ML20049J220
| ML20049J220 | |
| Person / Time | |
|---|---|
| Site: | Waterford  |
| Issue date: | 03/03/1982 |
| From: | Clay Johnson JOINT INTERVENORS - WATERFORD |
| To: | |
| Shared Package | |
| ML20049J211 | List: |
| References | |
| NUDOCS 8203120275 | |
| Download: ML20049J220 (56) | |
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betwcen the polar end of the phospholipid molecule and protein molecule (resonance is also responsible for the " pore" forma-tion in the membrane). The unfolding of the protein molecule abolishes the " active sites" of the cell membrane, i.e. ,
breakdovn of the " permease systems" of the membrane converts cell into a " closed system." Since the " outer doors" are closed, the only recourse for the energy is to flow inwards and cause the same type of "damare" to the nuclear membrane.
Then probably, the mitochondria are first to breakdown and thus cause uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation processes. The "Warburg effect" of tumor cells is the result when membrane structures of the mitochondria disintegrate. This disintegra-tion of the membrane will also " free the protein" molecules with enzymatic activity, associated with them. This increased pressure of activity will act as a stimulus to the genetic 1
operon system of the chromosomes. All these changes may be considered as "dedifferentiation of the cell."
l It has been observed that there is a change in the mito-chondrial membrane of tumor cells (flowatson,1955). Several recent investigations have shown that there are several l
biological differences between surfaces of normal and tumor cells ( Annette, M.C. , Rapin and M.M. Burger,1974). This hypothesis supports this finding and suggests the possible mechanism of action.
8203120275 820308 PDR ADOCK 05000382 T pyg ,
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The normal membranes do not establish a thermal gradient because of the position of the phospholipid molecules in the mem-brane, but when Q-value is drastically changed as described above, j the membrane no longer acts as a capacitor. The surplus energy (heat) flows out into the surrounding medium and will change the
> medium from gel to sol state, making it possible for the cell to spread. Finally, even the interstitial matrix is changed from gel to sol state and these " abnormal cells" with " energy lesions" start spreading. The interaction between the reticulo-endothelial cells and the " cancerous cells" is thermophilic. The macrophages may succeed. initially in stopping the spread of these abnormal cells with energy lesions but eventually they themselves may be-come dedifferentiated.
The severe side effects of the radiation therapy and some chemotherapeutic agents supports the present hypothesis (Clark, Cumley, 1977). The ultimate solution in successful treatment of the cancer patient may lie in the development of chemo-5 therapeutic agents with endothermic reactions rather than the exothermic methods.
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I BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbott, B. C., A. V. Hill, J. V. Howarth, 1968.
The Positive and Negative Heat Production Associated with a Nerve Impulse.
Proc. Roy. Soc. B, vol.148, pp. 149-186.
Ambrose, E. J., 19G1.
Surface Characteristics of Neoplastic Cells.
Biological Interactions in Normal and Neoplastic Growth, Little, Brown and Company, Boston, Mass.
pp. 164-167.
Ambrose, E. J., 1972. ,
Morphogenesis at the Cell Level.
Cell Differentiation, ed. R. Harris, P. Allin, D. Viza.
Scandinavian University Books, Munksgaard, Denmark.
pp. 19-29.
Barnes, R. B., 1963.
Thermography of the Human Body.
Science, vol. 140, pp. 870-877.
Clark, R. L. and Cumley,1977.
The Year Book of Cancer, Year Book Medical Publisher, Inc., Chicago, London.
Cohen, C. T., and J. Monda, 1957.
Bacterial Permeases.
Bact. Rev., vol. 21, pp. 67-79. ,
Coman, D. R. , IS64. l')l/y.
Cancer Res., vol. 4, pp. 625-629.
Connelly, C. M., 1959.
Recovery Processes and Metabolism of Nerve.
Biophysical Science: A Study Program, Onclay, ed.,
John Wiley and Sons, New York. pp. 504-514.
Cowdry, E. V., 1955.
Cancer Cell, W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia.
Engelman, D. M., 1970.
X-Ray Diffraction Studies of the Phase Transition in the Membrane of Mycoplasm laidlasi.
Jour. Molec. Biology, vol. 47, pp. 115-117.
Gershon-Cohen, J. , and J. D. Haberman,1964 Thermography.
Radiolcgy, vol. 82, pp. 280-285.
Howatson, A. F., and A. W. Ham, 1955.
Electron Microscope Study of Sections of Two Rat Liver Tumors.
Cancer Res. , vol.15(11), pp. 62-69.
Lawson, R. N., 1957.
Thermography: A New Tool in Investigation of Breast Lesions.
Canadian Service's Medical Journal, vol.13, pp. 517-524 Lawson, R. N., and J. P. Gaston, 1964.
Temperature Measurements of Localized Pathological Processes.
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol.121, pp. 90-98.
Lloyd Willians, K. , F. Lloyd Williams, and R. S. Handley,1961.
Infra-red Thermcmetry in the Diagnosis of Breast Disease.
Lancet, vol. 2 pp.1378-1381.
Mazin, D., 1961.
Mitosis and the Physiology of Cell Division.
The Cell. Brachet and Mirsky, ed., Academic Press, New York, vol. 3, pp.77-412.
Racker, E., 1972.
Bioenergetics and the Problem of Tumor Growth.
Am. Scientist, vol. 60(1), pp. 56-63.
Ranadive, Kamal, and Sumati Bhide,1961.
Tissue Interactions Between Normal and Malignant Cells.
Biological Interactions in Normal and Neoplastic Growth, Little, Brown and Company, Boston, Mass.
pp. 337 354.
Rapin, Annette M.C. , and Max M. Burger,1974.
Tumor Cell Surfaces.
Advances in Cancer Research, vol. 20, pp. 1-91.
Razin, S. ,1972.
Reconstitution of Biological Membranes.
Blochem. Biophys. Acta., vol. 265, pp.41-296.
Robertson, J. D., 1964 Unit Membranes. A review with recent new studies of experimental alternations ar.d new subunit struc-ture in synoptic membrancs in development, Michael Lock, ed., Academic Press, New York. pp. 1-81.
Thermography and its Clinical Applications,1964
!!onograph of the. Hew York Academy of Science, vol.1.
Warburg, 0., 1930.
The Metabolism of Tumors.
Lo adon Constable.
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ACMOWLEDGMENTS I thank Jan.s J. Zolczer, former director of Public Relations at D'Youville College, and Kevin T. Cahill, associ-ate professor of English at D'Youville College, for valuable assistance in correcting the manuscript. I thank Carol 1111azzo for her patience in typing my handwriting. My thanks are also due to many, many friends and students who have been a stimulating influence.
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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION
.E2 ICR 10 P1 :37 13EFORE Tile ATOMIC SAFETY & LICENSING IlOARD in the Matter of LOUISIANA POWER & NGilT COMPANY Docket No. 50-382 (Waterford Steam Electric Station Unit 3)
SWORN TESTIMONY OF DR. CARL JOllNSON
- 1. 13y whom are you employed and what position (s) do you hold?
Answer. I am a physician specializing in public health. I hold the position of Associate Clinical Professor of Social and EnvironmentalIIcalth at the University of Colorado College of Medicine. I am a principal investigator on two cancer research projects looking at cancer incidence around a nuclear plant and at the cancer incidence in a population subjected to fallout from nuclear weapons testing. I also do some work in medical consultation.
- 2. Is this in a specialized health field?
Answer. I am board certified in preventive medicine and public 1
l health and licensed to practice medicine in Colorado and several other l
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- 3. What previous positions have you held?
Answer. I was Director of IIcalth for Jefferson County, Colorado between 1973 and 1981. Prior to that, I was a District ifcalth Officer for the Seattle-King County IIcalth Department and had an appointment as Assistant Clinical Professor in Epidemiology and International IIcalth at the University of Washington School of Public Ilealth in Seattle.' Prior to that, at times, I was an acting associate professor at Cornell University, a pathologist with Dupont at their IIaskell Laboratory for Toxicology and Industrial IIygiene, and other positions involving research.
- 4. What are your academic qualifications and degrees?
Answer. I received my M.D. Degree concurrently with a Master of Science Degree in Pharmacology at the Ohio State University College of Medicine in 1965. My pre-medical work led to a Baehelor of Science Degree in 1953 and a doctorate in veterinary medicine in 1955. Since leaving medical school, I studied for a year at the University of California at Berkeley, earning a master's degree in public health. My major interests there were health administration and epidemiology. I have been elected a fellow of the American College of Preventive Medicine and fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. I am currently Chairman of the Program Development Board of the American Public Ilealth Association and ex officio member of the Executive Board, the Action Board and the Governing Council, Co-Chairman of the Joint Policy Committee, and past Chairman of the llealth Administration Council. I am a past president of the Colorado Public IIcalth Association.
- 5. llave you done post- tetoral work? If so, in what field or fields?
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Answer. After completing my medical work at Ohio State University,I was rce!p!ont of an N!Il fellowship from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences to do research on the effects of chronic magnesium deficiency. This led to my master of science degree in 1965.
At the University of California at 13erkeley, I did post graduate work for a year, prine! pally in health ad.ninistration and epidemiology, leading to my master's degree in public health in 1969.
- 6. llave you done any research in the fields of cancer and/or human exposure to radiation? Please describe your research.
Answer. As Director of Ilealth for Jefferson County, in December of 1974, I was asked by the County Commissioner to do a risk assessment for populations living in the vicinity of the Ilocky Flats Nuclear Plant. I did a preliminary assessment of risks, and recommended against permitting people to build their homes around the plant. Following this,I did a survey of surface dust contamination of plutonium around the plant, with the assistance of two men with the U. S. Geologic Survey. I then published two reports on this work in Science (August,1976 and May,1977). Following that, I developed estimates of the risk of cancer to people living downwind from the plant, and this was published in the proceedings of the Fourth International Congress of the International Itadiation Protection Association in Paris (April 27-30, 1977). I then did epidemiologic studies of lung cancer death rates and leukemia death rates around the plant and found higher rates. Abstracts of this work were published in proceedings of the American Public IIcalth Association and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. I then did a comprehensive study of cancer incidence in the Denver area related to emissions of the Itocky Flats plant.
The results of this study were published in the proceedings of the Sixth International Congress of Radiation Research, the Fifth International Congress of the International Radiation Protection Association and by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in August, 1981 (reprinted verbatim in October,1981 in Colorado Medicine). In 1979, I received a
$ 101,000 grant from the National Cancer Institute to continue these studies. In April of 1981, I was awarded a grant by the National Radiation Research Foundation in Washington to serve as principal investigator in carrying out a study of cancer incidence in people living in southwestern Utah, looking at the effects due to fall-out.
- 7. What publications have your works appeared in?
Answer. My works have appeared in such journals as Science, The Journal of the American Medical Association, proceedings of national and international scientific congresses and meetings, public health reports, The Journal of Occupational Medicine, The Journal of School llealth, and The American Journal of Epidemiology.
- 8. Do you have any as yet unpublished research data compiled?
Answer. I do at the present time have unpublished research data.
- 9. Ilave you participated in any scientific colloquia? If so, under whose j sponsorship and what topics have you dealt with?
Answer. I have participated in many scientific colloquia, the last organized myself, a full day's symposium at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science on the subject of l " Environmental and Biological Effects of the Nuclear Industry and Nuclear Weapons: Current Status". There were eleven speakers, including one fium IIcidelberg, Germany and one from Birmingham, England.
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- 10. llave you ever appeared as an expert witness in state, federal or congressional hearings or courts?
Answer. I have served as expert witness in state and federal hearings and courts. I was invited to testify to a Congressional Committee IIcaring, but could not attend because of a scheduling conflict.
- 11. Would you please define the term synergism and indicate how this ptenomenon would affect health risks to a population?
Answer. Synergism refers to the action of two or more substances, chemicals or agents to achieve an effect of which each is individually incapable. An example of this effect is the induction of lung cancer in uranium min'ers and asbestos workers. A report by Lyndon, Archer and Wagner indicates the death rate of lung cancer for men who do not smoke and who do not mine uranium to be 1.7 per 10.000 person years. A non-smoker who is a uranium miner has a risk of 6.5 per 10,000 person years of exposure of dying of lung cancer, or about four times as great. A person who smokes over one pack of cigarettes a day who is a uranium miner has a risk of 51.2 in 10,000 of dying of lung cancer, compared to 1.7 for a person who neither smokes nor is a uranium miner. 'In the general population, one could expect to see this effect after exposure both to carcinogens in drinking water and to low levels of radiation emitted by a nuclear installation, in the exhaust from its smoke stacks and in its liquid effluents.
- 12. Ilow are the terms picoeuries, rems and rads related to one another?
Answer. A picoeurie is a unit of radiation describing an amount of radioactive material releasing 2.2 disintegrations per minute. A rem, 6r i
rad equivalent in man, is the effect on the person of one rad of gamma or l
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beta radiation. A rad refers to the absorption of 100 crgs of ionizing energy. The unit rem includes a factor for biological effectiveness or the 3
ability of rad'ation to do injury to living tissue. Alpha radiation is much mom injuricus than is gamma or beta radiation. One rad of alpha radiation
! yields not one rem, but twenty rems, because the alpha radiation is about twenty times more injurious to tissue inside the body.
The relationship between picoeurie and rem is worked out in studies in animals. For example, a group of dogs were allowed by the Atomic Energy Commission to inhale 1,000 picoeuries of plutonium. After a period of months, the dogs were killed and the quantity of plutonium determined .
for the organs in the dogs. 1,000 picoeuries of plutonium-239 was found to cause a dose of about I rem to lung, 44 rems to the lymph nodes in the chest, about 3 rems to bones, about 1.2 rem to liver,0.2 rem to kidney, and about 20 millirem to gonads. In addition, there were some exposures to all other organs in the body. Plutonimum does go to all organs in the body when inhaled. Similarly, if a person drinks water contaminated with 10 l
j picoeuries of uranium per liter, the amount of uranium in the bones will l
accumulate until the dose finally reaches about 300 millirems per year to bone.
- 13. Under NRC operating license specifications, light water nuclear power plants are allowed to release radioactive effluents in amounts which will result in radiation doses to the public of 25-75 millirems l
cach year. Ilow does this additional annual radiation exposure relate i
to the background radiation exposure? At what level of radiation l '
l exposure is there a significant increase in cancer rates?
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I Answer. Dr.1.shikawa in Japan has donc studies with a plant called the variant spider wort plant (tradescantia) which can serve as a monitor for emissions from nuclear power plants. The plant was calibrated in the laboratory with x-rays to determine the number of plant cells which change in color from red to mutant pink. The plants grown around a nuclear power plant in areas where health physicists estimate only doses of a few millirems are found to show doses of over 100 rads inside the plant cells. An EPA surveillance report on the Oyster Creek Nuclear Power Plant in New Jersey found that this facility routinely releases, in the exhaust,1.2 million curies of radioactive gases and 50 curies of long-lived radioactive particulates, including about 6 curies of neptunium, which becomes plutonium in several days.
A study done of a nuclear power plant in West Germany by the IIcidelberg Institute for Environmental Research estimated doses to the public around the plant to be about I rem per year. On the basis of their estimate, the West German government refused to build t ~is nuclear plant.
The National Academy of Science Committee on the Biological l
Effects of Ionizing Radiation estimates that the effect of'170 millirems l
j per year would be an increase of 0.75% in birth defects and diseases related to chromosome injury, which are wholly or partly genetic. In addition, there will be an increase in the amount of ill health due to injury related to chromosome damage, eventually of 5% in the population.
1 Further, there will be an increase of 2% in the spontaneous cancer death l
l rate. Since only about half of cancer cases r. ave a fatal outcome, there will be a 2% increase in the incidence of n'on-fatal caricers and a similar l effect in benign tumors, which are also induced by ionizing radiation. The l
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effect on the population of exposures of 55-75 millirems per year would be a fraction of that induced by the 170 millirem dose considered by the BEIR Committee. Ilowever, (xposures to external radiation will be the least important consideration. Inhalation and ingestion of radioactive gases, vapors and particulates in the air, in the water, or built up in the food chain, i.e. milk, meat, other produce and grains, will be the most important source of exposure to the plant, and these sources of exposure have been very poorly evaluated. A better evaluation of this sort of exposure has been done by the IIcidelberg Institute for Research and Environmental and Energy Research. That' is to say, it's quite possible that a much higher cancer increase will occur than would be expected around nuclear install-ations with projected exposures to 25-75 millirems of radiation per year.
- 14. In studying populations living in proximity to nuclear installations, what health effects have you observed? What is this pattern of cancer characteristic of?
Answer. In my study of cancer incidence around the Rocky Flats nuclear plant, I found an excess of leukemia, lymphoma and myeloma, and cancer of the lungs, thyroid, breast, esophagus, stomach, and colon. This is a pattern similar to that observed in the survivors of Iliroshima and l Nagasaki. Cancer of the testes, ovary, liver, pancreas and brain contri-buted to the execs of all cancer.
- 15. Are there special segments of the population more likely to demon-strate these health effects?
Answer. The fetus is considered about twenty times more sensitive to radiation than the adult, a child about ten times more sensitive to I
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. radiation than the adult. In addition, people with defects in their immune system are considered to be much more prone to injuries from radiation.
- 16. Are the health risks associated with radiation cumulative? .
Answer. The effects of radiation are considered to be cumulative.
That is, one rem over thirty years will have about the same effect as a single exposure to thirty rems. This has been fairly well demonstrated and accepted in many studies of radiation workers.
- 17. What demonstrated evidence exists of the incidence of non-cancer related diseases in connection with low level radiation?
Answer. Studies'of two populations exposed to high background low-level radiation showed increased and dose-related rates of chrome-some damage. Studies of plutonium workers and uranium miners also show dose effect changes in chromosome damage. In the population with the higher level of bakeground radiation, there was a four-fold increase in the rate of mental deficiency of the genetic type, chiefly Down's Syndrome. I did a preliminary study on birth defects around Rocky Flats and found the excess of the number was not large enough to be significant in my preliminary study.
- 18. Explain the health risks asociated with external radiation exposure (e.g. fall-out on topsoil) and radiation exposure through air, food and water?
Answer. The health risk associated with exposure to intake of air, food and water are considered to be much more serious and long-lasting than those associated with external radiation exposure, as, for example, from fall-out on topsoil.
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- 19. Given the special geographie circumstances of Louisiana, do you feel there are special risks associated with ground water radionuel ide i
contamination?
Answer. Ilecuase of the high water table in Louisiana, there are special risks associated in ground water contamination with radionuel ides.
The experience in South Carolina with contamination of water in Columbia with tri fium 100 miles downstream from the nuclear reactors at the Savannah River Plant is an example.
- 20. What special risks is Louisiana exposed to as a result of high levels of chemical contamination in combination with routine emissions of radiation from Waterford Three?
Answer. We could expect to see a synergistic effect in Louisiana, where people may be exposed to high levels of chemical contamination in the water, along with normal exposure to radionuclides from nuclear plants 4
in the air, water or food. There have been several publications addressed to this general problem area.
- 21. The NRC staff has concluded, regarding radiation emissions, that
"...there will be no reasonable radiological impact on niembers of the public from routine operation of the station." Ilow does this risk i
I analysis compare with the results of your research in this area?
j Answer. I do not agree with the statement by the NRC staff that there would be no reasonable radiological impact from the operation of the station. The NRC Commission is notorious for its industry bias. Members of the Commission in the past have been drawn from the industry or from the nuclear agencies which support the nuclear industry. The NRC is not .
noted for having any great interest in public health. Their mission is to
serve the industry. Th3 NRC, the DOE and the Offica cf Radiation Programs of the EPA are the daughters of the defunct Atomic Energy Commission, which achieved great ill repute through its practices of deception and its cavalier attitude toward the public. The arrogant officials, formerly of the AEC, now reside with the NRC, DOE, and the Office of Radiation Programs of the EPA. The only agency to which we can look to for support is the Department of Ilealth and Iluman Resources, which is the only Federal agency whose primary mission is the protection of public health. We must look to the DiiH with its Center for Disease
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Control and its National Cancer Institute for some protection.
- 22. Based on the examples you are familiar with, what is your assessment
.of the health risk to South Louisiana's population of the introduction of additional radiation in the one rad range resulting from plant operations at the Water Three nuclear generating facility?
Answer. I think that the introduction of additional radiation in South Louisiana in the one rad range resulting from plant operations is unaccept-able. Further, I doubt very much that actual exposures will be as small as this, especially when you consider the biological effect's of the 240 radionuel ides of importance released by nuclear power plants such as that proposed. Many of there radionuel ides are isotopes of trace elements and other elements important in nutrition. They will be concentrated and stored in the body in places where they can do much harm. No one has really done an adequate study of the molecular, cellular, and develop-mental effects of these 240 radionuel ides. No one really knows what the long-term effects of these radionuel ides on the reproduction of man, animals and plants wil be.
I STATE OF COLOltADO COUNTY OF tem,.,:i AFFIDAVIT llEFOltE M E, the undersigned authority, duly authorized to administer oaths, there did appear DR. CARL J. JOIINSON, a person of full age and a resident of the county of , % M e , r o ~' , state of Colorado, who being duly sworn on oath, did state that the answers to questions presented herein are all true and correct to the best of his knowledge, information and belief; and that all such answers were prepared at his direction.
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DR. CAltL J.iJOllNSON SWOltN TO AND SUBSCRIBED BEFORE ME, TIIIS f DAY OF ,H y a /s ,1982.
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2.4 ] P A n NOTAltY PUBLIC FOR Tile COUNTY OF 'T$ W.:fsei) ,
STATE OF COLOltADO.
My commission expires at M -e# /-/7 .
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Uovd CADEMY OF SCIENCES
/\MBIO A JOURNAL OF THE HUMAN ENVIRONMENT
- 8 RESEARCH AND MANAGEMENT VOLUME X NUMBER 41981 1
Cancer incidence in an l
Area Contaminated with Radionuclides l' Near a Nuclear Installation BY CARL J JOHNSON REPRINT _
Cancer incidence in an Area Con-taminated with Radionuclides Near a western hemisphere (M). The DOE station NucIear lnstaIIat= ion - the caster ido n ind> seundarv erthe plant has recorded an aserage concentra-tion of 2072 attocuries/m' faci!m') of plu-
- yu .; ,1 m By Carl J Johnson,42 Hillside Drive, tonium mer the eight > car period..com-
$' ' Ort'. ..... . b P4 Denver, Colorado 80215, USA pared to 32 aCi'm' for New York City and
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5 aCi'm' for the station with the lowest concentration (H).
Anglo cancer incidence for the period 1969-1971 was evaluated in census The air concentrations of Pu obtained tracts with and without contaminatron by plutonium and other radionuc- from ambient air monitors are of dubious lidas from the Rocky Flats (nuclear weapons) plant near Denver, Colorado validity, because, as Chapman states (1970 population 1 019 130). Exposures of a large population in the Den- "Although we maintain air samplers in ver area to plutonium and other radionuclides in the exhaust plumes from neighboring populated areas, these are not the plant date back to 1953. Cancer incidence in males was 24 percer11 visited daily because of the cost inwohed and because we found them to give the hig'her, and in femaks,10 percent hiaher in the most contaminated s me value as air samplers collected daily suburban area (phlation 154170) (nearest the plant), compared to the on site. The samplers are visited fortnight- -,
unexposed area (population 423 870), also predominantly suburban, "'" ' 'hc c c -
P" which had virtually the same age-adjusted rate for all cancer as the state. i J n eIas\dc( e The adjacent study area more distant from the plant had an excess cancer sure in case of an incident on the plant incidence of 15 percent in males. The excess cases of cancer were mostly- site. Consequently, dust loading restricts C leukemia, lyn phoma and myeloma and cancer of the luna, thyrnid, the air flow and gives an unrealistically breast, esophagus, stomach and colon, a pattern similar to that_ observed low computed value for air activity. To "
ifthe survivors 7(lirosh]ma_ancLNagasaki. The ratio of cancer of the transmit these values would raise ques-more radiMitivMans to other classes of cancer was 12.2 percent tions of fahification of data in the minds of _
higher in the area near the plant (17.6 percent in males,11.9 percent in lay readers because they are about an {
females). These ratios were not significantly changed with the deletion of order of magnitude lower than those re- .
ported from the air sampling stations of lung cancer. Cancer of the gonads (especially of the testes), liver, and,in _
" P" females, pancreas and brain contributed to the higher incidence of all [,)*',"i d g i wi cancer in areas near the plant. The increase in inc,idence of all cancer and speeds, and the diffusion through filters of -
for certain classes of cancer in the exposed population supports the alpha active acrosols, these filters are icw hypothesis that exposure of general populations to small concentrations elficient than the industrial llEPA filters 3 of plutonium and other radionuclides may have an effect on cancer inci- through which the Pu particulates have --m dence. already p' awed.
Unusual releases have occurred, espe- #
A nuclear wcap(ms plant (weapons com- There is a "diwemination of"the finest cially in major fires in 1957 and 1969 (7,8, ponents and research) in Jefferson Coun- radionuclide particles throughout the area 10,11). Average measured concentrations ty, Colorado has routinely released pluto- mer a radius of several miles from the of Pu in exhaust plumes from the main T nium (Pu) and other actinides and radio- plant site" and "these smallest particles stack at the plant were as high as 948 _
nuclides in the exhaust from plant are not noticeably reduced in number by pCi'm' for the eighth day after a fire and y smokestacks since 1953 (l). Plutonium is a gravitational settling to three miles from explosion in 1957, which blew out the fil-very potent carcinogen and considered the apparent point of origin and presum- ter system (12-14). There are no records y the most important risk to health, and so ably reached much further alicid"(5,6). of eminions for the seven-day period dur- __
is monitor ed on a regular basis. Release of Sampling stations draw air from the 61- ing the fire and after, but those unmea- ip other actinides and radionuelides is tered cxhaust stream through a collecting sured releases may have been 4g
- checked Icw frequently (1). filter. An evaluation of litter efGeiency in order.i.nff_ mag _nitude grcMer thm the re- J._
While exhaust ducting filters--five high which two millipore litters were arranged leases recorded on the eighth day (an esti- _
citiciency particulate air (llEPA) filters in in tandem disclosed a "large and variable mated 12 millieuries, or aboutJO mg of -
series--etTectively remme Pu particu- percent of the particles on the backup fil- Pu)(12-14). The releases of Pu and other '
lates larger than 0.3 micrometers ( m) in ter" (3249 percent), indicating an under- transuranics in the 1957 fire may represent "Z dian.eter from the exhaust stream estimation of Pu releases (5,6), the most important expmure to the -
(13 000 000 m' daily from the main stack), Routme releases of Pu in exhaust from population near the plant during the _
leaks do occur (2) and one report (1972) the plant ranged from an annual average period 1953-1971. "The 620 IIEPA litters -
estimates "the number of indisidual par- concentration of 0.03 picoc3tneuQ0@ in the main plenum had not been changed ticles emnted from 776 Iluilding to be on disintegrations per minute per cubic meter since they had been installed four years -
the order of millions per day" (3). About (pCi/m' orgd m)in 1953 to 1.05 pCi or earlier and may have contained many kilo- -
half the particles are below 0.l pm in 2.31 dpm/m m 1962 (l'able 1) compared grams of Pu (estimates range as high as diameter and behave like gas molecules to a guideline limiting Pu in plant exhaust 250 kg or about 15 000 curies). Large -g-(3). In addition, small particles of Pu (Pu to leu than 0.12 dpm/m' (7). Plutonium plumes of Pu-contaminated smoke from oxide) and other alpha radiation-emitting concentrations in the air at the Rocky the 150 foot high stack continued through- >- '
nuclides can ditTuse through the filter Flats plant are consistently the highest out the night. E)cwitnewes reported it to arrangement due to the constant fragmen- (1970-1977) in the US Department of be sery dark in color,80 to 100 feet high, 5-tation and selfscattering effect of the Energy (DOE) monitoring netw ork. w hich blowing south, cast and southeast" (12-alpha recoil phenomenon (lable 1) (4). has 51 stations emitioned throughout the 14).
Meam iss4ros im isse i,sr tese isse isso i ei in2 Ihtimates of the amount of Pu released ,,, n o, on, o o, og , , , ,, ,,, ,,, ,,,
are based on a study whnh found that an ret 0 03 o tt o os o co o se ici o is 12i r io Mer o od o it o0 0 64 O s9 72 0 92 ascr.sge of I3 grams of Pu v cre depouted a,, o c2 o is oor o og e 35 cae2,s o oeCO, 0, 24 i 74 dady on the firslotage filters (15,lfd. ihe Me, os oe 02i 0 04 4 e7 o is 0 43 $ 20 on Jwa o 03 00s o o9 0 20 $ 64 o s6 0 94 i 13 o 34 filters in that setem had been in operation u cor 0 04 on 04o 3 ts isi o s3 on o s4 no more than four months, and each filter contained as much as M grams of Pu. l he
^"l m
, C o 06
$i' c es o sa U' is e sa o ei o si
$f, 32s I'$
o so lU s es New c io c o6 0 33 o so 0 42 o it $ 32 o ss 2 44 aserage amount ranged from 16.6 grams o o te 0 04 c is 2 ci i ts oi t i2 c 44 s 33 (26 days) to 42 grams (4 monthe. In one Anavat month the filters could collect 0.5 kilo- "' '" '" '" "'** '" '" '" '
grams or more of plutomum, of which 86 f at fearse oveae 'or mammum perm == a e coamimwas 'or saca **ausi pluma = 0,2 dom /m' Da.lv exhaust volume from me.n steo emceeds13 000 000 m' perc*nt %as waterdoluble (Pu mtrate) (bl Dets erwompleto for 195Haverage o o3 dom /m'l arsd for is6Heverage 7 H pCi/mi eo due to riitrates Present in the eshaust (17)- 'd '"no.n vo secnember
.no n. s,pi
. ma,ov v.,ei usi irso.
sei -ims 74 i4comim5 apm/m' a~sseptonu-ts. ao2ons s.pi is. sampmmu,<.i io oomim . po.es vaaore When the stack momtors were placed (di Ain ' ners caanged ia ide ma n o'ier pienom reb s-12 5 32 apmem5 Feb i+-2s. 0 2i domimi back in operation eight days after the fire, "****"'"*"8""'*d'"""8'**'"' '"#*'
the guidehnes for stack eminions were escceded by 16(MN) times for that day, a
Table 1. Monthly average plutonium 239 concentration, in disintegrations per minute per cubs, meter greater than a permitted release over a (dpm,m'),in the air leaving the main exhaust duct of Building 771 la)ifrom Reference 7).
50.) car period.
An unknown quantity (14-20 kg) of Pu metal burned up in the fire. Iturning Pu Resuspension of Pu-contaminated soil fqrms submicron sized r articlei of n!"to- increases with wind speed to the 2.1 pow-nium oinde. Accordmg to a report made , , , , er, and the ratio of Pu 238 to Pu 239 in-by the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), theseyarticles do_nuLgttle out @ creases from about 2 percent (surface soil) to 2040 percent in airborne soil (31). As from mdustrial eshaust plumes, and are so '""
much as 50 pCi/g of Pu in airborne soil has small as to mose hke metal fume 3 and do been reported in the area. A study of Pu not account for the pattern of soil con- es m particle size in the soil suggested that sing-tamination around the plant (IM). * *m J( t :.\ \g[ Ic Pu atoms aH Pu particles with dia-There was concern about ofhite con- , '8 m . g ]" meters less than th minimum detectable tamination with plutonium by the fire. 'N 7 equivalent diameter (0.09 m) accounted floweser, only three off ite soil samples
~
h . . . for the majority of Pu 239 and Pu 240 were taken (19). All sho ,ed contamina- / actisity in the soil (32).
~
tion by the plant. A soit sample taken at Corramination of an aquifer under the the Ralston Elementary School 12 miles b ~
facilit) to 2.5 picoeuries of Pu per liter south 40uthwest of the plant contained _,,m,,,,,_,m.,_., .,,.m. (pCi!!), a stream leasing the plant site to
" ~ " ~ ~ " '
12 000 dpm kg of "possible enriched ura- UTTir.i= = 209 pCi.1(1), and a nearby water district to nium" and a sample taken at the Semper Figure 1. Denver area census tracts within 2.29 pCi'l has been reported (I,33). Pu in Elementary School sis miles cast of the Isopleths for soil contamination with plutomium Chlorinated water is soluble to the cxtent plant contained 16 tNN) dpm!kg of "possi. downwind from the Rocky Flats plant. The offsite that a recommendation has been made ble enriched uranium"(l'igure 1). A third (**"(*,"["{3*",",asgported , on March 13, that the concentration limit be reduced sample from prisate property contained e) At the semper Elementary School; 12 000 from 1600 pCill to 0.16 pCill (26, 27), so 18 tWM) dpm.Lg of "possible plutonium" disintegrations per minute per kilogram these concentrations of Pu are of concern T hese conSentrations are 150 to 225 times id Pm kg) of ~Possible enriched uranium". (34, 35).
b) e Ralston n enta highetlhan pu concentrations in s ail from ,. Contaminated water is a signi6 cant accumulated worldwide fallouTliniH uiTe- c3..po ,ible plutonium".1s oco dpm kg on source of exposure for only a small frac-fCid34TpT9is' IE%tIhg aCCDTdfr~ig to private property east of the Rocky Flats plant. tion of the Denver area population (l).
measurements of " background lesch" in The maior route of emosure is the inha.
Colorado soil, or between 4:00 and 6300 tion of airborne particles of Pu and wher times higher than the " background lescl" radionuclides by peorde livina 6 % path to.003 dpm'g) measured in South Carolina stored in several thousand corroded bar- of exhaust plumes from_ tjhsjant, and (for I
(20). These soil concentrations only indi- reis outdoors at the plant spilled oct on tTiose ining near the plant), the inhalation cate the pawing of a sery heavily con- the ground between 1958 and 1968, and of Pu in resuspended surface dust. No taminated smoke plume containing sery contributed at least 5.8 curies to the reports of measured population doses large amounts of Pu and other actinides ofTsite contamination (30). have been made, but work in progress and radionuchdes. An otTicial at the plant Concentrations of Pu in soil may be con 6rms the presence of Pu from the faci-afterward requested a " crash" sursey as compared to current and proposed guide- lity (identified by isotope ratic,)in autopsy part of a nationwide AEC Project, repeat- hnes for areas with risk of human expo- specimens of persons in the area (36).
ing a request in earlier telegrams for re- sure. Only a Sosiet standard of 0 44 dpm! l here has been no prior investigation of post, "contaiaing information telating to cm , or 2 0.44 dpm'g of soil (by consention) health effects for residents of areas conta-iadioactivity in the atmosphere and the is in the same order as the surface soil minated by Pu. (Pu, an alpha radiation tallout therefrom, which is of direct in- concentrations of Pu in the major part of emitter, has a scry slow rate of excretion terest to and must be know n by the public the area studied (Table 2)(22). An Inter- and is thus retained in the body for many in order to evaluate dangers to hfe" (21). state Commerce Commission guideline years.) Although Pu is present in exposed A large area dow nwind from the facility for trucks hauling radioactise materials persons in higher concentration in bone (Figure 1) has been contaminated with iso- permits a concentration 10 times greater (where the half-life is about 200 years) topes of Pu and other radionuclides (22- (4.4 dpm/cm2 ), but is 10 times more pro- autopsy studies of nuclear plant workers N). Uranium has been released by the tectise than a proposed Environmental hase demonstrated Pu in all organs (37).
open burning of oser 1000 barrels of con- Protection Agency tEPA) guideline to Animal studies suggest that effects of_l'u taminated lathe oil (30). In addition, waste protect the general public (44 dpm'em 2
), a rhay melude leukemia. neoplasms of
[ M rt M fb a Mhe gnMirm af fN m W mnMdre Rha ks be maWnd {hm G mug Mn wadspes_ mms
T.bie 2. Czedelmes cancerning contemin.t.on concente.tions of Ophe e dction (pastonium) foe o... served (169.5 dpm'g and 0 05 dpm's re-that peFAde rl h t) hum.n upo ut3 tfttm Referenn 22). spCctiscIy) compJFed to a maximum Con
- centration of 26 times background for the AEC suncy which sampled subsurf.+ce c, us u.ceo- o ae.s ei a. P. Typ. soil and coarse particles 2 mm in diameter g
',,,- Z',*.*- Z ".'7*.',*p7c',,- and smaller with the windblown material U$sa - 0 002 0 44 m ao. .nd wo<t under- Occup.t.ocal ciorn.a o.,o,. ci. Data were retriesed from NCI automa-i as
~
'd" ,t .ua.c . .e., occup.e.on., ted data proccuing tapes using a program
- o 00s ci.rco developed by llerg and Finch (50), with an
- 0 Ois 3 33 wo<t ciotNng .ad Occup noa.
,, c o.r o,. ci..a.as approach similar to that reported by Mon-E $ E. '*.$
. c*o*m^ *n'.*rc'e ^
comm....oa ccept d DZ son (51), and most recently utilized by Illair, et al (52, 51). Age-jpecifiq cancer
[.',*a".'7"aC,,,",7 rates for whites (excluding permith Spanish surname, because the population
[.",O,,*.*o'do,,
e .d.oauci.o.. al
- "'
- E.Yi.lf.7j'S'*
" ""' of thiarea white. near the plint withWrersons
~
is m'rtually'url of Spanish
~
s 2w or 44 m ,
g.ig,,v.c. robe.c name) were calculated for the Denser
, , , , , .ag ,
A propo..ol Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area
" "~ "*b"'
(SMSA), and expected case numbers cal-Ua*.'Y'a*vc'i..,'$*u,.
reac net culated by applying the SMSA age speci. -
' U i n.comm.no.4 tiv u s .i .a sar ra.i.oa.. sympo .um on n.d.oios.ca Proi.ci.on of ibe rubhc ,a . Oc cancer inc~idence rates to the iI corre-spondmg age groups in each sub-area, and 4bicomm....on, U*c[."o'#I.".0r'.YN,"*dN"c*wD."'*if[s.ci.oa
- w. n.catoa. oc esset te44.' 14Hs us Nuci.., neguintory summmg the products to obtain a stand-ardized expected incidence (cases expec-ted!arca population) for each area. The number of cases of all cancer or the clas-(38,39). Conservatise reports suggest that ses of cancer in each area divided by the maximum perminible doses of Pu for METHOD standarized expected incidence prosided workers should be reduced to about 67 Cancer incidence data was acquired by a risk ratio (observed!cxpectedh pCi (trachiobronchial lymph nodes) or census tract from the National Cancer In- Area IV, the unexposed population about 170 pCi (bone) (40, 41). Inhalation stitute's (NCI) Third National Cancer (comprising the remainder of the Denver and retention of a few particles of Pu of Survey (l%9-1971) with the assistance of SMSA) had an age-adjusted cancer inci-respirabic site ( < 5 pm in diameter) could the Colorado Regional Cancer Center (48- dence (males, 269 and females, 226 per exceed this amount (42). Limpbncpe. 50). The incidence of cancer for each can- 100(MM1) virtually identical to that for the chrommemc aberrations in Pu unrLert in. cer class was determined for census tracts state (males, 268 and females, 227 per the lowestypo.sure.4wup (1-10 percent pre selected within Pu isopleth areas (Fi- 100 000) (48). The risk ratio for Area IV riiaiimum perminible body burden of Pu, sure 1) with decreasiris concentration of was assumed to be 1.0 and the exposed or 400 to 4(XX) pCi) exceeded by 33 per- Rocky Flats Pu (identi6ed by isotope ra- populations ( Areas 1-111) were compared
! cent those of workers %ith no memrnhle tio) in soil, based on an area-wide suncy to Area IV. The population in Area IV is
$ddy hurdenJ43), further sunnorting a (core samples to e depth of 10 cm) made predominantly suburban, as is the popula-i more converative estimate of the body by the AEC in the Denver area in 1970 tion for Area i nearest the plant, and these l bL@fu hanog_potenthitedth ef- (18,24). Census tracts disided by an iso- two areas have a mean age more similar l Jccis. pleth were included in the area containing (Table 3) than those of Areas 11 and 111, A preliminary study _ of leuke_mia.and the major past of the census tract. and so those two areas proside the most l lung ~ cancer deaths compared eight census The isopleths in Figure I are approx- important comparisons. Median income l tracts around the facility with 19 sensus imate but useable in comparing the inci- and education levels of the study and tracts witiGiiimilar populationIh the' rela- dence of health effects between areas with control populations were considered with tively'iiHE5iitammated part of the county decreasing ensironmental contamination the aid of 1970 census data (Table 3), in (a census tract is a small area designated around a point source of emiuion and order to weigh the pouible smoortance of for statistical purposes in certain cities with populations that are similar in site. such awociated factors as smoking, diet i and in standard metropolitan statistical Area I, within the Pu concentration range and alcohol. ,
areas-SMSA's-in the United States). A 4M).8 millicurievkm (mci km ),2 lies be-2 The population in the eight census higher age-conected leukemia death rate tween 3 and 21 km from the center of the tracts in Area i nearest the plant was small
~
was noted in hie ~ ioInTahiinated area (p = Rocky Flats Plant along the principal wind and had had rapid development and recent 0.01) and-tficWeVecifid (4LM years) sector. Area 11 (0.8 to 0.2 mCilm?) ex- in migration (an estimated population of .
death' rate fr5m liing cancer was more tends from 21 to 29 km and Area Ill(0.2 to
^
16 000 in 1960, and 44 000 in 1970, during
~
which time the population of Denver did thanisicTis great as for~thelontrol area 0.1 mCikm 2) from 29 to 35 km.
(p < 0.05) (44, 45 ). A preliminaryypdy.of The Pu content of soil reported in the not appreciably change) (49). Area IV, congenital malfornUtion's~ coded at birth AEC suncy was used as a surrogate mea- like Area I, is mostly suburban, and part Luind a rate af.14.5 per 1000 births for a sure of exposure through pathways other of this area also had a rapid growth in l
large suburban _ city near the plant com- than those that originate from the soil (ie population between 1960 and 1970. The pared With a rate o[10aLfor the remainder- ~ an indication of the direction of exhaust esidence indicates heaviest exposures in
'of the counif, and 101for the state of plumes from the Rocky Flats Plant since 1957. Since t5cre is a latent period for Colorado, a ditTerence of interest (47). 1953). That actual exposures to radionu- neaoplasrns, many persons in the eight in order to determine if exposure of a clides base been much larger is suggested census tracts nearest the plant would not large population to a small concentration by a surwy of Pu in surface respirable base had sufficient time in residence to l
of Pu and other radionuclides had pro- dust to a distance of 32 km around the exhibit an effect from exposure to Pu. An duced a measurable efTect on cancer inci- plant. Concentrations of Pu as much as influence on cancer incidence would be dence, the following insestigation was 3390 times greater than that in Colorado first apparent in the large population areas
--_~.o o
t e
o Dstense Piutovuum Angle Populgt.en Fopulateen Chenecienst6cs incadense of seacee someered t:n unstpowd populet6en feem mes6y mCe t e fiets en ised Mese Female Medien Me4en Medien Aee Male Femese fatal peens. pee e l mni) *' feuca- Income Ysees vectee teen Cases Cases Cases geoes " MCe Femele obs esp *' e s t " obsesp set ess esp set Aees i F21 km 44400 76250 70 920 12 De it 891 25 8 29 8 644'519 "
- 24 % 636/$41' + 10% 1280/110**
- 16 %
Aees 5 2129km 0442 9n 300 1C3 900 11 85 e 367 34 6 36 4 10e6/94 7" . 16 % 1164/1100 + 5% 2240/20a7" e 10%
Asee ms 29-3S om 02-01 117 370 129 630 12 69 12 094 30 6 33 6 1078/1000
- 8 % 1149'1109 + 4% 2227/2109 + 6%
Aeess kill 3- 3S hm 48441 282 920 3t2 350 12 72 0 6e4 2808'2466" + 11% 2939/2790"
- 6% $747/5256" + 9%
Aeea IV s 35 sm =0$ 210 670 213 190 12 97 0 055 24 2 25 9 1114 0 1260 0 2374 0 fel fief de the Ne'.onal Came, Instsaute e tNed Net.onal Cancee $wevet leicideace Data (espected case numbe's ca'culated by appivmg the SMSA se* specif*C concer encideme rates to the corressoad'ag ese s'ovpe an eerb sees. and summ.ng the products to otae.n a stadard.,ed espected encedence Icases espected/ ores populationi for each eies The study stees ore then compe ed to the control aree
- Angso ' encludes elf weste escept those n th Spenssh surname ibt Udhe.ures per square 6 6ometer, caiculated from Pu coacenteatioas m sod to 10 cm m depth, including grewel < 2 mm in diameter (c) Th s de's es foe total populet on 149) ,
id, c . efpm. who,. ,,- l..n see. p . em.m. o, c.,cer. e,d 0 1 , the e used .. ~ va... e . np. es a more cons.,v.,,ve
,es, then the Man,e. ~a.ns,e, e is., use o, . so-.t ,nore cor,s......v. tes, oev,s.d by ,, tessor to.s eheer g o, the un..e,s.t. o, s,-tho.m.
i
- 2. "',
%ne"inj,did not change the level of signet.conce noted here sad *n Table 4 n.
Crn.cai XNelue et e 95% conf.dente leves. " Critical n' value at a 99 % conf demo tevet lei dotiwevediespected - 1) x 100. compared to A>es IV. the unesposed populevon e
Table 3. Census tract eveas selected by decreasing son concentrations of Rocky Flats plutonium, Anglo population siae, mediari income end educatio and total inc6dence of cancer for 46 cancer 6ites, by sea, for the period 1969L1971 (el Asea 1 Aees A Aree IN Asse IV so-e e m6thcunes blemeter' O 8-0 2 mill 6cunes kilometer? O 2-0.1 milheuries hilometer' lunosposed)
Populateen 712S4 Mese 79.920 Female Total 90.300 Mei, 103.900 f eme6e ' Teest 117,370 Mele 121.530 Female fetal 210.870 213,190 (1970) Ceses Casee Cases Cases Cesee Casee Meae Femese See obs/espiblo/e ltclobs/ esp o/e-t o/e.l obs/emp e/e 1 obs'emp o/e 1 o/e 1 ' obs/emp o/,-1 obs/ esp o/e 1 o/e-1 obs obs tung and Bronchus 109'82* 33 % 21/24 (12M 23% 209/143 " 46 % 53/48 10 % 37 % 179/168 13 % 64/48 12 % 13 % 174 , 61 Othee Respie-atory 20/13 64 % 3/2 50 % 63 % 21/23 19 %) 7/5 40 % 0 26/26 0 2/6 (60 %) (10M .32 6 Leutemse 27/19 42 % 14/17 (18M 14% 78/31 11 0 % ) 34/33 3%- (3 %) 37/34 9% 62/33** Se% 33 % 46 - ' 30 tymphoma, Myenems 35/26 40 % 28/25 12 % 26 % 48/40 20 % 38/49 122M (3 %) 61/45 ' 13 % 43/49 112M 0 Se - 66 Teneue.Phe-ryas, t sopha - -
gue 17/12 42 % 6/3 100 % 63 % 43/18 " 139 % 2S/7" 257 % 172 % 29/20 45 % - 10/7 43 % 44 % 24 2 6somech 22/16 38 % 11/14 121M 10% 27/30 (10%) 17/32 116M (13% 30/32 16M 21/23 19 %) (7 M 34 27 Ceton, flectum 100/68* 47 % 103/76 " 37 % 42 % 144/130 11 % 178/160 11 % 11 % 135/135 0 152/143 6% 3% 144 146 t>weeend 54 eery 10/6 100 % 7/10 130M 13s 23/13' 77 % 23/22 5% 31 % 19/13 46 % 19/21 110M 12 % 6 3 Pencrees 20/22 19 %) 21/16 40 % 11 % 37/41 110M 35/32 9% 13M 39/43 (9 M 32/30 7% OM 46 Testes 11/b 120 % 14/5' 133 % *30
- - - * - -- 15/7 114 % - - - 13 -
Owary - - 34/27 26 % - - - 69/48 23 % .- - - 66/52 27 % - - 63 Thyeoid 3/6 (50 M 24/16 50 % 23 % S/10 (20 M 33/26 27 % 14 % '11/12 ism 23/29 (21M (17%) . 14 42 Seem 13/11 18 % 10/S ;. 25 % 21 % 10/11 (41 %) 10/12 (17M (31%) , 97/20 (16M 19/14 36 % 6% 27 . 20 Othee $stes 257/235 9% 3s4/345 3% 6% 474/445 8%, 632/62S 3% 6% 490/465 8% 656'656 0% 3% 493 '772 AR Cencer 644/519 " 24 % 636 % 81* 10 % 16 % 1086/947 " 15 % 1154/1100 6 % ' - 10 % 1078/1000* 8% 1949/1109 4% 6% 1514 ' 1260 (al f rom the National Cancee institute's Third Nat.onal Cancer Suevey incedence Data E spected cose numbers calculated by apply.ng the SMSA age specific cancer snudence rates to the correspond,ng age groups in each area. and summing the peoducts to sbeam a standardaed espected encadence Icases espected/ area populationi toe och area The study a<eas are then compared to the control stea " Anglo" mcludes all whete escept those with Sparush surname. (48) ~
(b) x' .L2%. ' - 0 Sf .3,n n , popoi,,,on ,;,,, ,, me,oenc, ,( canc,,, and ti .1 - p_ The X used ?
with the venance = npq is e more conservative test t'han .
the Mantel Haentret C 158)
- Critical x ' veive et a 95 % confidence level " Critical X value ?
at a 99% conf 4ence level ic) febserved/eapocted - l s 100 compared to Area IV, the uneaposed population. Percentages m patentheses are negative liess than espectedr Table 4 Anglo cancer incidence by sen, and by cancer site, in the Denver metropolitan area over a period of three years (196S-1971) by erees of census tracts wrth and without plutonium soil contamination by the Rocky Flats plant tal feet of the inclusion of the eight census exposed areas represents more cases than with the largest study population. For tracts nearest the plant with the remainder etrected (both seses) (cancer of the both sexes in all exposed areas,192 cases of Arcalittu underwit;mLc.n2tronmen- !ung. leukemia. hmnhoma and nachof leukemia were obsersed where 167 i
taUy related ditTerence m cancer inci- (only males), and canceLuf_the tongue, were expected. There was a higher inci.
-d g ph_ar>ns 1md esophagus, colon and rec- dence oflymphoma and myeloma in males tumliMTEnFmMcWphiicrCawnly fe- in all exposed areas (134 cases observed!
[
HESULTS maIisi gonad % thy roid (only female 5) and 110 expected).
l The total incidence of cancer for the pe- brain (only females). A most unexpecteidisemery was the riod 1%9-1971 is summariied in Table 3 ~ThFincidenEof lung and bronchial imuIu'aliy high incidence nf c,nect-of the for 46 can(cr clawes by isopleth area of cancEf6r males in Area I wasatiduLM testis (40 cases observed!!8 espected)
Pu concentration. Compared to males in percent higher than for nulcundhoun- TEughout the exposed area ( Areas I-III) the unesposed area (Area IV) there was conTaimnated.arca (Table 4).,This higher (53-55). The in5;dence of cancer of the an incidence of cancer 245i higher m incidenc.cfersisted in Arc;tlLWA. high- ovary was also hightr (249) throughout males in Area I, nearest the plant and 15 % er). In all ru.med aren M mes_warc_ the exposed areas.
higher in Area 11, further from the plant. observed where M3 were expec.ted, for Tbc iadha d er " N +
(For confidence lesch, see Table 3, co- males. For both sesetaalLc3 i Peed and rectum was much higher for both lumn 10.) The corTespsmding salues for areas 1 625 cases wertobserved where 503 mTe'NugimWo m mea i H2O hicher females were 10'1 in Area I and 5% in were s expected. for both setes) and for all esposed areas Area 11, and for both seses 16G and 109, ~ TilercAls ainificant excen15&G) of 1812 cases obsersed/71i expected). The The hisher incidence of all cancer in the _ cases of3cdemia in females in Area 111, incidence of cancer of the liver s00 W4- o
p 65 14 75
- W!e 45-54 54 64 0-14 1$<4 Age Category 6683 1.765 3 175 24 092 5.750 12.652 3.148 66530 31.335 98 521 8.361 o 's E IPepuletion Aees 1. IV) 24 875 f o/, E o/e E o>e I os e o<e f oi f act Cancee tiesses 169/130** 230 186 147/127 278 194/149 " 270 25 52/40 126 71/64 55 16/9 6 17 All aisones 20/9 1* 37 31/25 54 34/31 8'36 11 14/13 2/11 2 Lung end l>tonchus 0. D 0 1/10 3 6/18 4 2/17 3 6/42 11 13/2 9 " 9 5/17 3 3/11 2 L eukemie 19/7 3 " 23 3/14 4 8/21 6 4/51 9 L ymphome, myelome 1/19 5 6 3/32 7 8,61 11 0/0 0 1/03 1 6/21 15/12 26 15/9 4 17 29/13 " 23 Stome(n 0 3/25 8 6/52 15 110 6 2/11 2 Colon 0/0 0,03 1 3/0 0 1 0/03 3/ 7.3 13 Ove, 0/0 0 1 3/35 10 6,41 9 7/66 12 0 1/06 2 1/0 0 0/0 0 Ponceses 0/0 1/07 2 0/05 1 1/0 0 8/32 to 0 1/0 0 0/06 1 Testbs 1/03 1 0/0 0 0/0 0/0 0 Besent 0/0 0 4 0/14 3 1/06 1 0/0 0 1'32, 10 1/14 2/33 6 1/17 3 Thyred b22 7 3/17 5 4/23 5
- /2 8 5 Beein 1/04 1 3/14 4 4/55 12 11/3 9' 7 .
0/0 0 0/06 2 Unknown 7.593 3.257 5 272 f emale 99 % 2 8.727 _ 23 %rs - 6,143 f f 9E 3 4 031 23 fi48 64 433 33.113 iPopuistoon Area 1, IV) 144/104 " 195 148/144 234 103/84 253 106/116 ile 130/118 . 249 3/43 7 Ali classes 5/70 19 2/56 15 6/57 11 9/75 34 0/0 0 2/1.3 4 7/05* 2 2't.1 2 1/25 4 Lung and beenchus 0/18 5 5/13 4 0/11' 3 6 5/2 s 4 11/3 1* 6 Leuk emes 1/07 2 9/2.4
- 1/07 2 19/7 0** 21 2/33' '7 2/16 3 6/80 13 L ymphome. myeleme 1/03 1 0/11 3 to 39/25* 40 0/0 0 1.s/85 18 16/8 5 biomech 0 3/40 12 8/09 . 27 1/0 0 2/0 0 Colon 0/0 0/04 1 v/G 0 0/0 0 0/07 2
'9,43 9 5/32 '6 3/49 8 Uver 0 2/03 1 2/22 6 7/42 8 3/37 6 Ponceses 0/0 7/75 20 9/62 13 49 Overy 0/0 0 8/53 16 J //70 64 46/27' 51 33/30 34/34 101 40/44 119 5 4/18 2<
0/0 0 4/09 2 y ,0/27 Beoest 1/0 0
- 12/8 3 25 3/26 7 2/1.1 2 0/06 i Thyeoed 3/20 6 1/07 2 2/19 4 8/62 10 Beem 2/18 5 2/26 7 3/09 2 7i59 11 0/0 0 1/07 2 Unknown 25,615 7,179 13.276 5.042 8.448 Total 198.073 17.078 47.471 17,890 (Population. Area l, M 48.473 130.963 64.508 312/277 464 177/178 495 277/247* 527 338/251 " 465 25/16 44 155/123* 379 42/30 65 43/37 69 19 " 4 24 An clesses 10/4 9 15 16/19 62 3/36 6 tung and bronchus 0/0 0 13/2 8 " 6 4/2. 7 6 16 18/4 2** 13 1/22 6 7 14/4 2 " 7 6/59 .11/5 1 " 11 10/3 8*
L eukemia 38/14 " 44 < 4/22 6 10/12 20 Lymphome, myeloma 2/26 0/0 7
0 2/06 2" 6/32 9 b/6 5 / It 10/7 8 14 33 68/38 " 63 5tomech 6/65 20 14/17 48 29/20f ' 44 31/18*
4/12 2 eoson 0/0 0 0/07 2 3/0 / 0 2/05 1 0/0 0 0/1.0 3 18 12/9 7 18 6/13 21 Uver sis 8 18 15<T 4 6 Fn 0 3/1.0 3 8/43 8 3/36 Pencrees 26 8/79 22 . 9/66 e 14 33/30 50 1/0 0 . ' 16J8 5 ** 3 r/:0 - 64 47/28 " 51 Gonads 1/0 0 ' 35/33 102 40/42 8 119 1/32 6 4/36 3 Breast 13/11 35 4/47 13 4/23 5 8 1/2.4 4 1/0 0 6/42 9 4/43 Thyrood ' $/3 6 13 ' 4/2.5 7 18 13/9 0 ..
B<een 3/22 P 5/40 11 7/65 14 18/9 7*
C/0 0 1/1.3 4 Unk nown Incedence Data (a) Ret 48 T he National Cances Institute's Therd Notenal Conce, Survey: i Area 1/populaten an Aree IV)
(b) o observed cases en Aree f. <
- espac1ed' numter of caws tactual - number of cases en Ares IV w population n (c) E is the number of cases m Asee IV -
- p<005
" p < 0 01 (siandardized 7 test for normal oppronranon r tt$a benom el proportion, ret 58) f Table 5. Anglo cancer incidence by sex, age and by cancer class,in the Denver l) (a).metropohtan area over a p tracts with and vwithout plutoniurn soil contamination by the Rocky Flats Plant: Area i coinpened t<> Area IV (Contro A higner incidence of breast cancer was der and "other biliary" was higher in OM/251) and oveM5 years 012f277). This . found for females in the age group 65-74 males throughout the three exposed areas differetice .was due principally to an ex-(779 higher in Area 11; for all exposed cess of cancer in males in the age groups years (M/
areas, 52 cases obsernd/31 expected). ibl4 years,15-44 years,65-74 years, and cidence was obscu over 75 years. An excess incidence of all age-adjusted.
Cancer of the tongue, pharynx, and esop- The incidence of cancer of the testis is cancer was also noted in females with no hagus was high for both sexes in all three signif i cant exception, especially in the age again noted, with one case o study areas W9 cases observed /50 expec. tne small population (24 825) in the age ted for males, and 41 casevobsersed/17 group of 15-44 years and 65-74 years. , category (bl4 near the plant and none The higher incidence of all cancer was expected for females). According to the occurring in the larger control population statistica test used, the remaining varian- chieQdue to car)cer of lung and bron- (66 53')). In the next older age category, chus, esnecially in the males, and to can-ces may be random. 1544, eight cases were observed where g
The strongest comparisons can be made cer of the colon in both sexes. The inci- 3.2 were expected. ,
between Area I, a predominantly subur- dence was higher above the age of 53. With one exception (ages 65-74), there ban area near the glant with heasiest ex- IheeptLms wm arrucnnfTuncer of were more cases of cancer of the thyroid posure, and Area IV, also pedominantly the lung and bronchus in males in the age in females than e xpected, and a wburban with httle or no exposme and range 15-44 years and cancer of the colon cancers of unknown origin, especia in females in the age group 4544 years.
having virtually the same ge adjusted in- 'Ihere was a higher incidence of leuke- the age range 6%74 years cM=e rate for :11 cancer as that for the Investigation of the ratios of cancers of mias,1 3mphomas and myelomas in both state of Colorado. 'Ihe number of cancer cases observed for these two areas in the sexes in Area I. In males there (Table was6)afound radiosensitise higher ratios organs in theto three-year study period are compared by higher incidence of leukemia in the age group 15-44 years of age (13/2.9) and of population near the plant, compared age and sex in Table 5. lymphomas and myelomas in the age the unexposed population in Area IV Igboth s3.icL1hc_ general pattern _is ( + 12,2 9, + 9.79 and + 3.4 9, respec-that of excew incidence of all cancer in all group 15-44 years (19/7.3). In females, age categories in AiQIEEnEnifi- there was a higher incidence 1111. of leukemiaMales had a rively, higher ratiofor both near these cant emperrTfielas an excew of all in the age group Sud (7/0.9) and of lym- plaat,17.69 higher, than did the females cancer in the age group & 14 years (25 phomas and mielomas in the age groups ing lung cancel M i! i e m
radiosensitive organs to other cancers table s. Anglo cancer incidenc3 in the Denver metropolitan area over e period of three years HW9M Ly arealtf censultracts with cnd without plutonium soil contamin: tion by the Rocky Flots L7% higher for both sexes; 17.9% for .Ptant: A cimperison of the r:tios of cancers of radiosensati13 orgarn ti)13 other cancers by set and by iles and 13.6% for females). esposure to plutonium from the piant th). .
SCUSSION c incidence of all cancer in the sub- ,,,, ,,, ,,,,,;on y,,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,
uacer **acers o' other rete. Io, ' - in = 100 han area near the plant (Area 1) was ""' "
- nincantly hicher than that in the unex- On7'** "e*.*' s sed population ( Area IV) w hich had vir- tota ev 423 st,s 2374 i2si im tna own ally the same age-adjusted cancer inci- l, l'8
$*}$
24ssos$ 2227 ijjj 1192 is jj5j 103s -11s2
;'2Q
+ 3 4%
nce as the state. Exposed Area 11 more , tant from the plant, had a correspon- We 'v 2'y,7l
, Q 600 g l8j' yo igly smaller excess meidence of all can- Il 90 300 1086 s0F s19 0 878 + 7 6%
"' " 7 3 '' '#' '* - 8 78' -3^
r compared to Area IV. Area 111, most ' , tant from the plant, had an incidence of f *N'j$ $ $U $ l'@ , ii ,$,* cancer slightly greater than expected. # jog jQ Q *g g g y The data were corrected for age, sex,
'*d*"' ** 8 8"*~ d 'd ** 'h*** '* "d "'"'u" "'M'**'**
- c 3iiTethmeity. Other possible con. i*) "C*ac'gas*a'ks; and Na leukemea.'lymphoma and m'"yeloma, and can"cer o'f"th'e bre lung, thyroid.'voast. esophagus.
anding factors include urbanauburban stomach, and colon tfrom Reference s9L - Terence5, income, education, air pollu. m , ,,,,,,nc, cancer inc.d.ince, o.,. 1. po,oi data,,on tram,n ine Nat.onai 4,,, cancer institue iv ,, con.,o.,,o , coni,os,,,, th ro, N,ationa,i on ,,,n no c,,ancer incidence survey: - _
,,,,,,,, io in, occupation, smoking habits, and p'uma'um ad o**'e *c has the areatest **de*to*ad posure '*d'aaucde's*.
these om the radioauchde those ia Rockv Area isF'* havepiaat. i..s e The popui,on posure. en Area and those in i ct. Data wcre not available by census A,. m have ta= nast e posure strom neverence sat ict for smoking, drinking and dictary bits, but these were assumed to be . sociated with income and education. ca II includes the Denver urban core igure 1), much of the low-income hous- higher cancer incidence than those two groups. Cancer of the lung, stomach, liv-g, and a lower educational and income older urban areas. The method of age er, gonads, thyroid and brain also contri- <el(usually associated with a higher in- adjustment (see footnote for Tables 3 and buted to the higher incidence of all cancer fence of cancer) but has a lower inci. 4) across the 11 age groups (NCI) should near the plant. The general trend of all nce of cancer than Area I, a suburban correct for these age differences, which cancer of radiosensitive organs was clear- 'pulation near the Rocky Flats plant de. are minor between the principal compari- ly upward near the plant, but in some clas-3 graphically similar to Area IV (Table son populations in Area I and Area IV. ses of cancer the numbers of cancer cases . Area Ill has an educationallevel slight- The higher age-adjusted cancer incidence in each age category were too small in the ligher than Areas I and II, and slightly found in Area I was conGrmed by age- three-year period of the investigation to wer than Area IV. This area has the specific comparison with Area IV. be statistically significant. ghest income level, and has a higher The age-adjusted in, idence of ati cancer Further indication that the populations neer incidence than Area IV. Differing was signincantly higher near the plant, in the path of exhaust plumes of the Lets of income and education do not due to more cases than expected of a num- Rocky Flats plant have been affected is ! pear to be important as a cause for the be75Findividual classes of cancer, includ- provided by an examination of the ratios hher incidence of cancer in areas near ing those noted to be in excess in the of cancers of radiosensitive organs to e plant. survivors of liiroshima and Nagasaki: other cancers, compared to that ratio for Area 11 has more air pollution than Area feukemia. tvmnhomas and myelomas and the unexposed population in Area IV but has lower cancer incidence than cancer of the lung, thyroid, breast, (Table 6). These are the cancers found in ca 1, w hich is nearer to the Rocky Flats esophagus, stomach and colon. Cancer of excess in the survivors of Iliroshima and ant, in considering occupation, the dis- gonads (especially the testis) inver. pan- Nagasaki; leukemia, lymphomas and bution of Rocky Flats Pu workers creas and brain also contributed to the myelomas, and cancer of the lung, thyr- !Proximates the distribution of popula- higher mcidence of all cancer in the areas oid, breast, esophagus, stomach and co-fn between exposed and unexposed nek theKTAe classes of cancer lon. These cancers occurred in greater pulations (1). Old radium mill tailing found t5L. L eqss are for the most part proportion than expected in the exposed
- es are located in Area II, under streets Iliose developing it. the more radiosemi, population (12.2% higher in Area I for f parking lots and in commercial and tise imues of the-~~ tody. 'Ihere was not an 11.9% both sexes; 17.6% higher for males, and higher for females). This ratio de-
'ustrial areas, and may cause an accu- Ecessive meidencc oT'T%a, lation of radon in rooms in a small p'crtraprTiecause of its longer latent creased in Areas 11 and 111 for males, but ber of non-residential buildings. This pe_riod._ persisted for females. The exclusion of i ld appear to have no noticeable'effect The remarkably higher incidence of lung cancer (because smoking habits are the results of this investigation (56). cancer of the testis in the three exposed an important factor in lung cancer) makes The higher incidence of cancer in males arqas merits special attention. One possi- little change (11.7% higher for both sexes rentuates a sex difference noted for the ble explanation is the demonstrated pro- in Area 1: 17.9% higher for males, and sposed population and for the state. pensity of plutomum to concentrate in 13.6% higher for females). gi s is partly due to the smoking habits of gonads t53-55). The higher incidence of
'n. Pulmonary irritants (ie cigarette cancer of the ovary is also consistent with >ke) can result in a greater respiratory this hypothesu CONCLUSION sition rate of small inhaled pardctes, That the age-adjusted rates of all cancer A conservative analysis of cancer inci-h as Pu particles (57). Smoking habits near the plant are higher is confirmed by dence in the Uenser MI5A user a three- >ne can not account for the profile of an inspection of age-speciGc cancer inci- y e:irperiod tl%WI971) tounJIhighcT in-sses of cancer found in excess, except dence for Areas I and IV : Table 5). This cidence ~or'511 cancer _in _ areas contami-respiratory cancer, was due in part to higher age-speciGe inci- na'Ied 'with hL compared to the. unex Area I had a population. with a souni;cr dence ofleukemia,lyniphoma and myelo- posed area. The consistency of the in-an age than Areas 11 and Ill (though ma, and cancer of breast, colon, and can- crease in incidence of all cancer and for quite as young as Area IV), but had a . cer, site unknown *for certain ageopecific . certain categories of cancer with increas-
$ng Concentration of Pu in soII supporh 12. S Chmn. H Holme. Pre Tnal Statement. Cini Ac- V Archer. R Ibtime. A Lihenfeld. Somatic :cli tion Nos. 7541-1111. 75-M-ll62. and 75411296 c hromosome and sputum a rtl ntologn hangrs in the hypothes.is that exposure of the gener- ,,n ihe umteo states Dninct Court for the District humans e spmed ro 222 radon and 239 plutonium.
al public to low concentrations of Pu in of Colorado. Denver Cc.:orado.1978L Progrew Report. Department of Energy contact "P"'" "*' *"'d'" '"d dt son n p surc e s. No. E (2902 0 639 E Roc kwcll Internatonal.
, 'thi enl,lro.nment maY base
-,, an effeit'~on '
penence within the Umted States Atomic Energy Rocky Flats Divmon. Health Sciences Group.
' cancer incidence. The higher incidence of Commmion. 194u970 WASH H92 tUmted Goiden. Colorado.1976L cancer in the areas near the plant were S Dep'nment or Energy. Washington. DCI. 44. C J John on. in Prmerdmrs of the 105th A ,al
- 14. The report of msesngation of senous mcident m Afectme of the Amernon Public livalth Assmia-due to more cases than expected ofleuke- Ba,lding 771 on September H.1957 < pow Che- tion. Washmston. DC (1977L ./
mia. 'ymphoma_and myeloma and cancer mical Company. Umted States Depanment of 45. C J Johnson. m Prm redings of the 145th NanMal Energy. Washsngton. DC 1958k the American Aswciationfor Ihr AJ. of the lung, thyro.d, i breast, esophagus,
- 15. J B Owen. Revn s of the tikaust a,,filierma and Alertmg vomem,n of, of & ience t Houston. Te sas.1979 L stomach and colon, a pattern similar to air samphng. Buddmg 771 (Rocky Flats Plant. 46. J P Fos. C E Halt. L R Elseback. Epidemiology, that observed in the survivors of Hiroshi- Golden7 Colorado. March 14.1963L Afan and Disease. (The MacMillan Company,
- 16. R W Woodard. Pluton,um partsculate studers on Colher-MacM.llan Limited. London,1970L ma and NagadLsT Cancer of ganads (espe- aooster systems No. 3 tauddma 771s p/ter ple- 47. C J John on. in francedings of the r,rst Inte na-
' cially the testis) iiver, pancreas and brain num. (The Rocky Flats Plant. Golden. Colorado, tional Conerrss on /Inman Ecology (Vi na.
. . January 27.197tt Austna.1978).
contributed to the higher incidence of all 17. P G Hagan. F J Mmer, water-soluble plut<mium 48. Third National Cancer Sursey: Incidence Data. cancer near the plant. Further study is on pleaum Alters. CROL 950355-4 (The Rocky National Cancer Institute Monograph 41. Depart-warranted to pursue the investigation of Flats 1%nt. Golden. Colorado. November 11. ment Health Education and Welfare No. (Natio-1970L nal Institutes of HealthI 75-787. United Siates poorly-understood, complex dose-effect 18. P N Krey. E P Hardy. Plutonium m sod around Department of Health Education and Welfare, relationshiEs between the concentrations 'h' #* *V I'd's Plant. H ASt<235. Umted States (Pubhc Health Service. National Institutes of
, Atomic Energy Commmion. (The Rocky Ilats Health. National Cancer Institute. Bethesda. Ma-of many radionuclides in cells and organs Plant.colden Colorado. August 1.1970L ryland.1975).
and the incidence of cancer and other 19. S E Hammond. Determination of contammatwa 49. Census tracts imtially contained about 4000 inha. from RexAv flats Plant in the ennron: Intenm botants, but now are often much larger. The somatic and genetic effects in general Report. (The Rocky Flats Plant. Golden. Colora- boundaries of the census tracts are established populations residing near nuclear installa- da. March 13.1958L jomtly by local committees and the US Bureau of tions. 20. H R McLenden. O M Stewart. A I Boni. J C the Census to achieve sorne homogeneity of such Carrey. K W McLeod, J E Pmder. IProcredmas population characteristics as economic status and of the international Atomic Energy Association kving condstnons. Detasled demographic data are References and Notes SM-19935L available from the US Pureau of the Census for
- 21. P Ager,in a telegram to F H Langell requestmg a cach census tract. Data used here were published
- 1. Draft Environmental Impace Statement. Rocky crash survey. (The Rocky Flats Plant. Golden, in: United States Bureau of Census. Population Flats Plant Site.1545.D (Umted States Energy Colorado. Apnl 16. 1959). and Housing: 1970 Census Tracts. Tinal Report Research and Desclopment Administration. Gol- 22. J R Seed. K W Calkms.C T Illsley. F J Mmer.J B P//T (Il- 56 Denser. Colorado Standard Metro-den. Colorado.1977). In proportion to Pu 239 Owens. Committee waluation ofsodievels withis pohtan Statntical Area. (Umted States Govern-(taken as 1.0. on the basis of radioactisity) the and surrounding C,uted States Atomic Energ/ ment Printmg Office. Washington, DC.1972L amounts released of some of these are amencium Commission installation at Rm Ay Flats. Colora- (Book)
- 241 (0.62) Pu 238 (0 02) Pu 240 (0.22) Pu 241 do. Report RFP-INV 10 (Dow Chemical Com- 50. J Berg. The Colorado Regional Cancer Center.
(8.25), protoactmsum 234 10 96). thorium 231 pany. Roc ky Flats P ant. Golden. Colorado 1972). Denver Colorado. National Institutes of Health (0.05), thonum 234 (0.96). uranium 214 (l .49). ura- 23. S E Poet. E A Martell, //ralth Physics 23. 537 grant No. CA 25729 4 1 (1979). Personal commu-mum 235 (0 05) and uramum 238 (0.96) (D. The (1972). nication. progeny of these nuchdes will also be present. 24 P N Krey.1/ralth rhssics 30. 209 (1976L / $1. R R Mon on. Computers and Biomedical Re-Other radionuchdes hkely to be emitted fmm time 25. C J Johnwn. R R Tidball. R C Severson, Scirm af scarch. 7. 325 (1974L to time include uranium 213 and 239. cunum 244 Iv3.488t1976L 52. A Blair, P Decoufle. D Granman American neptumum 237, thonum 228. radium 226. cesium 2dC J Johnson. R R Tidball R C Seserson. Science Journal of Public //,alth 69. 508 (1979). 134 and 137, iodme 129 and 131, ruthemum 103, 196. 1126(1977). 53. D D Smith. S E Black, Actinide contentrationsin rhodium 103, mobium 95. ntconium 95, strontium 27. C J Johnson.Journalof American Aledical Ass, tissues from cattle gra:ing near the Rocky flats 89 and 90. rinc 65 cobalt 60. potanium 40 and ciation 237,22R6(1977). plant. NERC-Lv.539-36. (National Environmen-phosphorus 32 and their progeny. An estimated 28. C J Johnson. Difute destnburiem of plutonium in tal Research Center. Environmental Protection 100 curies ofIntsum are aho released annually in the rrsparable Just on the surfac e of the soit in the Agency, Las Vegas, Nevada.1975). the exhaust plumes from the plant, along with an vicimry of the Rm Ay flats Plant (The Jefferson 54. D Green. G E Howells. E R Humphreys. J Ven-unknown quanuty of other radioactne gases and County Board of flealth, Lakewood, Colorado, nact. Nature 225. 17 (1975). Solatde substances. 1977). 55. J J Russell. A Linaenbaum. D Grahn. Non. homo-i 2. J A Hayden. H M Baker R A Link, Particle si:e 29. C J Johnwn, Distribunon of Cesium 137 in the genous distnbution of plutonium in mouse resses, analysis, plutonium osiJr m Buddmg 776 r))1ernt surface respirable dust in th vicinity of the Roc Ay (Division of Biological and Medical Research. Ar-air, using thefission tra A method. Dow Chemical flats Plant: Final Report. (The JefTerson County gonne National Laboratory. Argonne Ilhnois, re- - Report No.117 72165 IDow Chemical Company. Board of Health, Lakewood, CcJorado,1978). ported to the Radiation Research Society,1976). Rocky Flats 1%nt. Golden Colorado 8N01, 30. Ommbus environmental aneument for the 56. K Newman, RocAy Afountain New, Denver, Col-1972). Rocky Flats Plant of the Umted States Energy orado t March l8.1979).
- 3. J A Hayden, Particle size analysis in Buddmg 77/ Research and Development Admmistration, 57. G A Fairchild, S Stutz. D L Coffin, Sulfuric acid eftfuent air, Dow Chemical Company report No. (Rocky flats Plant, Golden. Colorado,1975L cffects on the deposition of radioactive arrowlin ES-37tv84-il8 (Dow Chemical Company. Rocky 38. G A Schmel. in Transactions of Alerting on Rocky the respiratory tract of guinea pigs, (Umted flats Ihnt. Golden. Colorado IkMol.1974). Flats Buffer Zone, Ecological and Environmental States Environmental Protection Agency. Nation-
- 4. W J McDowell F G Seeley, M T Ryan, ficolth Research Meetmg. (Ro6 kwell international, al Environment Research Center, Research
. Physics 32. 444 (1977). Rocky Flats Plant. Golden. Colorado.1977L Tnangle Park, North Carohna.1975). ! 5. J A Hayden. Partic le si:r analysis in Buddmg 776 32. L M McDowell. S W Whicker,Iltalth Physics 35, 58. G W Snedecor. W G Cochran. Statistical Aleth-ef!7 ment air (Dow Chemical Company. Rocky 239 (1978L ods (Sisth Edition. Iowa State University. Press, f lats 5%nt. Golden, Colorado 80401,1972L 33. Colorado Department of Heal'h, United States Ames. low a,1976L
- 6. H Nichols, Some aspr< ts of wganic and inorga- Atomic Energy Commnsion. Rm Ay T!sts Plant $9. 5 E Fmch, in Radiation Researn h. Proceedmss of nic particulate transport at Rm As flats. m Trans- Emironmental Sunedlame Summary Report the Sath International Congress of Radnation Re-actions of Meetmg on Rocky Flats Buffer Zone, (The Colorado Department of Health, Denser, search (Toppan Pnnt.ng Company, Limited. To-Ecological and Ensironmental Research Meetmg. Colorado 1973L kyo,1979L Rockwell International. Rocky flats Plant (P.O. 34. R P Larsen, R D Oldham, Scirme 201, 100N to. The author would like to acknowledge the assis-Bos 464. Golden, Colorado l4M01,1977). (1978L tance of the Colorado Regional Cancer Center
- 7. Remw of the Eshaust Air Filtenng and Air Sam- 35. K 3 Morgan,in a letter to the Rocky Flats Momto. staff (Dr John Berg and Dr Jack Fincht National 1 phng SuslJeag 771 (R<'cky flats Ensironmental nng Committee. (127 State Capitol. Dens er. Colo- Cancer Inoitute grant CA 170t4, who descloped Master File. The Rocky Ilets mnt. Golden. Col- rado.19'9). the computer program to retriese, collate, and orado 80401,1%3L 36. J Cobb. University of Colorado Ss hool of Medi- age-adjust carcer incidence data by census tract i
- 8. L E Toonkel, H E Feely. R J Larsen, Radens- cine. Denser Colorado (1978L Persona / commu- from the computer archives of the National Can-clides andiraer metais in surfac c air. m Ensiron- nie ation. cer Institute's Third National Cancer Survey of i mental Quarterly of the Environmental Measure- 37. W D Norwood, C E Newton. //calth Physu s 28, 1969-1971; the Division of htal Statistics of the i nwnts larvratory (Umted States Department of 66911975L Colorado Department of Health: Kathryn Van i Energy. E,. Yoik. New York 10014.1979L pp 38. Pnveedmgs of fubhc IIrarings on pluromum and Deusen.who auisted the author with the analysn C/1-160. other trans-uranium riements. Volume I-ill, No_ of the data, Mr James T Martm who prouted
- 9. T S Chapman, Correspondence to Dr. Nathan ORP CSD-751 (Umted States I nuronmental statistical support; James J Doyle of the United '
WoodrulY concermng plutomum sampling in air Protechon Agency, Washington, DC,1975) States Geological Sursey, who auisted with the ' (The Roc ky Flat 5 1%nt, Golden. Colorado, 39. J Vaughn, Pluromum--A posnble le=Acmia risA figure; and Drs Caldwell, Zack. Stutzman. Ehren-Feburary 17,19t4L (The Hone Research Laboratory. Nuffield Ortho. berg and others who reviewed the manuscript.
- 10. M A Thompwn, D D Hornbacher, Monthly and pedic Centre. Osford. England.1976L The work was supported by grant CA 25729 from Annual Environmental Momtonng Reports,(Un- 40. D S Myers. /Irulth Phisics 22. 905 (1972L the National Cancer Institute, National Institutes i ited States Energy Research and Deselopment 41. K Z Morgan, American Industrialflygirne A no- of Health Thn paper was onginally presented at a '
I Admimstration. Rocky Ilats. Golden, Colorado ridtma Journal, p 567, t 1975L sewon sponwred by the Occupational Health l kN01,197tbl975). 42. C J Johnwn. m Prm cedmrs of the Irrh Inter and Safety. I nvironment. I pidemiology and Ra-l
- 11. Drnier Post. September 12. 1957 IDenser, Col- tional Congress of the Internormnal Radiati, diological Health Sections of the American Pubhc oradol Also reported in the RocAy Alountam Protre ston A isociation. pp 2, 241 I Parn.1977L Health Auociation. at the 107th Annaul Meeting N,ew s (Sept.emb_er 11,1957L 41. W Urandon, A Hkiom, G Saccomanno_, P. Archer, . in New York. N Y. on Nosember 7.1979.
$ession: hs Saffe is Nuclear Energy V ,
An Investigation of Brain Cancer, Melanoma and Other Neoplasms int mployees E of the Rocky Flats Nuclear Weapons Plant in Jefferson County, Colorado 1* Carl J. Johnson, M.D., M.P.H.**
'82 t.'o 10 P 137 Employees have had inhalation exposure to plutonium and other particulate and gaseous radionuclides over the plant's 28 years of operation. A conprehen-sive epidemiological study of.the incidence of cancer among the employees at the 1
plant has never been carried out. Nunbers of cancer cases by site and the age distribution were released for I 3937 employees in July,1980. . he ratio of the number of cases of one or nore classes of cancer (such as brain cancer) to the total number of cases in all classes reported for an exposure group can be compared to a similar ratio for 4 an unegosed group. Bis ratio, a proportionate morbidity ratio for employees of the Rocky Flats plant (1951-1979) may be compared with that for white males in Colorado (1969-1971). In this way, an unusual increase in one or more classes of cancer in an exposore group can be detected. Tne age-adjusted proportionate norbidity ratio, for employees of the Rocky Flats plant was about eight times greater than expected for brain cancer (10.27. observed /1.37. expected), nearly three times greater for melanoma 's l (4.77./1.77.) and 257. greater for cancer of the respiratory tract. Exposure to radiation is associated with brain cancer, malignant melanoma and lung cancer. Taylor et al' induced melanoma in 6 of 12 dogs with 64 tril-lionths gram (17.7 nanocuries) of radium 228 per kilogram of body weight, and found that gelanocytes concentrate radium _and . thorium. 29 times greater _t;han_, other mil types. Boriun was also found to induce nelanoma with extremely l l small doses. B ere are several other reports of an unusual incidence of l melanoma in nuclear plant workers. l Health effects in employees at all nuclear plants should be investigated by independent scientists and medical epidemiologists. W PrisinEed Eo a S5ssi5n s[xiis5r5d b9 Eh5 OccupaEiEnal H3altii Hna BaieEy- - l Environment and Radiological Health Sections of the American Public Health l Association at the 109th Annual Meeting in los Angeles, California, on Nov. 3, 1981
** 42 Hillside Drive, Denver, Colorado 80215 (303) 232-2328
Tues. , 4:0(1-5:30 Sponsor: Radiological Health Contamination of Several Public Water Districts with Uraniun by Liquid Waste Discharges from an Uraniun Mine; ant' Devq}op9nt of a New Pennissible Concentration Limit for Uranium in Dri4.kiITgj l[aYei- " _ n Yit0 NOV 4 CarlJ. Johnson,M.D.,M.PQ1." A large uranium mine in operation for about 20 years in the Denver area discharges as much as 4,00 a 000 to one million gallons of mine drainage water daily. into Ralston Creek, which provides water for the North Table Fbuntain Water District and several other water districts in the Denver area. Treated water from the mine at the point of discharge is heavily contaminated and at times contains over 10,000 picoeurh of gross alpha radiat; ion per_ liter (pCi/1) and over 2,000_pci/Lof5 m beta _ radiation. Predominant constituents are uranium 238 and its radioactive progeny. Concentrations of gross alpha and beta radiation in finished water (public drinking water) at times exceed LOQ_pCill an ydpCi/1,_rcspectively. State and federal agencies denied any violation of state and federal (NRC, DOE, EPA) guidelines. However, calculations of organ and body doses from long term ingestion disclosed unacceptable radiation e:<posures for families'. in the water district who were drinking the contaminated water. Hearings were requested and the issue was taken to court. EPA recoamendations now support a reduction of the concentration limit for uranim from 6p picogurigper liter of water to 10 picoeuries per liter, a 600-fold reduction which may still be challenged as not sufficiently protective to the public. Similar conservative concentration limits are needed for other actinides, such as the much nore radiotoxic plutoniun and americium. Consideration nust also be given to the effect of g nation _on_the_ absorption oE radionuclides in ingested 2ater and a current quality factor for alpha radiation of 20 (i.e. alpha radiation is 20 times more injurious per rad than gamm radiation).
- Presented te the Radiological Health Section of the American Public Health Association at the 109th Annual Meeting, in los Angeles, California, on November 3, 1981. .
** 42 Hillside Drive, Denver, Colorado 80215 (303) 232-2328
Contamination of Several Public Water Districts with Uranium by Liquid Waste Discharges from an Uranium Mine; a;d Development of a New Permissible Concentration Limit for Uranium in Drinking Water
- Carl J. Johnson, M.D.,M.P.H.**
Uranium i.e one of the important minerals found in the foothills urban corridor area of Colorado which extends from Pueblo north to Fort Collins,(1) A large uranium mine in operation for 20 years in this area discharges as much as 1,000,000 gallons of water daily into Ralston Creek, which provides water for the North Table Mountain Water District in Jefferson County (Figures 1,2). 'Ihe treated water from the mine at point of discharge into the stream at tines con- p tains over 10,000 pCi/L of gr6ss alpha radiation and over 2,000 pCi/L of gross # Leta radiation (Table 1). 'Ihe predominant constituents are uranium 238 and its radioactive progeny, with significant anounts of radium 226, and only small amounts of thorium. 'Ihe concentrations of gross alpha and gross beta radiation in finished water supplies in the cocmunity at times exceed 400 pCi/L of gross alpha and 160 pCi/L of gross beta radiation. State and federal agencies reported no violation of existing state and federal standards (2) , although organ doseage from chronic' intake was clearly excessive (Table 2)(3,4) , Radioactivity in water may be categorized into two general types, low linear energy transfer (LET) and high LET. Iow LET radiation-emitting nuclides incitde
,thebetaradiationemitter,kritium(usually10to25_picoeuriesperliter_o pCi/L)hrbon 14 (0.006 pCi/Linwaterwith1gramofcarbonperliter),anhpotas-sium 40 (0.01% of potassium in wate. usually negligible).(3) High IEF sources in fresh _ water includbranium 238 a
- horium 232 and their daughters. Uranium may be present in concentrations of 0.02 ug or 0.014 pCi/L (10 ug U = 7 pCi) and higher.
Tne usual concentration of uranium and thorium in the human skeleton is about 0.01 pCi<and 0.001 pCi__per gram of as.h, respectively (about 10:1). These nuclides are bone seekers, as are radiun 226 and radium 228 and their daughters.(3) Radium 226 (uranium series) is usually present in higher concentrations than radium 228 (thorium series) and may be present in fresh water in a concentration between 0.01 to 0.1 pCi/L. 'Ihe concei : ration of radium 226 is about equal to
- Presented to the Radiological Health Section of the American Public Health Association at the 109th Annual Meeting, in los Angeles, California, on Nov.3,1981
** 42 Hillside Drive, Denver, Colorado 80215 (303) 232-2328
that of radium 228 at low concentrations and its concentration is about twice as great at higher concentrations. Much of the radium can be removed by Oncen1ntion-and water softening. Radium 223 and 224 in water contribute little to the radiation doseage due to their short half-lives. ( } Radon 222 (from radium 226) is not well correlated with the radium concentration in fresh water. Radon concentration is usually about 1 pCi/L but may be a few thousand times greater in some ground waters. The daily intake of radium 226 from food is about 1-2 pCi per day in the U.S. compared with a water intake usually less than 0.1 pCi. However, a quantitative relationship between the body buden of radium 226 (usually 40 pCi in bone,10 pCi in soft tissue) and the concentration of radium in drinking water has been reported. The total body buden of radium 226 may be estimated to be 25-50 times the daily in-take.(5) This also applies to radium 228. Because of persistent problems with excessive concentrations of radiation in drinking water (chiefly uranium and its progeny) in the conmunity served by the North Table Mountain Water District, the Jefferson County Health Department convened a meeting to discuss the significance of the contamination and the trends in concentration of radiation in the water and its potential for health effects.(2) Analyses of the finished water carried out for the North Table Fountain Water District at the time of that meeting indicated a concentration of gross alpha radiation of 286 pCi/L and 90 pCi/L of gross beta radiation. A subscquent sample of tap water was found to contain 81 picocuries of uranium per liter,1.1 pCi/L of radium 226, 0 pCi/L cf polonium 210, and 3.9 pCi/L of lead 210. In addition, there were 105 pCi/L of gross beta radiation. Tests conducted by the EPA found two sampics with 2200 and 2500 pCi/L, respectively, of thorium 234, a weak beta emitter. The dos age from constant intake of this water ( 2 liters / day) with this concen-tration of these nuclides and their daughters can be calculated to result (by year
~50 of constant intake) in about 90 millirems / year to bone and 5 milltrems to total body.(5) In addition, 3.9 pCi/L of lead 210 and daughters by year 50 will produce a dose to the kidney (the organ nest sensitive to this nuclide) of about 70 mil-lirems annually, and to total body, 3 millirems. 1.1 pCi/L of radium 226 and daughters will produce a dose by year 50 of about 35 millirems annually to bone, and 0.6 millirems to the total body. The total dose of these three elements and their daughters by year 50 amounts to about 200 millirems per year.(5) At another t:me, the gross alpha radiation in the water exceeded 400 pCi/L, and the calculated
--3-.
i dosage rate could exceed 600 millirems per year. If the very high concentrations of thorium 234 are confirmed, the actual dosage nuy reach more than 2 to 3 rem annually. Rese dosages can be compared with the four millirem annual dosage limit per year established by the EPA for man-made Sionuclides that emit beta or photon radiation. In addition to the problems with contamination with radia-tion, the water contains an excessive amount of sulfate.(2) Because of these concerns, the Jefferson County Health Department made repeated requests for a hearing from state and federal authorities to determine why the permit of the mine to discharge into Ralston Creek whould not be suspended because of the potential for health effects in the comnunity downstream (Oct.23, 1978 and Feb. 7, 1979). However, no hearing was conducted. Le district was finally given an alternate unpolluted water supply and has been maintained on this water supply since that time by littgation. L e outcome will be decided at a court hearing some time in 1981. In the fall of 1980 it was discovered that the North Table tbuntain Water District was again receiving drinking water contaminated by the Schwartzwalder uranium mine.(6) A concentration of 45 pCi/L of gross alpha radiation and 31 pCi/L. of gross beta radiation was recorded on February 1, 1980, but not reported to the local health department for seven nonths. In addition, other municipal water supplies were found to be contaminated with uranium (Arvada:27 pCi/L of alpha radiation, 11 pCi/L of beta radiation. 'Iko other water districts had lower concentrations). Le State Health Department standard for uraniun in potable water (6000 pCi/L) has been based on acute chemical toxicity estimated from very limited clinical experience. An older Atomic Energy Cm mission concentration limit was set at 40,000 pCi/L. A concentration limit based on radiotoxicity to the bone must be utilized to determine the concentration limit for uranium and its daughters. Lappenbusch compares uranium 238, 234 and 235 with radium 226,_ noting that both_Braniun_a_nd radium _ are bone seekers and release energy to the same tissues.I ' he Environmental Protection Agency estimate is that 20 pCi per day of uranium (2x10 pCi/L of uranium) would result in a dose rate to the bone in the 70th year of about 15 mrad / year. If a quality factor of 20 is assumed for high LET alpha radiation, this is equivalent to 300 mrem / year. Based on estimates in the BEIR remrt, this dose rate would be expected to cause 1.4-6 excess bone cancers per year per n'illion people over their lifetime.I9} Bone cancer has a case fatality. rate of nearly 90% . L e present dose limit for
t radium 226 and 228 is 150 millirems per year. If the same standard is applied to uranium, the concentration limit for uranium should not exceed 5 pCi/L. If other alpha emitters besides uranium are present, these also must be considered in relation to the 10 pCL/L concentration limit advised by the EPA. At the present time the Environmental Protection Agency does not have a concentration limit for uraniun. 12ppenbusch suggests that a 300.- mrem
/ year bone dose rate be considered as an upper limit for any exemption guide for interim exposure to uranium,,provided no other alpha emitters are contributing to the bone dose rate. his is equivalent to 20 pCi/L of uranium, equivalent to the guide for radium, and should be applied in the same manner suggested for radium.(10) he Safe Drinking Water Cocmittee of the National Academy of Sciences reviewed the existing uranium' data for chemical toxicity, and has advised the Environmental Protection Agency of one day and seven day suggested limits of 3.5 milligrams /L (2300 pCi/L) and 0.2 mg/L (140 pCi/L) respectively.(8)
Assuming a safety factor of only 10 for a lifetime exposure, as opposed to ingesting uranium in drinking water for only a week, a concentration of 15 pCL/L would provide only a very small margin of safety and assumes that other routes of intake do not contribute significantly to the uranium body burxlen.(8) Besides the natural uranium present in the water, other radionuclides would be expected to contribute to the bone dose. Rese concentrations ; averaged over a period of 1975 to 1978 for the North Table Ituntain water i supply were 220 pCL/L of natural uranium, 0.67 pCi/L for radium 226, and 702 pCi/L for tritium. (8) Consumption of 2 liters per day over a lifetime of these constituents (0.67 pCi/L of radium 226, 220 pCi/L of uranium natural and 19 pCi/L of other alphas would result in a bone dose of about 20, 3300 and 57 mrem / year respectively (assumes quality factor of 10 for alpha radia-tion), or a total of about 3,380 mrem / year. his assumes that 5 pCi/L radium 226 results in a bone dose of 150 mrem / year, and that for every 10 pCi/L of alpha activity (other than that from natural uranium and radium 226) a 30 mrem / year bone dose rate is expected, and assumes that a life-time ingestion of 20 pCi uranium / day or 10 pCi/L would probably result in a dose rate to the bone in rbo 70tli year of about 15 mrad / year or 150 mrem / year (alpha quality factor of 10) . W e Environmental Protection Agency has made analyses.for the case of lifetime ingestion at 20 pCi/ day (10 pCi/L) using dose nodels of ICRP-NRPB, Is h and Spoor, N. Nelson and UNSCEAR. he range of the estimated l l
1
, doses of these four models varies by a factor of 8, and so the estimate of 150 millirem / year by a lifetime ingestion of 10 pCi/L (2 liters / day) could be an underestinntion or overestinntion by a factor of 5. Further, the accepted quality factor for alpha radiation is now 20, not 10.
The Environmental Protection Agency bases its exemption or transient rate guidance of 20 pCi/L of uranium on the intent of the Federal Radiation Council (FRC) guidance. The FRC provided guidance for radium 226, in which the. upper limit of Range IL is 20 pCi/ day or 10 pCi/L or 300 mrem / year bone dose rate and so the intent of FRC guidance applied to uranium 238, 234 and 235, when compared to radium 236, would be to establish a dose limit of 300 mrem / year or 40 picocuries/ day of uraniun (20 pCi/L of uranium), equivalent to the upper limit of Range H.(O' The Environmental Protection Agency cal-culations irritcate that the dose rate to the critical organ, bone, would be exceeding 3,000 mrem / year for persons drinking water from the North Table Mountain Water District over their lifetime (or 6 rem per year, with a quality factor of 20). Based on that, control measures should te taken as gaickly as possible and at least within a year.(8) The suggested guidance from the Jefferson County Health Department and from the Environmental Protection Agency based on the radiotoxicity of uranium has been challenged and will be tested in court sometime in 1981. e
i References
- 1. Hofstra, W.E. and Hall, D.C. : Geologic control of supply and quality of water in the nountainous part of Jefferson Cour.ty. Colorado, Colorado Geological Survey Bulletin 36, Denver, Colorado (1975).
- 2. Johnson, C.J.: Report of meeting to discuss contamination of Ralston Creek, long lake and North Table bbuntain Water District System by the Schwartzwalder Uraniun Mine (Unpub.). Le Jefferson County Health Depart-ment, Lakewood, Co. 80226, July 14, 1978. ,
- 3. Anon: Drinking water and health. He Safe Drinking Water Conmittee, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. (1977).
- 4. Hall, D.C. and Johnson, C.J.: Drinking-Water Quality and Variations in Water levels in the Fractured Crystalline-Rock Aquifer, West-Central Jefferson County, Colorado. Water Resources Investigations 79-94, U.S.
Geological Survey, Denver Federal Center, Iakewood, Co. (1979).
- 5. Johnson, C.J.: Advisory letter to Mrs. Polly Hearn, Chairman, North Table bbuntain Water District (unpub.) he Jefferson County Health Depart-ment, Lakewood, Co. 80226, (August 28, 1978).
- 6. Johnson, C.J.: Report at a meeting to discuss contamination of drinking water supplies by the Schwartzwalder uranium mine (unpub.) h e Jefferson County Health Department, lakewood, Co. 80226 (October 1, 1980).
- 7. Lappenbusch, W.L: Advisory letter to Colorado Department of Health, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 20460, July 8, 1979.
- 8. 12ppenbusch, W.L.: Advisory letter to Colorado Department of Health, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 20460, August 20, 1979.
- 9. Anon: he effects on populations of exposure to low levels of ionizing radiation. Report of the Advisory Conmittee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations (BEIR report). National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1972.
( 10. Anon: National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Publication 570/9-76-003,1976.
-11. Anon: bbp of Jefferson County. Colorado (1976) N3934-S-W10502-75/20.75 x 21.5, U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Co.80225.
i 12. Anon: Impact of theSchwartzwalder (Cotter uranium) Mine on the water l quality of Ralston Creek, Ralston Reservoir, and Upper long Lake (1972). ! SA/TB-25 Technical Investigations Branch, Surveillance and Analysis Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region VIIIm 1860 Lincoln, Denver, Co.
f I 1
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I . . Table 1 Radiation Levels in the Water Supply'of the North Table Fbuntain Water District and Sanitt ion Distri-t("} I Gross alpha radiation, picocuries/ liter Ralston Creek Minedisgrge North Table Mtn. North Table Mtn. finished water to creek above mine finished water U-natural Gross beta Raditm 226 1963 1 22-148(68) 37 0.1-2.0 1964 46-49(48) - 0.1-0.2 1968 82 0.9 1970 81 23 0.2 1971 85 27 40 0.2 1972 0.4(c) 5,767(c) 193 81 7 - 1973 0.5(c) 11,075(c) 220 68 61 0.4 1974 53 41 - - 1975 69 122 0-27 0.2-0.5 1976 18 1,588 157 80 49 - L977 14 262 - 90 0.4 1978 11 2,100 305 261 (d) (a) Unless otherwise indicated, analyses performed by the Colorado Dept. of Health Laboratory Concentrations are the range of values and the mean, i.e. 22-148(68). (b) Flow rate ranges from 119,000 to over 1,000,000 gallons / day -an average daily flow for one period in 1976 was 326,000 gallons. (c) Denver Water Board. Gross beta was 1109 (1972) and 2511(1973) in the discharge from the mine. f (d) Preliminary lab tests (EPA) indicated 2100 and 2500 pCi/L of Thorite 234. l I l l \ l l l
. 4 .' - 10 .
Qg 2 Standards for radiochemiccl sediation in drinking water
- Type of radiation Standard Gross alpha particles (including radium 226 15 pCi/L but excluding rodon and uranium)I Radium 226 & radium 2282 5 pCi/L Gross beta particles & photons (from manmade 4 mrem per year to total radionuclides excluding tritium and body or internal organ, 4
strontium 90) i , Strontium 90 8 pCi/L I When gross alpha radiation exceeds 10 pCi/L in a water supply, it must he analyzed for radium 226. The EPA has no maximum pennissible concen-tration (MPC) for uranium in water, although an MPC of 10 pCi/L is suggested. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission has on MPC of 10,000 pCi/L for soluble uronium in water, and the Colorado Department of Health, 6000 pC*/L. 2 If the concentration of radium 226 exceeds 3 pCi/L in a water supply, it must be analyzed for radium 228. 3 If two or more radionuclides are present, the sum of their annual dose-equivalent to the total body or to any internal organ shall not exceed 4 mrem per year. Dose-equivalents shall be based on on assumed drinking-water intake of 2 liters per day. 4 If the gross beta radiation exceeds 50 pCi/L in a water supply, it must be analyzed to identify the major radioactive constitdents and the appropriate body and internal organ dose-equivalents must be calculated.
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.b.. . . hCM$Ah, LETTERS TO THE EDITOR Volurn3 69. Number 2 February 1979 ,82 ga,.) -
Funding of Radiation Protection Standards' Research When I saw the item " Bad Science This attitude seems to extend to all and Social Penalties" by Cyril L. Com- levels in this field. The International er at the Electric Power Research Insti- Commission on Radiation Protection tute,' I was reminded of a problem with (ICRP) admitted in 1%5, "The Com-much of the research done today per- mission believes that this level (5 rems formed by "in-house researchers." per generation) provides reasonable This includes work supported by inter. latitude for the expansion of atomic en-est groups such as the American To- ergy programs in the forseeable future. bacco Institute, the American Cereals It should be emphasized that the limit Institute, and the U.S. Atomic Energy may not in fact represent a proper bal-Commission (now the U.S. Depart- ance between possible harm and prob-able benefit because of the uncertainty ment of Energy). Much of this reseach in assessing the risks and benefits that deals with issues of concern to those providing the funding for the research. would justify the exposure."8 This often raises a question of conflict In my opiniona.scuch directed _ - of interest and possible bias of the towards the establishmentoLreason-funding agency and the principalinves-able radiation protection standards tigator, who hopes for a renewal of his (hould be funded and carried out by agencies and individuals that have as funding. As an example of the problems their primary mission the protection
~
of posed by research sponsored by special ,public health. Car / J. Johnson, AfD, Afr# interest groups, let me cite work done to support radiation protection stan Director of #calth Jeferson County Colorado dards. Most of this work has been done Lolewood, CO 80226 by or for.agencici_which are regulated by these standards. This problem is re- REFERENCES sponsibIe'for the present controversy 1. Comer C: Bad Science and Social Penal-over the adequacy of such standards,in ties Science 200:1225,1978. Reproduced my opinion. in Am J Public Health 68.988,1978.
- 2. Moeller DW: The President's Message, Much of the research done in this Health Physics 21:1 July.1971 area has been published in the Journal
- 3. Recommendations of the International
< of #calth Physics, the official organ for Commission on Radiologmal Protection.
the Health Physics Society. Many ( Adopted Sept. 17, 1965) ICRP Pub-members of the Society present them- lication #9,1%5 Pergamon Press. Ox-ford, England. selves as authorities in the area of radi-ation effects but have a problem with I conflict of interest. As a member of that Society I am impressed with the persistently pro-nu-clear position of their publications. This fox. guarding-the henhouse situa-tion is perhaps best summed up by Dr. Dade W. Moeller in his 1971 presiden-tial message to the Health Physics So-ciet y,3 in which he encouraged all of the members to "be as active as you possibly can." and "to paraphrase an old adage, let's all put our mout h where l t our money is." I refer readers who want to read all of this interesting mes-sage to the Journal of Health Physics. i 181 AJPH February 1979, Vol. 69, No. 2 ! g
behn Possus Wel 39 pp 711-716 Pregemos Ptens Ltd. 3000 Prinsed en afw U s 4 FLORENCE KELLEY AND THE RADIUM DIAL PAINTERS *
~
ROGER J. CLOLHIER Radiopharmaceutical Internal Dosimetry Information Center, Manpower Education, Research and Training Division, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge,TN 37830 (Received 5 December 1979; accepted 2 May 1980) ! l Abstract-All health physicists are familiar with the radium dial painter episode of the early 1900s and how one of today's primary radiation limits was set after studying the health effects of these workers The social history of this event is not as well known to health physicists. This paper tells of the efforts by Florence Kelley of the National Consumers I.eague and others on behalf of the dial painters and of the events that led to Kelley's interest in the problem. Known as the " Impatient Crusader", Florence Kelley worked to have legislation passed that would eliminate the radiation hazards of dial painting and to obtain compensation for those who were injured. l FwRENCE SELLEY was born just before the in Chicago directed by Jane Addams, a pioneer Civil War. At about the same time, her father of social change who attracted many talented was elected to the U.S. Congress and served for and devoted followers. Florence's associate at 20yr. He was nick-named " Pig Iron" Kelley Hull House was Dr. Alice Hamilton, who later because of his great enthusiasm for industrial became the first industrial physician appointed growth (AmS9). When Florence was 12 years to the staff of Harvard University (Ha43). old, her father took her to see a steel mi'l. One of Florence's first tasks was to proside What impressed Florence was not the spec- the Illinois Bureau of Labor with statistics on tacular glow of the furnaces but the young the employment of women and children in gar-boys, some younger than she, working near the ment sweatshops. This study caused the Illinois f furnaces. This image, and many others of Legislature to pass the first law limiting the young people working long hours at hard hours a woman could work each day and pro-work, stayed with her throughout her life hibiting the employment of children under 14. (GoS3a1 The law also created the Illiriois State Factory f After completing her formal education, Flor- Inspection Department, and in July 1893, Flor- , ence worked at Hull House, a settlement house ence Kelley was appointed Chief Inspector
*This report is based on work performed under (GoS3b)'
Contract DE-AC05-760R00033 between the U.S. In 1899, Florence became general secretary Dept. of Energy and Oak Ridge Associated Uni.- of the National Consumers League, which was ve s .n. trying to improve working conditions for 711 N
1 E 712 FLORENCE KELLEY AND THE RADIUM DIAL PAINTERS women. One device they used was the Con. became aware of the injuries, a year earlier, suraers League Label which could only be they had instructed the dial painters to stop affixed to garments made in factories that met pointing their paint brushes with their lips. For the League's working standards. Customers some time the hazard was expected to disap-were asked to buy only clothes that carried the pear after the practice of pointing the brushes , label; hence, employers were economically was terminated. It didn't. . pressured to provide better working conditions Drinker submitted the report of his findings ] (GoS3c; Pa76). to the company in 1924. In the report, Drinker j In 1924, Miss Katherine Wiley, secretary of implicated radium as the cause of the illnesses the League Chapter in New Jersey, reported to and he pleaded with the company to institute a Florence that the Board of Health in Orange safety program. What began as a cordial re-l County, New Jersey, had asked the League to lationship deteriorated as the company's presi-investigate an enusual coincidence of sickness dent insisted that the disorders could not be and death among girls employed by the United caused by radium. In April 1924, the com-States Radium Corporation. Four girls were pany's president wrote Drinker and said, dead as a result of necrosis of the jaw and ane- " Radium in small doses is a stimulant" mia and eight others were desperately ill (US24b). Later he wrote, ".. . speaking as an
- (GoS3d). Dentists in the area reported msny engineer, it seems to me that the logical conclu-cases ofjaw necrosis after the removal of teeth. sion for cause, if the cause lies with radium, The symptoms resembled phossy jaw of the must be some intncate combination of radium 4 carly 1900s that was eliminated when a high with zinc"(US24c).
tax on phosphorus matches forced the match In February 1925, Drinker noticed that a industry to change its manufacturing practices. Frederick L Hoffman, M.D., was scheduled to
- Wiley had visited the radium dial plant, as speak on " Radium Necrosis" at the American i
had the Department of Labor, and both had Medical Association meeting in Atlantic City found working conditions to be apparently (Ho25). Drinker wrote the Radium Corpor-very good. Plant management told both Wiley ation that Hoffman's paper would most cer-and the Department of Labor that the paint tainly deal with the injuries among Radium contained no phosphorus and consist:d princi- Corporation employees. Drinker encouraged 4 pally of zinc su! fide and small amounts of the company to authorize publication of his i radium or mesothorium. Wiley was assured report so that the company might convince the > that neither of these was toxic. Management public that everything humanly possible +as
- insisted that poor dental hygiene was most being done to get to the bottom of the trouble likely the cause of the difficulty. 4(Drc25). The company, woul.d_not au
- 11 prize Wiley was not aware that, in March 1924, .. publication of the report.
the United States Radium Corporation had At about the same time, Katherine Wiley requested Dr. Cecil Drinker of the Harvard also wrote to the company about Hoffman's l School of Public Health to visit the plant and presentation. Ste told of hearing about the examine working conditions. Drinker readily Drinker report and encouraged the company accepted the challenge although the company's to publish it. The president's response was, president wrote, "It is quite probable that we ". . . it is hard to believe how a man of Dr. Hoff-are suffering from a hysterical condition man's standing would make a public address brought about by coincidence" (US24a). Dur- .on any_ subject without complete knowledge." ing his first inspection, Drinker found paint all The president made no mention of the Drinker over the work area and on the arms, clothes report (US25). and even on the underclothes of dial painters Katherine Wiley notified Alice Hamilton at (Ca25). He learned that when the company Harvard in March 1925 that the Radiu_m C_om-
I 714 FLORENCE KELLEY AND THE RADIUM DIAL PAINTERS reporters and a fair number of medical quacks. Florence Kelley was to enlist the assistance of From France, h1 adam Curie extended her sym- Walter Lippman. Chief Editorial Writer for the pathy and advised them to eat raw calf's liver New York World. He agreed to help generate to counteract the anemia (NYJ28). public support for such a conference but sug-Although concerned about these five girls, gested that the letter and public announcement Florence Kelley was more concerned about the be delayed until after the Democratic presiden-whole problem of radium poisoning, and she tial convention. After New York Governor Al consulted with Alice Hamilton. They decided Smith was chosen on 4 July to be the Demo-to approach the problem in a manner similar cratic candidate, the letter was sent to the Sur-to that used for the tetraethyl-lead gasoline geon General and the New York World carried problem. In 1924, after eleven deaths and con- an editorial that concluded, "In many aspects siderable illness among refinery wiers, the the disease is surrounded by mystery which New York World publicized the problem and only an expert, impartial and national agency demanded action. Although the U.S. Public can remove. Clearly, this is a task for the , Health Service did not have power to regulate United States Public Health Service. . " the use of industrial poisons, they organized a (NYW28b) Surgeon General Cummings res-
- conference at which regulations regarding the ponded:".. .The names appended to your let-handling and selling of lead gasoline were for- ter and the accompanying pages should carry mulated (GoS3f). Surgeon General Hugh S. enough weight in industrial medicine...to Cummings said that if the public was aroused move almost anything"(GoS3i).
and dem.mded action the U.S. Public Heahh As summer passed and nothing happened, Service couM become involved in the radium Florence Kelley made plans to refocus public problem (GoS3g). attention on the problem. She scheduled Dr. hieanwhile, the symptoms of the five young Charles Norris, the Chief hiedical Examiner girls who were trying to sue the company for New York City, to speak at the annual became graver. In reporting on the continued meeting of the National Consumer League postponement of the case, the New York World (GoS3i). Norris had autopsied several girls who printed,"Thisis one of the most damnable tra- had died of radium poisoning. His talk was vesties of justice that has ever come to our entitled "The Skeleton in Industry's Closet." attention"(NYW28a). Suddenly the legal stale- He described the pain and suffering the girls mate ended when Federal Judge William had endured and allowed 'the audience to Clark, who was unconnected with the case, handle photographs of bones and ash from convinced the company nd the girls to settle organs exhumed 4.5 yr after burial. Norris their case out of court. In June 1928, the com- explained that the bones and ash had photo- ! pany agreed to pay each of the girls $10,000 as graphed themselves on account of their a lump sum and to give them a pension of 5600 radium. The audience was spellbound, and per year for life. One of the girls died within a Eleanor Roosevelt, toast mistress for the year and a half (GoS3h). meeting, spoke for the audience when she de-In carrying out their plan to involve the U.S. scribed Norris' work as "a far-reaching scien-Public Health Service, Florence Kelley and tific study on industry in its very terrifying Alice Hamilton met with Dr. Niartland, Dr. aspects." Charles Norris and Nir. Berry, the lawyer for The publicity I' rom this meeting caused the the dial painters (GoS3g). Hamilton was to U.S. Public Health Service to give assurance draft a letter requesting the Public Health Ser- that the conference on radium poisoning would vice to convene a conference on radium poi- soon be held. Their letter closed by saying, soning. The letter would be signed by public "The martyrdom of a few may save many" health officials and physicians of high standing. (GoS3j). 9
l 'i i
, P
, , , e ROGER J. CLOUTIER 715 The widespread publicity, the cKorts of the GoS3b lbid, p. 36. ' U.S. PubNc Ilealth Service, and the concern of GoS3e Ibid, pp. 5145. companies where radium dial painting was g953 Go$ bd p lb done essentially climinated the dial pam, tmg GoS3r ibid, p.198. hazard by the late 1920s. liowever, it was not GoS3s ibid. p.199. until the Manhattan Engineering District was GoS3h Ibid. p.197. established during World War il that the GoS3i lbid. p. 202. maximum permissible body burden of 0.1 5J b.p 25 Ha , n A ,1925 Letter to Dr. Katherine microcunes was set for radium. Drinker dated 4 April 1925. (Courtesy of Dr. James Florence Kelley, who planned much of the L. Whittenberger. Hanard Unisersity. School of strategy of the radium-dial crusade, is rightly Public Health.) known as the " impatient crusader a Ha43 Hamilton A.,1943, Exploring the Dangerous Trades (Boston: Little, Brown & Co.). Ho25 Hoffman F. L 1925. " Radium iMesothorium) Acknowledgements-I wish to especially thank Mary
" ' ' ^" ^ ##
Hn represents"gnM U' &atu 0 ' Radum Margaret Shanahan and Roble) D. Evan's of the MIT Radium Dial Painter Study Group for providing me "" ' #"" # " with much valuable information in the form of news-paper chppings. photographs. etc. This group began E * """ " 3 the systematic scientific study of radium dial painters' My thanks also extend to Dr. James L % hittenberger La59 Lang D.,1959,"A Reporter at Large: A Most Valuable Accident", The New Yorker XXXVillL 49. of Hanard University who provided copies of the correspondence by Dr. Cecil K. Drinker and to Dr. Ma25 Martland H. S., Conlon P. and Knef J. P. Andrew F. Stehney of the Argonne National Labora- 1925,*Some Unrecognized Dangers in the Use and tory where radium dial painters studies continue. Handling of Radioactive Substances", J. Am. Med. j g g g_g797 Ma29 Martland H. S.,1929 " Occupational Poison-ing in Manufacture of Luminous Watch Dials", J. R EF LRENcLS Am. Med. Assoc. 92. 466. AmS9 American Peoples Encyclopedia.1959. *Kel- NYJ28 New YorL Journal,1928. " Madame Curie ley, William Darrah",11, p. 839 (Chicago: Spencer Holds Out Scant Hope for Girls Facing Radium Press. Inc.). Death", headline in 26 May 1928 issue. Ca25 Castle W. B., Drinker K. R. and Drinker C. NYW28a New York World, 1928.10 May 1928 K., 1925. " Necrosis of the Jaw in Workers issue, p.15 Employed in Applying a Luminous Paint Contain- NYW28b New York World, 1928.16 July 1928 ing Radium", J. Ind. Hyg. Vil, 371-382. issue. p.10. Drc25 Drinker C. K.,1925, Letter to President of Pa76 Papachristou J.,1976 Women Together, p.165 United States Radium Corporation dated 17 Febru- (Westminister, MD: Knopf1 ary 1925. (Courtesy of Dr. James L Whittenberger, Re26 Reitter G. S. and Martland H. S 1926. " Leu. Harvard University. School of Public Health.) copenic Anemia of the Regenerative Type Due to Drk25 Drinker K. R.,1925, Letter to Dr. Alice Exposure to Radium and Mesothorium". Am. J. Hamilton dated 17 April 1925. (Courtesy of Dr. Roentg. 16,161-167. James L Whittenberger, Harvard Unisersity, US24a United States Radium Corporation,1924, School of Public Health.) Letter to Dr. Cecil K. Drinker dated 17 March F126 Flinn F. B.,1926 " Radioactive Material an 1924. (Courtesy of Dr. James Whittenberger, Har-Industrial H azard .'", J. A m. M ed. Assoc. 87, vard University. School of Public Health.) 2078-2081. US24b United States Radium Corporation Presi-F128 Flinn F. B.1928,"Some of the Newer Indus- deat,1924. Letter to Dr. Cecil K. Drinker dated 30 trial Hazards", Boston M ed. Surg. J. 197. April 1924, the letter also says " . radium in con-p09-1314 . . - centrated doses destroys tissue". (Courtesy of Dr. GoS3a Goldmark J., 1953,1976. Impa'ient Crusader.3 James L Whittenberger. Hanard Unisersity. originally pubbshed by Unisersity of Illinois Press. School of Public Health.) . Urbana and reprinted by Greenwood Press (Con- US24c United States Radium Corporation Presi-necticutk p.1. 1 dent,1924. Letter to Dr. Cecil K. Drinker dated 6
, June 1924. (Courtesy of Dr. James L Whitten- 1925, Letter to Miss Katherine Wiley dated 3 berger, Harvard University, School of Public March 1925. (Courtesy of Dr. James L Whitten-Health.) berger, Harvard University, School of Public US25 United States Radium Corporation President, Health.)
I . I l bonday, Jan.4 9:00 AM Capitol Hilton *AAAS Annual Meeting (1982) 1 (20) ARMS CONTROL AND SECURITY: Iliological and
- Health Ef fects of the Nuclear IFdustry and huclear Weapons: A Current Evaluation 7. v Evaluation of Environmental and Health Effects of Nuclear Weapons Development and Production Carl J. Johnson
- 1 1
The nuclear weapons industry in the U.S. comprises 6fheUl[dhr"plWts, supported by a network of subcontractors and grantee institutions. Weapons development progresses at the Lawrence Livermore and Los Alamos laboratories under auspices of the University of California. Fissionable materials and tritium are produced at the Savannah River Plant (du Pont-) or at Hanford. Reprocessing of plutonium and weapons grade uranium and manufacture of components are carried out at Rocky Flats (formerly Dow, now Rockwell Int.). Other work is carried out at Amarillo, Texas (Pantex Plant), Miamisburg, Ohio (Mound Facility), Missouri (Kansas City Plant), Florida (Pinellas Plant) and the Sandia Laboratories. Large amounts of radionuclides are generated [ or involved in operations at most of the nine plants. Internal reports of surveillance efforts by weapons plant personnel to monitor emissions of , i radioactive gases and particulates have now been released by several of the plants (in one case through littgation). Those reports document _ major. releases of radioactive gases a,nd particulates to the e_nvironment in the i past,-and continuing-routine _ releases of_some.i.mportance. Few investigations . have been made of effects from these potent carcinogens in local populations. There have been several preliminary reports (Rocky Flats, Los Alamos and Savannah River) and one comprehensive report (Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Ambio 10:176-182, 1981). Evidence of significantly increased rates of cancer _of the more. radiosensitive organs has been demonstrated. ' I. Rocky Flats Plant 1 The Rocky Flats Plant (weapons components and research) near Denver, I Colorado has routinely released plutonium (Pu) 238, 239, 240, 241 and 242, j uranium 234, 235 and 238, americium 241 and other actinides and radionuclides in the exhaust plumes from plant smoke-stacks since 1953 (1). Plutonium is ' a very potent carcinogen and considered an important risk to health "-'- and so is monitored on a regular basis. Environmental Effects While exhaust ducting filters (five ,m,,,,, ,
*-~
high efficiency particulate air filters in "3 series) effectively remove Pu particulates larger than 0.3 micrometers (um) in diameter , , , , from the exhaust stream (13,000,000 m3 daily from the largest of the 27 stacks at , the plant), leaks do occur (2) and one o s- ss , \ report (1972) estimates "the number of army ajaa.\ individual particles emitted from 776 , oi p - building to be on the order of millions per ~ ' ' " [ "_}'**' day"(3). About half of the particles are 'i a s' i smaller than 0.1 um in diameter and behave '-"-~ '
- l like gas molecules (3). In addition, small particles of Pu (Pu oxide) and other alpha b$3 radiation-emitting nuclides can diffuse _, ,,, ,_o m _
, , , , m,, f through fivd filters in series, due to the a' 5a"-'a r:Tm'.% m constant fragmentation and self-scattering *
, -y;,, ,,,, , ,,
j effect of the alpha recoil phenomenon (Table 1 ) m-g. ~;-- ;ggg,, ;' "_.. g, f';, ' 7,;---;g ,,u,,,.~, . (4). There is a " dissemination of the finest ~ ~ am - ~~ " *' '
- radionuclide particles throughout the area over a radius of several miles j from the plant site" and "these smallest particles are not noticeably reduced in number by gravitational settling to three miles from the apparent point of origin and presumably reached much further afield" ( 5,6) .
,
- 42 Hillside Drive, Denver, CO 80215 (303) 232-2328 l
I l
i Sanpling stations draw air from the filtered exhaust stream through a collecting filter. An evaluation of filter efficiency in which two millipore filters were placed in tandem disclosed a "large and variable per cent of the particles on the backup filter" (32-69%), indicating an underestimation of Pu releases (5,6). Routine releases of Pu in exhaust from the plant ranged from an annual averagq) (dpm/m a inconcentration 1953 to 2.33 of 0.06 disintegrations dpm/m3 in 1962, whichpermayminute per cubic b3 compared to meter a guideline limiting Pu in plant exhaust to less than 0.12 dpm/m or 0.06 picoeuries/m3 (pCi/m3) (7). Plutonium concentrations in the air at the Rocky Flats Plant are consistently the highest (1970-1977) in the U.S. Department of Energy (D.O.E.) monitoring network, with 51 stations positioned throughout the western hemisphere (8). The D.O.E. station at the castern (downwind) bogndary oftheplanthasrecordedanaverageconcentrationof2072attocuries{m for (aCm/m3) of plutonium oveg for the the eightstation year period, compared to 32 aCm/m New York City and 5 aCm/m with the lowest average concen-tration (8). The air concentrations of Pu obtained from ambient air monitors are of dubious validity, because as Chapman states "although we maintain air samplers in neighboring populated areas, these are not visited daily because of the cost involved and because we found them to give the same values as air samplers collected daily on site. The samplers are visited fortnightly principally to insure that they are operating and can be used as a defensive measure in case of an incident on the plant site. Consequently, dust loading restricts the air flow and gives an unrealistically low computed value for air activity" (9). In addition to problems with dust loading, incompatible wind speeds, and the diffusion through filters of alpha active aerosols, these filters are less efficient than the industrial filters through which the exhaust stream has already passed. Unusual releases have occurred at this plant, especially in major fires in 1957 and 1969 (7,8,10,11). Average measured concentrations of Pu in exhaust plumes from the main stack at the plant were as high as 948 pCi/m3 for the eighth day after a fire and explosion in 1957, which blew out the filter system (12-14). There are no records of emissions for the seven day period during the the fire and after, but those unmeasured releases may have been 4 to 5 orders of magnitude greater than the releases recorded on the eighth day (an estimated 12 millicuries, or about S00 mg of Pu) 12-14).' The releases of Pu and other transuranics in the 1957 fire may represent the most important exposure to the population near the plant during the period 1953-
- 1971. "The 620 H.E.P.A. filters in the main plenum had not been changed since they had been installed four years earlier and may have contained many kilograms of Pu (estimates range as high as 250 kg or about 15,000 curies).
Large plumes of Pu-contaminated smoke from the 150 foot high stack continued throughout the night. Eyewitnesses reported it to be very dark in color, 80 to 100 feet high, blowing south, east and southeast" (12-14). Estimates of the amount of Pu released are based on studies of the daily rate of deposition of Pu on the filters (15, 16). Filters in operation no more than four months contained as much as 68 grams of Pu on a single filter.
- The average amount ranged from 16.6 grams (26 days) to 42 grams'(4 months).
- In one month the filters could collect 0.5 kilograms or more of plutonium, of i which 86% was water soluble, (Pu nitrate) due to nitrates present in the
! exhaust (17). When the stack monitors were placed back in operation eight days after the fire, the guidelines for stack' emissions were exceeded by 16,000 times for that day, greater than a permitted release over a 50 year period. An unknown quantity (14-20 kg) of Pu metal burned up in the fire. Burning Pu forms submicron-sized particles of plutonium oxide. According to an A.E.C. report, these particles do not settic out from industrial exhaust plumes, and are so small as to move like metal fumes and do not account for the pattern of soil contamination around the plant (18).
i . .. .. There was concern about offsite contamination with plutonium by the five, lipwever, only threc_offsite soil samples were taken (19). All showed contaminat.f.on by the plant. A soil sample taken et the Ralston Elementary School, 12 miles south-southwest of the plant, contained 12,000 dpm/kg of "possible enriched uranium", and a sample at the Semper Elementary School, sin miles east of the plant, contained 16,000 dpm/kg of "possible enriched uranium" (figure 1). A third sample from private property contained 18,000 dpm/kg of "possible plutonium". These concentrations are 150 to 225 times higher than Pu concentrations in soil from accumulated worldwide fallout from nuclear weapons' testing according to measurements of " background levels" in Colorado soil, or between 4200 and 6300 times hfgher than the " background level" (0.003 dpm/g) measured in South Carolina (20). These soil concentra-tions only indicate the passing of a heavily contaminated smoke plumeAncon- official taining large amounts of Pu and other actinides and radionuclides. at the plant af terward requested a " crash" survey as part of a nationwide A.E.C. project, repeating a request in earlier telegrams for reports " con-taining information relating to radioactivity in the atmosphere and the fall-out therefrom, which is of direct interest to and must be known by the public in order to evaluate dangers to life" (21). A large area downwind from the facility (figure 1) has been Uranium contaminated has with isotopes of Pu, U., Am and o~ther radionuclides (22-29).* been released by the open burning of over 1,000 barrels of contaminated lathe oil (30). In addition, waste lathe oil from the milling of Pu metal stored in several thousand corroded barrels outside at the plant spilled out on the ground between 1958 and 1968, and contributed at least 5.8 curies to the offsite contamination (30). Concentrations of Pu in soil may be compared to current and proposed guidelines for areas with risk of human exposure. An Interstate Commerce Commission guideline for trucks hauling radioactive materials permits a con-centration of 4.4 d.p.m. per square centimeter, but is10timesmoreprotgetive than a proposed E.P.A. guideline to protect the general public (44 dpm/cm ), a guideline that has been criticized (22). Resuspension of Pu-contaminated soil increases with wind speed to the 2.1 power, and the ratio of Pu 238 to Pu 239 increases from about 2% (surface soil) to 20-40% in airborne soil (31). As much as 50 pCi/g of Pu in airborne A study of Pu particle size in the soil soll has been reported in the area. suggested that single Pu atoms and Pu particles with diameters less than the minimum detectable equivalent diameter (0.09 um) accounted for the majority of Pu 239 and 240 activity in the soil (32). Contamination of an aquifer under the facility to 2.5 picoeuries of Pu per liter (pCf./1), a stream leaving the plant site to 209 pC1/1 (1), and a nearby water district to 2.29 pCi/1 has been reported (1,33). Pu in chlor-inated water is soluble to the extent that a recommendation has been made that the concentration limit be reduced from 1600 pCi/1 to 0.16 pCi/1 (26, 27), and so these concentrations of Pu offsite are of concern (34,35). Evaluation of Ilealth Effects Contaminated water is of importance as a route of exposure for only a small fraction of the Denver area population (1). The major route of exposure is the inhalation of airborne particles of Pu, Am, U and other radionuclides by people living in the path of exhaust plumes from the plant, and (for those living near the plant), the inhalation of radionuclides in resuspended surface dust. Work in progress confirms the presence of Pu from the facility (iden-tified by isotope ratio) in autopsy specimens of persons in the area (36), as well. indicating equivalent doses of many other radionuclides from the plant TIE Fr p5rtiHn t3 Ti ~239Trakeli u as"1.5 En thE hasis of~radioactfvityT tTie amounts released of some of these are americitm 241 (0.62), Pu 238 (0.02), Pu 240 (0.22), Pu 241 (8.25) protoactinitri 234 (0.96), thorita 231 (0.05), thoritm 234 (0.96), uranite 234 (1.49), uranita i 235 (0.05) anl uranite 238 (0.96) ant their progeny (1). Other radionuclides at.tted include uranitm 233 and 239, curitm 244, neptunism 237, thorita 228, radita 226, cesite 134 and 137, iodine 129 and 131, ruthenita 103, rtxxiitm 103, niobi.tm 95, zirconits %, strontits 89 and 90, zinc 65, cobalt 60, potassita 40, and phosphonis 32 and their prog'eny. An estimated 100 curies of trititm are also released annually in the exhaust plumes frm the plant, along with an tnknown quantity of other radioactive gases and volatile substances (1).
Plutonitm is an alpha radiation emitter which is retained in the txx!y for mny years, due to a slow rate of excretion. Although Pu is present in higher concentration in exposed persons in bone (where the rate of decline in concentration is about one-half in 200 years) autopsy sttxlies of nuclear plant workers have denonstrated Pu present in all organs (figure 1)O7). Aninal studies suggest that effects of Pu on man any incitxle leukenia, neoplasms of bone, lung and liver, arx! genetic injury (38, 39). Conservative reports suggest that maxinun pennissible doses of Pu for workers should be reduced to about 67 pCi (trachiobronchial lywh ncdes), or atxmt 170 pCL (bone) !40,41). Inhalation arvi retention of a few particles of Pu of respirable size (5 un in diameter) could exceed this annunt (42). Lynphocyte chronosane aberrations in Pu workers in the lowest exposure group (1-107. nnxinta permissible lxx!y lunlen of Pu, or 400 to 4000 pC1) exceeded by 33% those of workers with no measureable txxly burden (43), further supporting a nore conservative estinnte of the potential for health effects fran vet,y snn11 body bunlens of Pu Preliminary studies itxlicated a problem (44-46). In onier to evaluate possible health effects from plant releases, cancer incidence data was acquired by census tract from the National Cancer Institute's (N.C.I. ) Thirti National Cancer Survey (1969-1971) (47-48). 'Ihe incidence of cancer for each cancer class was deter-mined for census tracts pre-selected within Pu isopleth areas (figure 1) with decreasing concentration of Rocky Flats Pu (identified by isotope ratio) in soil, hased on an area-wide survey (core sanples to a depth of 10 cm) carried out by the Atomic Energy Conmission (A.E.C.) ! in the Denver area in 1970 (18,24). Census tracts divided between two areas by an isopleth were incitried in the area containing the mjor part of the census tract. The position of the isopleths in figure 1 were approximte but useable in comparing the incidence of health effects between areas with decreasing envirorvrental contamination arourxl a point source of emission arx! with populations that are similar in size. 'Ihe Pu content of soil was used as a surrogate measure of exposure to Pu and many other radionuclides through pathways other than those that originate from the soil (i.e., an indication of direction of exhaust p1tmes from the Rocky Flats Plant since 1953). That actual exposures to radionuclides have been nuch larger is suggested by a survey of Pu in surface respirable dust to a distance of 32 km around the plant. Concentrations of Pu as high as 3390 times greater than that from Colorado " background" cencentrations were observed (169.5 dpm/g and 0.05 dpm/g respectively) conpared to a mxinun concentration of 26 times background for the AEC survey, which sampled subsurface soil and coarse particles 2nm in diameter and smaller with the windblown nnterial (18). Data was retrieved from N.C.I. data tapes and age-specific cancer rates for anglos (the population of the area near the plant is virtually all anglo) were calculated for the Ibnver Standan! Metrupolitan Statistical Area (SMSA). Expected case numbers were calculated by applying the SMSA age-specific cancer incidence rates to the 11 corresponding age groups in each sub-area, and sunming the products to obtain a starxiardized expected incidence (cases expected / area population) for each area (47-50 ). '1he ntaber of cases of cancer in each area divided by the starxlardized expected incidence provided a risk ratio (observed / expected). Area IV, the unexposed population (comprising the renuirder of the Denver SMSA) had an age-adjusted cancer incidence virtually identical to that for the state. The risk ratio for Area IV was asstmed to be 1.0 arxl the exwsed populations ( Areas I-III) were compared to Area IV. 'lhe populations in Areas I and IV is predominantly suburban, and the mean age of these two areas is similar, arxl so those two areas provide the nost inportant comparisons.
&dian incone arxl education levels were considered with the aid of 1970 census data (Table 3 ),
in onler to weigh the possible importance of such associated factors as snoking, diet arxl alcohol. Cancer incidence in males was 247. higher **, and in females 107. higher
- in the suburban area (pop. 154,170) with most contamination nearest the plant ( Area I in figure 1) compared to the unexposed area ( Area IV, with a population of 423,870), also predominantly suburban, which had virtually the same age-adjusted rate for all cancer as the state (Table 3 ). The sttxly area adjac of 157. in males.gt to 'lhethe area nearest excess cases ofthe cancerplantwere (Area dueII)tohad ancases nore excess cancer than incidence expected of leukemia, lynphoma and myelonn and cancer of the lung, thyroid, breast, esophagus, stomach arvi colon, a pattem similar to that observed in the survivors of Hiroshinn and Nagasaki (Table 4 ). 'lhose results were confirmed by age-specific canparisons bet'ren Areas I aryl IV (Table 5). 'Ibe ratio of cancer of the more radiosensitive organs to -ther classes of cancer was 12.2 7. higher in the area near the plant (17.67 in males,11.97. in fennles)
(Table 6 ). These ratios were not significantly changed with the deletion of lung cancer. 2
- Critical X value at a 957. confidence level (54) ** Crit ical X2 value at a 97/. confidence level.
l Cancer of the ovary and testes (51-53), liver, pancreas an! brain also contributed to the higher incidence of all cancer in areas near the plant. %ese results were further confinred by standanlized norbidity ratio analysis and nultiple regression analysis (Tables 7,8)(55). h investigation of health effects in the Denver S.M.S.A. will include studies of cancer incidence for the period 1979-1981 ami cancer deaths for the period 1970-1980. II. h Savannah River Plant h Savannah River Plant (SRP) in South Carolina produces Pu and tritim in three of the five reactors still in operation (57). Le plant, built in 1952, has contaminated an area over 1,000 miles square with plutonim and other radionuclides (58-60). As nuch as 2.66 curies of Pu wete released in a single day (58). Millions of curies of tritim have been released over the years, in plant exhaust plures and in ground and surface water and streams (58), and has been found in high concentrations in water supplies in Savannah, about 100 miles downstream (62). Several thousand curies of radiciodine have been released in exhaust plures from the plant (as nuch as 1576 curies in 1956 alone). In 1955 an area of about 600 square miles around the SRP was reported to be contaminated to over 1000 counts per minute (cpm), over 100 times background, and an area of about 2000 square miles around the plant registered over 500 cpm (61). '%e classified report with this information attriluted the contamination to the Nevada Test Site 3000 miles to the west (figures 3, 4). A preliminary study of cancer death rates was carried out by Stuer, cmparing the population within a 50 mile radius of the plant to the population living between 50-99 miles away (63-64). Ec leukemia death rate for rural white males was 177. higher near the plant, and for urban white males, 257. higher. Corresponding excess rates for white females were 1037. and 367.. Lung cancer death rates for rural white males was 257. higher near the plant in 1959-61,, and 117. higher in 1973-76; and for urban white males, 67. lower and 77. higher. Be death rate from all cancers for rural white males for 1973-76 was 137. higher near the pir.c, and 107. higher for urban white males. Were was a higher death rate near the plant for cancer of thyroid, pancreas and bone, and for multiple myeloma, Hodgkins disease and sarcmn, but these higher rates were not statistically significant. III.Los Alarros laboratory Limited information is availabic concerning contamination with radionuclides offsite around the los Alamos laboratory (65-67), cmprising "a major plutoniun plant and other nuclear facilities" (68). A preliminary study of cancer nortality (1950-69) in the county where the facility is located has been reported (68). Nearly all male residents are present or fonter enployees of the facility, and so could be expected to show a healthy sorker effect. Results were not conclusive because of the small population (about 15,000), but 15 deaths frm cancers of lynphatic and hematopoletic tissue were observed (leukemia, 6; lymphosarcoma, 4; multiple myelmn, 3; and Hodgkins, 2) where 9.2 were expected, a standard mortality ratio of 163. Evaluation of cancer incidence in male county residents (1969-74) fcund a stanlartlized rrorbidity ratio (SMR) for cancer of the large intestine of 2.35 relative to the state, and for all cancer of the digestive tract, an SfR of 2.33. Females also showed excess of cancer of the large intestine and of leukemia and lymphosarcoma. IV. Other Nuclear Weapons Plants
'lhe Lawrence Livennore Laturatory in California has conducted some surveillance of the radioactive gaseous anl particulate releases in exhaust pimes and liquid discharges frm .
the facility over the past 28 years (69). Sonc releases of importance have been acknowledged in their environmental impact statenent. Kilocurie quantities of plutontun, uraniun and other actinides and radionuclides are stored and processed at the plant. In contrast to the Rocky Flats Plant which has five HEPA filters in series in the main stack, only one or two filters are in use at this facility. No investigations of health effects have been carried out in nearby populations. Offsite contamination with radionuclides has not been well-studied or reported around the facilities at Hanforil in Washington, the Pantex Plant in Texas, the Mound Facility in Ohio, the Kansas City Plant in Missourt, the Pinellas Plant in Florida and the Sandia labor-atories in New Mexico and California. Were apparently have been no published reports of ______________________________________________u
investigations of cancer or other possible effects in local populations from radioactive contaminants in exhaust p1tmes or other contaminated discharges from these plants. Discussion Attention was drawn to the contamination of the envimament with radionuclides around the Rocky Flats nuclear weapons plant by concemed scientists outside the nuclear agency-irdustry cmplex. Key reports describing the extent of the releases of radionuclides and of clardestine surveys of contamination offsite were kept from the public for 20 years or nore, and were obtained in the course of Ittigation against the plant (Dow Chemical Cmpany, Rockwell International, and the Department of Energy) by local landowners. Evaluation of health effects was made possibic by cancer incidence data collected under auspices of the National Cancer Institu~2 for the Denver metropolitan area. It seems probable that similar environmental contamination has occurred in the vicinity of other plants involved in production and processing operations with plutonitrn, uranitm, thoritm, and their activation or fission products. Bese surely incitde many nuclear power plants as well. Monitoring of the releases of the radionuclides from these installations should be the responsibility of agencies whose primary mission is the protection of public health (70). A cmprehencive epidemiologic study of health effects is of vitai inportance for the nuclear plant workers and especially for the general populations living near nuclear installations. Ihese investigations should be based on a complete inventory of amounts of all radionuclides released by these plants to the air, water and soil, and a review of internal reports of major releases of inportance to public health. We individuals and agencies involved in these investigations and the supporting radiochemical laboratories must be cmpletely independent of the industries, agencies and individuals that may be subject to litigation by evidence resulting from such investigations. Le United States should maintain an ongoing computerized national mortality data base and a national cancer incidence reporting system, as Canada has done since 1969. Bis will also pennit studies of cancer incidence around other types of industrial plants, such as snelters ard asbestos and petrochmttcal plants. Sttdies of general populations around nuclear plants by medical epidmiologists are probably more useful than studies of radiation workers, since children are about 10 times more sensitive to radiation than the workers, and the fetus about 20 times nore sensitive. Families living downwind from a plant may have nuch longer envimrmental exposures to ionizing radiation than workers, and at times will actually be within exhaust pitmes from the plant. Fbrther, they have fewer safeguanis than the workers, who wear protective clothing, are carefully monitored, and breathe filtered air. To neglect this nuch larger group of exposed persons is unconscionabic. Entire new fields of investigation have yet to be explored. Animal radiotoxicity sttdies and epidemiological investigations of exposed human populations supported by cancer registry ard vital statistics data can provide evidence of a range of scrnatic and genetic effects induced by inhalation and ingestion of radioactive isotopes of trace elements and other elenents important to nutrition and metabolism. 'Ihis work can suggest directions for basic research into the poorly understood, complex effects of several hundred longer-lived radionuclides released in the fissioning of uranitm, plutonitrn and thoritrn on the molecular, cellular, developmental and reproductive processes of plants, animals and man. Irssors learned fnm such sttdies can help us understand acute and long tenn effects of a larger hazani, that of global contamination with radionuclides from the burgeoning nuclear power and nuclear weapons industries, and the predictable consequence, global nuclear war.
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