995$. For a more detailed explanation of the methodology used to estimate agricultural residue quantities and prices, see Walsh et al, 1998. The estimated annual cumulated agricultural residues quantities, by delivered price and state are contained in Table 3. Table 3 also contains by state, the percent of the total available residues that are corn stover.

Table 3: Estimated Annual Cumulative Agricultural Residue Quantities http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/resourcedata/index.html 12/12/2006

momass r eeastocK Avalamnity in me unitea ý!ates: i v .tate ievei Analysis rage zs or iv (dry tons), by Delivered Price and State

< $30/dry ton < $40/dry ton < $50/dry ton delivered delivered delivered Quantity

_____yCorn Quantity %

Corn Quantity %

Corn IAlabama oi o 119267 1o 1izona i 0 1I0i 221864 24 21864 r24 IArkansasi ii 1859361 0j1j984495 13 ICalifornia 0i II0 11478283 4 11478283 E1I0 Colorado 1 2523820 190J2523820 Connecticut I1o I10oIo oI

dwa° 01 0300736 88077 . 1 1lorida 114824 f4824 E0 Georgia 1344423 j0 1779871 i6 Idaho 0 10[l 1248120 10 1248120 lI J Illinois 0 0 24270757. 94 24270757 Indiana .II Io0 11883845 94 11883845',

Iowa -[o 1:II0 23911214 199 23911214, 99" :

Kansas 18570003 14 8570003 E4II:i Kentucky 1471819 12280603 E49 Louisiana 0I0 180930 1380557 Maine 00 10 0 100 Maryland 0 i 10 272468 1 802298 1E6

[Massachusetts 0 0 0 0 ]6 Imichigan 010 680'783 142656'7 1 4 innesota 111935896 8 [11935896 Mississippi 00 137877 Missouri i0 I0 1,204353 4081358 7 Montana 1406592 1406592 111 Nebraska [ 0 16326915 ]98 16326915 Nevada [0l 0 15350 0 15350 New Hampshire 0 0 0 10 her I ne.htI I II1I http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/resourcedata/indcx.html 12/12/2006

tniomass r eeGsIOCK/ vaiiaDiiry in mie unitea otares: i vyv ýrtate Levei Analysis rage Yor iv INew Jersey [0 10 32723 32723 10 INew Mexico ~Io 10 476529 55 476529 1 New York 129515 129515 North Carolina 1473229 1130744 North Dakota 114015 13715404 1Ohio [01I 0 17634476 82 7634476 Oklahoma 13214403 3440745 13440745 1 O0regon [010 1155855 40 1155855 1[* -

Pennsylvania 1197689 [0 1[1031195 Rhode Island [0 I I 10 Z0 10Z0 South Carolina J 1239680 1239680 South Dakota 1 3686246 71 2852740 [ j Tennessee [ [ 1300849 11004781 Texas ] [o 14497784 166 4497784 1[6I Utah [ [o ]216546 29 216546 Vermont 00o Fo ] F67..I.

Virginia " o 0 297986 0j.J585717 Washington. 0 j 0 ]1364254 30 1364254 West Virginia 0 112008 151295 Wisconsin 1 5179618 97 5179618 1Wyoming ii10 ij 11071585 51 171585 U.S. Total- 314403 0 1135331029] K 150651402 ][ ---

D. Dedicated Energy Crops Dedicated energy crops include short rotation woody crops (SRWC) such as hybrid poplar and hybrid willow, and herbaceous crops such as switchgrass (SG). Currently, dedicated energy crops are not produced in the United States, but could be if they could be sold at a price that ensures the producer a profit at least as high as could be earned using the land for alternative uses such as producing traditional agricultural crops. The POLYSYS model is used to estimate the quantities of energy crops that could potentially be produced at various energy crop prices. POLYSYS is an agricultural sector model that includes all major agricultural crops (wheat, corn, soybeans, cotton, rice, grain sorghum, barley, oats, alfalfa, other hay crops); a livestock sector; and food, feed, industrial, and export demand functions.

POLYSYS was developed and is maintained by the Agricultural Policy Analysis Center at the University of Tennessee and is used by the USDA Economic Research Service to conduct economic and http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/resourcedata/index.html 12/12/2006

biomass rJeeastocK Avaiiaoilty in me .unitea Mates: i vv tate Levei Analysis rage iu o0 iv policy analysis. Under a joint project between USDA and DOE, POLYSYS is being modified to include dedicated energy crops. A workshop consisting of USDA and DOE experts was held in November, 1997 to review the energy crop data being incorporated into the POLYSYS model.

The analysis includes cropland acres that are presently planted to traditional crops,.idled, in pasture, or are in the Conservation Reserve Program. Energy crop production is limited to areas climatically suited for their production--states in the Rocky Mountain region and the Western Plains region are excluded.

Because the CRP is an environmental program, two management scenarios have been evaluated--one to optimize for biomass yield and one to provide for high wildlife divesity. Energy crop yields vary within and between states, and are based on field trial data and expert opinion. Energy crop production costs are estimated using the same approach that is used by USDA to estimate the cost of producing conventional crops (USDA, 1996). Recommended management practices (planting density, fertilizer and chemical applications, rotation lengths) are assumed. Additionally, switchgrass stands are assumed to remain in production for 10 years before replanting, are harvested annually, and are delivered as large round bales. Hybrid poplars are planted at a 8 x 10 foot spacing (545 trees/acre) and are harvested in the 10th year of production in the northern U.S., after 8 years of production in the southern U.S., and after 6 years of production in the Pacific Northwest. Poplar harvest is by custom operation and the product is delivered as whole tree wood chips. Hybrid willow varieties are suitable for production in the northern U.S. The analysis assumes 6200 trees/acre, with first harvest in year 4 and subsequent harvests every three years for a total of 7 harvests before replanting is necessary. Willow is delivered as whole tree chips.

The estimated quantities of energy crops are those that could potentially be produced at a'profit at least as great as could be earned producing traditional crops on the same acres, given the assumed. energy cropiyieid and production, costs, and the 19990USDA baseline production costs, yields, and. traditional crop prices (USDA, 1999b). In the U.S., switchgrass production dominates hybrid poplar. and. willow production at the equivalent (on an MBTU basis) market prices. ThePOLYSYS model estimates the farmgateprice; an average transportation cost of $8/dt is added to deternine the delivered price. Prices are in $1997. Table 4 presents the estimated annual cumulative quantities of energy crops by state by delivered price. For a more detailed explanation' of the methodology used to estimate dedicated energy crop prices and quantities, see Walsh et al, 1998 and de la Torre Ugarte et al, 1999.

Table 4: Estimated Annual Cumulative Energy Crop Quantities (dry tons),

by Delivered Price and State

< $30/dry ton < $40/dry ton < $50/dry ton delivered delivered delivered Alabama IArizona I 0I 0

1[3283747 F0oI

-16588812 IArkansas 0 11709915 15509780 ICalifornia 0 I0oI IColorado I 0F Connecticut 0 0 199646 IDelaware 0 0 31454

[FoIdaEIII ii IF II 1268290 http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/resourcedata/index.html 12/12/2006

t3lomass t eeclstocK Avalia:mllty in tme uniteca Mtates: i yvv tate Levet Analysis rage ii or ii Georgia [0 1321438 1 3958181 1Idaho '10 1Io IIllinois l l 1427X49 1 7689694 Indiana 0 5026234 I I lwa I0 198295486 SKansas0 1 11438271 Kentucky 0l2 5128780 Souisiana 1010 [

5395304 IMaine Maryland 0 i0 ll298653 IMassachusetts 0 l[0 [2j5908 IMichigan F ll52 4179308 I IMinnesota 1 427467 15783002 Mississippi 0 15330671 19304782 Missouri 15251I42I112780923 [ii0 IMontana Fo0 j 0' .:..*'

]277'8386 - .

Nebraska i imi01922058 5172860 Nevada' Fo 1 New Hampshire 1 1 INew Jersey 0o I0120 INew Mexic OF 10 0 New York 0 [0 3388035 North Carolina 6392281632077 North Dakota 0 ]192841116 757889 Ohio 19657080 Oklahoma 0 3644173] 8083722 1Oregon 10 0 1 Pennsylvania 0 ][o 2338243 Rhode Island 0 0 11 4943 South Carolina 2438152 South Dakota 12757734 i oII 1/ 2 http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/resourcedata/index.htlnl 12/12/2006

Biomass PeeCstock Availaoility in tile unitea Mtates: iv ztate Levei Analysis rage iz OI iv Tennessee 10 6616717 119350856 ITexas ZI19139885X04549899 1Utah 10 I

[Vermont- 0o 0336 Virginiaa0 lI11260668 12609867 Washington E0 0 IIl West Virginia 10 ll625 1190299 WisconsinXI ll 3595636 6114270 IWyoming =F [487361 m 8=6 U.S. Total 0 [66127422 1188067187 E. Urban Wood Wastes Urban wood wastes include yard trimmings, site clearing wastes, pallets, wood packaging, and other miscellaneous commercial and household wood wastes that'are generally disposed of at municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills and demolition and construction wastes that are generally disposed of in construction/demolition-(C/D) landfills. Data regarding quantities of these wood wastes is difficult-to find and price information is even rarer. Additioiaily,.definitions differ by states. Some states collect data on total wastes deposited at each MSW and C/D landfill in their states, and in some states, the, quantities are futrthercategorized by type (i.e., wood, paper and cardboard, plastics, etc.). However, not all states collect this data. Therefore, the quantities presented are crude estimates based on survey data (Glenn, 1998; Bush et al, 1997; Araman et al, 1997).

For municipal solid wastes (MSW) a survey by Glenn, 1998 is used to estimate total MSW generated by state. These quantities are adjusted slightly to correspond to regional MSW quantities that are land-filled as estimated by a survey conducted by Araman et al, 1997. Using the Araman survey, the total amount of wood contained in land-filled MSW is estimated. According to this survey, about 6 percent of municipal solid waste in the Midwest is wood, with 8 percent of the MSW being wood in the South, 6.6 percent being wood in the Northeast and 7.3 percent being wood in the West. Estimated quantities were in wet tons; they were corrected to dry tons by assuming a 15 percent moisture content by weight.

To estimate construction and demolition wastes (C/D), the Glenn study and the Bush et al, 1997 survey were used. The Glenn study provided the number of C/D landfills by state, and the Bush et al survey provided the average quantity of waste received per C/D landfill by region as well as the regional percent of the waste that was wood. According to the Bush et al survey, C/D landfills in the Midwest receive an average 25,700 tons of waste per year with 46 percent of that quantity being wood. In the South, C/D landfills receive an average 36,500 tons of waste/yr with 39 percent being wood.

Northeastern C/D landfills receive an average 13,700 tons of waste/yr with 21 percent being wood and Western C/D landfills receive an average 28,800 tons of waste/yr with 18 percent being wood.

Estimated quantities were in wet tons; they were corrected to dry tons by assuming a 15 percent moisture content by weight.

http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/resourcedata/index.html 12/12/2006

iiomass reecis[OCKx vanaonlly in me unileu 3tates. i'YY *tate LeVelerg -Ilalysi rage 1.1 01 ly Yard trimmings taken directly to a compost facility rather than land-filled, were estimated from the Glenn study. This estimate was made by multiplying the number of compost facilities in each state by the national average tons of material received by site (2750 tons). The total compost material was then corrected for the percent that is yard trimmings (assumed to be 80 percent) and for the quantity that is wood (assumed to be 90 percent). Quantities were corrected to dry tons by assuming a 40 percent moisture by weight.

In an effort to reduce the quantities of waste materials that are land-filled, most states actively encourage the recycling of wastes. Quantities and prices of recycled wood wastes are not readily available.

However, the Araman and Bush surveys report limited data on the recycling of wood wastes at MSW and C/D sites. They report that in the South, approximately 36 percent of C/D landfills and 50 percent of MSW landfills operate a wood/yard waste recycling facility and that about 34 percent of the wood at C/D landfills and 39 percent of the wood at MSW landfills is recycled. In the Midwest, about 31 percent of the MSW and 25 percent of the C/D landfills operate wood recycling facilities with 16 percent of the MSW wood and 1 percent of the C/D wood is recycled. In the West, 27 percent of the MSW and C/D landfills operate wood recycling facilities and recycle 25 percent each of their wood. In the Northeast, 39 percent of the MSW and 28 percent of the C/D landfills operate wood recycling facilities and recycle 39 percent of the MSW wood and 28 percent of the C/D wastes.

The surveys do not report the use of total recycled wood, but do report the uses of recycled pallets which represent about 7 percent of the total wood and 4 percent of the recycled wood at C/D landfills and about 24 percent of the total wood and about 13 percent of the recycled wood at MSW landfills. At C/D landfills, about 14 percent of the recycled pallets are re-used as pallets, about 39 percent are used as fuel, and the remainder is used for other purposes such as mulch and composting. About 69 percent of the recycters reported that.1they gave away the pallet material. Of those, selling the material, the mean sale price was $1 1.01/ton and the median sale price was $10.50/ton. AtMSW landfills, about 3,percent of the recycled pallets are re-used as pallets, about 41 percent are used as fuel, and the remainder is used for other purposes such as mulch and composting. About 58 percent of the C/D recyclers reported that they gave away the pallet material. Of those selling the material, the mean sale price was $13.17/ton and the median sale price was $10.67/ton. Transportation costs must still be added to the sale price. Given the lack of information regarding prices, we assumed that of the total quantity available, 60 percent could be available at less than $20/dry ton and that the remaining quantities could be available at less than $30/dryton. Table 5 presents the estimated annual cumulative quantities of urban wood wastes by state and price.

Table 5: Estimated Annual Cumulative Urban Wood Waste Quantities (dry tons), by Delivered Price and State t< $20/dry ton $30/dry

< ton /< $40/dry ton < $50/dry t on Alabama 823566 1372610 1372610 [1372610 Arizona 219736 366227 366227 17 Arkansas 400364 667273 667273 667273 California 111579813 2633022 2633022 2633022 Colorado 94661 157769 15776 157769 Connecticut 246938 3 ::]1411563 411563 IDelaware 138959 1 6416493193164931 Florida 2757950 4596584 4596584 4596584 Georgia 862094 1436823 [1436823 ]1436823 http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/resourcedata/index.html 12/12/2006

miomass reeasTocK -vailamlity in me unitea otates: i'v' ýtate Level Analysis rage 14 01 IV Idaho 135265 338162 1338162 338162 Ill1inois --- 1416047 1693411 ý]693411 1693411 Indiana j 1[316610 527684 I6527684 lIowa 1171802 I833F286337 1286337 Kansas 736289 1227148 11227148 ][1227148 Kentucky 345699 6165 J576165 1576165 Louisiana - 1452322 753870 753870 ]1753870 Maine 108358 180597 180597 180597 IMaryland 1204643 1341071 1341071 1341071 IMassachusetts 419272 1698787 ][698787 [698787 Michigan 495734 826224 ][826224 1826224 Minnesota 919517 11532529 111532529 1532529 IMississippi 11470831 j I784719 1784719 784719 Missouri 11315547 1525911 1525911 525911 Montana 52060 66 1186766 86766 Nebraska 102073 : 1L]j 170121 170121 Nevada 11184112 853 113 [06853 "]306853 New Hampshire 11110579 11848429 8 498 ]184298 INew Jersey ]1389089 1E648481 1]648481 :]648481 INewMexico 1[142896 ][238160 11238160 238160 INewYork 11140080 111900133 1..1900133 ;,11900133 North Carolina 1636035 111060056 1[1060056 11060056 North Dakota 326510 544184 544184 544184 Ohio 1744518 11240864 1240864 1240864 Oklahoma 111173 1185289 5289 185289 Oregon 182532 304220 :]120 304220 Pennsylvania 399963 666605 J666605 666605 _

Rhode Island 29803 49671 1149671 49671 1 South Carolina 1128900 2149833 2149833 2149833 _

ISouth Dakota 123982 206637 206637 206637 Tennessee 676029 1126715 1126715 1126715 Texas 11209449 2015749 2015749 2015749 1Utah 1138765 1231275 1231275 1231275 Vermont [40802 004 68004 68004 Virginia 519454 865757 865757 865757 Washington 292432 487387 487387 487387 West Virginia 105236 175393 11175393 ]1175393 Wisconsin 383466 639110 639110 639110 http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/resourcedata/index.html 12/12/2006

liiomass t'eeClstocK Avaiiabilty in ine unilea !aates: 1 matame Level Analysis rage i Do0 iv Wyoming 177383 295638 295638 295638 U.S. Total 22040338 36846616 36846616 36846616 III. Summary Table 6 summarizes the estimated total annual cumulative quantities of biomass resources available by state and delivered price. It is estimated that substantial quantities of biomass (510 million dry tons) could be available annually at prices of less that $50/dt delivered. However, several caveats should be noted. There is a great deal of uncertainty surrounding some of the estimates. For example, while there is substantial confidence in the estimated quantities of mill residues available by state, there is a great deal of uncertainty about the estimated prices of these residues. The value of these feedstocks in their current uses is speculative and based solely on anecdotal discussions. Given that the feedstock is already being used--much of it under contract or in-house by the generator of the waste--energy facilities may need to pay a higher price than assumed to obtain the feedstock. Additionally, both the quantity and price of urban wastes are highly speculative. The analysis is based solely on one national study and regional averages taken from two additional surveys. There is no indication of the quality of the material present (i.e., whether the wood is contaminated with chemicals, etc.). Because of the ways in which the surveys were conducted, there may be double counting-of some quantities (i.e., MSW may contain yard trimmings and C/D wastes as well). Additionally, the analysis assumes that the majority of this urban wood is available for a minimal fee, with much of the cost resulting from transportation. Other industries have discovered that once a market is established, these "waste materials" become more valuable.and are no longer available at minimal price. This 'situation could also.happen with-urban wastes used for energy if a steady customer becomes available. It should afso be rioted however, that some studies indicate that greater quantities of urban wastes-are available, and are available -at lower prices, than are assumed in this analysis (Wiltsee, 1998). Given th6 high lkvel ofuncertainty,:.*

surrounding the quantity and price estimates of urban wastes and mill residues,.-and the fact that these wastes are estimated to be the least cost feedstocks available, they should be viewed with caution until a more detailed analysis is completed.

The analysis has assumed that substantial quantities of dead forest wood could be harvested. The harvest of deadwood is a particularly dangerous activity and not one relished by most foresters. Additionally, large polewood trees represent the growing stock of trees, that if left for sufficient time, could be harvested for higher value uses. These opportunity costs have not been considered. And, the sustainability of removing these forest resources has not been thoroughly analyzed.

We estimate the price of agricultural residues to be high largely because of the small quantities that can be sustainably removed on a per acre basis. Improvements in the collection/transport technologies and the ability to sustainably collect larger quantities (due to a shift in no-till site preparation practices for example) could increase quantities and decrease prices over time. Also, the inclusion of some of the minor grain crops (i.e., barley, oats, rye, rice) and soybeans could increase the total quantities of agricultural residues available by state. However, further elucidation of quantities that can sustainably be removed might lower available quantities.

Dedicated energy crops (i.e., switchgrass and short rotation wood crops) are not currently produced--the analysis is based on our best estimates of yield, production costs, and profitability of alternative crops that could be produced on the same land. Improving yields and decreasing production costs through improved harvest and transport technologies could increase available quantities at lower costs.

http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/resourcedata/index.html12 12/12/2006

tsiomass reeastocK AvauaDmity in me unitea ýtates: vYYY ýtate Eevei Analysis rage io of iY We have assumed a transportation cost of $8/dry ton for most feedstocks. This cost is based on a typical cost of transporting materials (i.e., switchgrass bales and wood chips) for less than 50 miles (Graham et al, 1996; Bhat et al, 1992; Noon et al, 1996). Finally, the analysis is conducted at a state level and the distribution of biomass resources within the state is not specifically considered. We have simply assumed that the feedstock is available within 50 miles of a user facility. This may not be the case which would result either in the cost of the feedstock being higher to a user facility due to increased transportation costs, or the quantities of available feedstock being lower to a user facility if the material is simply too far away from the end-user site to be practical to obtain. Biomass resource assessments are needed at a lower aggregation level than the state. Any facility considering using the analysis need to conduct its own local analysis to verify feedstock quantity and prices.

Table 6: Estimated Cumulative Biomass Quantities (dry ton/yr), by Tabl 6: stimtedDelivered Price and State______

I ll <$20/dry tonI < $30/dry ton I< $40/dry ton I< $50/dry ton IAlabama 840566 16962610 110712357 ]117681689 j IArizona 219736 ]575227 1863091 j]1100491 IArkansas 1402364 14092273 7085549 1]13604348 California 111587813 116158022 8224305 11298705 Colorado ].180661 651769 3356589 3581889 1 Connecticut " 246938 560563 610563 1906309 Delaware ]:38959 931 1194008 , 461521 .

Florida 2761950 ] 6753122 6778408 9533398 IGeorgia [934094 116390823 18540684 ]16111675

[Idaho ]204265 ]2572162 14117282 17165782 Illinois [ 435047 1038411 26838517 133359162 1 Indiana 1347610 99364 10118606863 1Iowa ]173802 11404337 .24582843 J32786037 Kansas [737289 1283148 1112733412 ]21343522 1 1Kentucky ]454699 1472165 15757811 []10809048 ILouisiana ]516322 13568870 7976754 111834427 Maine 51358 I1195597 1571597 2213697 1Maryland 1204643 1543071 899539 1959222 1 1Massachusetts ]1419272 [938787 1026787 1435895 IMichigan 505734 2468224 4627235 12163103 Minnesota 990517 2916529 15493892 21247327 MississippiI 598831 4908719 10673390 17930978 http://bioenergy.o-nl.gov/resourcedata/index.html 12/12/2006

bsiomass reecistock Avaliatilty in tne unltea states: v'vv zsate Levei Analysis rage i o/ 1v Missouri 477547 1345911 8029706 J 19522892 Montana 69060 11421766 12159358 J6761444 1Nebraska 1114073 E210121 118467094 121773296 Nevada 184112 1314853 1333203 ]336603 1New Hampshire 133579 [922298 11061298 12016455 New Jersey 389089 726481 1I791204 1975806 New Mexico 167896 1424160 1960689 ]1081589 1New York 11168080 [3328133 ]3884648 ]8438083 INorth Carolina 669035 [4188056 15789513 j10855777 1North Dakota 326510 [558184 ]2506662 121043177 1Ohio ][744518 [1472864 ]13018429 ]18962520 IOklahoma 1111173 [3873692 17816207 12699956 IOregon 1192532 3341220 4126075 J9809975 Pennsylvania 571963 12205605 2832294 J7427043 Rhode lsland ]129803 80671 1[87671 115514 ISouth Calblina ][1293900 14468833 1[6332;258 19368065 South Dakota [13-1982 11285637 ' 9601t746 J 16005411 ITennessee 1878029 13381715 -110720281 115232952 ITexas ][1227449 4221749 13526432 J20747118 1Utah ][158765 388275 647821 1722821 1Vermont ][40802 392004 513004 11022669 1Virginia 1599454 3058757 5055411 8714941 Washington 1[297432 13979387 5938641 9920241 West Virginia 241236 111361393 1971651 3736487

[Wisconsin [425466 2450110 11502364 14963398 Wyoming ][224383 1551638 787223 1465684 U.S. Total ]123820338 105496557 314535067 1510855005 REFERENCES

1. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, Standards 1995-Standards,EngineeringPractices, and Data, 1995.

http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/resourcedata/index.html 12/12/2006

1Biomass 1eeclstocK Avallaolllty in tne unite Mtates: 1 ýstate Level AnalySgS rage i6oi iY

2. P.A. Araman, R.J. Bush, and V.S. Reddy, Municipal Solid Waste Landfills and Wood Pallets--

What's Happening in the U.S., PalletEnterprise,March 1997, pp. 50-56.

3. M.B. Bhat, B.C. English, and M. Ojo, Regional Costs of Transporting Biomass Feedstocks, Liquid Fuels From Renewable Resources, John S. Cundiff (ed.), American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, MI, December 1992.

4. R.J. Bush, V.S. Reddy, and P.A. Araman, Construction and Demolition Landfills and Wood Pallets--What's Happening in the U.S., Pallet Enterprise,March 1997, pp. 27-31.

5. D.G. de la Torre Ugarte, S.P. Slinsky, and D.E. Ray, The Economic Impacts of Biomass Crop Production on the U.S. Agriculture Sector, University of Tennessee Agricultural Policy Analysis Center, Knoxville, TN, July 1999, Draft Document.

6. Doane's Agricultural Report, EstimatedMachinery OperatingCosts, 1995, Vol. 58, No. 15-5, April 14, 1995.

7. J. Glenn, The State of Garbage, BioCycle, April 1998, pp. 32-43.

8. R. Gogerty, Crop Leftovers: More Uses, More Value, Resource: Engineering and Technology for a Sustainable World, Vol. 3, No. 7, July 1996.

9. R.L. Graham, W. Liu, H.I. Jager, B.C. English, C.E. Noon, and M.J. Daly, A Regional-Scale GIS-Based Modeling System for Evaluating the Potential Costs and Supplies of Biomass From Biomass Crops, in ProceedingsofBioenergy '96 - The Seventh National Bioenergy Conference, Nashville, TN, September 15-20, 1996, Southeastern Regional Biomass Energy Program, pp. 444-450, 1996.

10. W.G. Heid, Jr., Turning Great Plains Crop Residues and Other Products into Energy, U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Agricultural Economic Report No. 523, Washington,. DC, November 1984.

11. D.T. Lightle, A Soil ConditioningIndexfor CroplandManagement Systems (Draft), U.S.,

Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, National- Soil Survey Center,

1. *April 1997.

12. A. McQuillan, K. Skog, T. Nagle, and R. Loveless, MarginalCost Supply Curvesfor,Utilizing Forest Waste Wood in the United States, Unpublished Manuscript, University of Montana, Missoula, February 1984.

13. NEOS Corporation, Non-synthetic Cellulosic Textile FeedstockResource Assessment,'

Southeastern Regional Biomass Energy Program, Muscle Shoals, AL, July 1998.

14. C.E. Noon, M.J. Daly, R.L. Graham, and F.B. Zahn, Transportation and Site Location Analysis for Regional Integrated Biomass Assessment (RIBA), in Proceedings of Bioenergy '96 - The Seventh NationalBioenergy Conference, Nashville, TN, September 15-20, 1996, Southeastern Regional Biomass Energy Program, pp. 487-493, 1996.

15. North American Dealers Association, Official Guide--Tractorsand Farm Equipment, 1995.

16. T. Schechinger, Great Lakes Chemical Corporation, personal communication, 1997.

17. U.S. Department of Agricultural, National Agricultural Statistics Service, World Agricultural Outlook Board, USDA AgriculturalBaseline Projectionsto 2009, WAOB-99-1, Washington, DC, February 1999.

18. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, ForestInventory andAnalysis Timber Product Output DatabaseRetrieval System, (http://srsfia.usfs.msstate.edu/rpa/tpo), 1998a.

19. U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistical Service, Crop Production Summary, Washington, DC, January 1998b.

20. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, AgriculturalResources and EnvironmentalIndicators, 1996-1997, Agricultural Handbook No. 712, Washington, DC, July 1997.

21. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Economic Indicatorsof the Farm Sector: Costs of Production--MajorField Crops, 1995, Washington, DC, 1996.

22. M.E. Walsh, R.L. Perlack, D.A. Becker, A. Turhollow, and R.L. Graham, Evolution of the Fuel Ethanol Industry: Feedstock Availability andPrice, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/resourcedata/index.html 12/12/2006

t5iomass rCeeaIstOCK AValvaDllTy in tine unitea states: 1*vv tate Level Analysis rage iv oi iv TN, April 21, 1998, Draft Document.

23. G. Wiltsee, Urban Wood Waste Resources in 30 US MetropolitanAreas, Appel Consultants, Inc.,

Valencia, CA, 1998.

1. Logging residues are the unused portion of the growing of stock trees (i.e., commercial species with a diameter breast height (dbh) greater than 5 inches, excluding cull trees) that are cut or killed by logging and left behind. Rough trees are those that do not contain a sawlog (i.e., 50 percent or more of live cull volume) or are not a currently merchantable species. Rotten trees are trees that do not contain a sawlog because of rot (i.e., 50 percent or more of the live cull volume). Salvable dead wood includes downed or standing trees that are considered currently or potentially merchantable. Excess saplings are live trees having a dbh of between 1.0 and 4.9 inches. Small pole trees are trees with a dbh greater than 5 inches, but smaller than saw timber trees. (back to report)

2. Retrieval efficiency accounts for the quantity of the inventory that can actually be recovered due to technology or equipment (assumed to be 40 percent). It is assumed that 50 percent of the resource is accessible without having to construct roads, except for logging residues for which 100 percent of the inventory is assumed accessible. Finally, inventory that lies on slopes greater than 20 percent or where conventional equipment cannot be used are eliminated for cost and environmental reasons. (back torepport)

3. The assumed residue factors are--I ton of corn stover for every 1 ton of corn grain produced; 1.7 tons of wheat straw for every 1 ton of winter wheat grain; and 1.3 ton of wheat straw for every 1 ton of spring and duram wheat grain (Heid, 1984). We assume a grain weight of 56 and 60 lb/bu for corn and wheat grain respectively. Grain moisture factors are assumed to .be 1 for corn and .87 for wheat. (back to rmeopo_)

http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/resourcedata/index.html 12/12/2006

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