ML072060592
| ML072060592 | |
| Person / Time | |
|---|---|
| Site: | Oyster Creek |
| Issue date: | 03/01/1989 |
| From: | Fowler D, Hill J, Moran D, Vandenavyle M Univ of Georgia, US Dept of Interior, Fish & Wildlife Service, US Dept of the Army, Corps of Engineers |
| To: | Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation |
| Davis J NRR/DLR/REBB, 415-3835 | |
| Shared Package | |
| ML072060321 | List:
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| References | |
| TR EL-82-4 82(11.100) | |
| Download: ML072060592 (27) | |
Text
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-. . .54.5 Coastal Ecology Group Fish and Wildlife Service . Waterways Experiment Station U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Army Corps of Engineers c-ýz N7cw jo r ýs
Biological Report 82(11.100)
TR EL-82-4 March 1989 Species Profiles: Life Histories and Environmental Requirements of Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (Mid-Atlantic)
BLUE CRAB by Jennifer Hill, Dean L. Fowler, and Michael J. Van Den Avyle Georgia Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit School of Forest Resources University of Georgia Athens, GA 30602 Project Officer David Moran U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Wetlands Research Center 1010 Gause Boulevard Slidell, LA 70458 Performed for U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Coastal Ecology Group Waterways Experiment Station Vicksburg, MS 39180 and U.S. Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service Research and Development National Wetlands Research Center Washington, DC 20240
DISCLAIMER The mention of trade nanes in this report does not constitute endorsement nor recommendation for use by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service or Federal Government.
This series may be referenced as follows:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983-19 Species profiles: life histories and environmental requirements of coastail fishes and invertebrates. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. 82(11). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, TR EL-82-4.
This profile may be cited as follows:
Hill, J., D.L. Fowler, and M.J. Van Den Avyle. 1989. Species profiles: life histories and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates (Mid-Atlantic)--Blue crab. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. 82(11.100). U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers, TR EL-82-4. 18 pp.
PREFACE This species profile is one of a series on coastal aquatic organisms, principally fish, of sport, commercial, or ecological importance. The profiles are designed to provide coastal managers, engineers, and biologists with a brief comprehensive sketch of the biological characteristics and environmental requirements of the species and to describe how populations of the species may be expected to react to environmental changes caused by coastal development. Each profile has sections on taxonomy, life history, ecological role, environmental requirements, and economic importance, if applicable. A three-ring binder is used for this series so that new profiles can be added as they are prepared.
This project is jointly planned and financed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Millikin and Williams (1984) previously published a review of the nomenclature, taxonomy, morphology, distribution, life history, population structure and dynamics, and the fishery of the blue crab.
Suggestions or questions regarding this report should be-directed to one of the following addresses.
Information Transfer Specialist National Wetlands Research Center U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service NASA-Slidel.l Computer Complex 1010 Gause Boulevard Slidell, LA 70458 or U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station Attention: WESER-C Post Office Box 631 Vicksburg, MS 39180.
iii
CONVERSION TABLE Metric to U.S. Customary Multiply To Obtain 0.03937 millimeters (mm) 0.3937 inches centimeters ('cm) inches meters (m) 3.281 feet meters (m) 0.5468 fathoms kilometers (km) 0.6214 statute miles kilometers (km) 0.5396 nautical miles 2
square meters (m ) 10.76 square feet 2
square kilometers (km ) 0.3861 square miles hectares (ha) 2.471 acres liters (1) 0.2642 gal Ions 3
cubic meters (m 3 ) 35.31 cubic feet cubic meters (m ) 0.0008110 acre-feet milligrams (mg). 0.00003527 ounces grams (g) 0.03527 ounces kilograms (kg) 2.205 pounds metric tons (t) 2205.0 pounds metric tons (t) 1.102 short tons kilocalories (kcal) 3.968 British thermal units Celsius degrees ('C) 1.8(OC) + 32 Fahrenheit degrees U.S. Customary to Metric inches 25.40 millimeters inches 2.54 centimeters feet (ft) 0.3048 meters fathoms 1.829 meters statute miles (mi) 1.609 kilometers nautical miles (nmi) 1.852 kilometers 2
square feet (ft ) 0.0929 square meters square .miles (mi2) 2.590 square kilometers acres 0.4047 hectares gallons (gal) 3.785 liters 3 cubic meters cubic feet (ft ) 0.02831 acre-feet 1233.0 cubic meters ounces (oz) 28350.0 milligrams ounces (oz) 28.35 grams pounds (lb) 0.4536 kilograms pounds (lb) 0.00045 metric tons short tons (ton) 0.9072 metric tons British thermal units0 (Btu) 0.2520 kilocalories Fahrenheit degrees'( F) 0.5556 (OF - 32) Celsius degrees iv
CONTENTS Page PREFACE .............................................................. iii CONVERSION TABLE ....................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................ vi NOMENCLATURE, TAXONOMY, AND RANGE ................... .... 1 MORPHOLOGY AND IDENTIFICATION AIDS .................................. 1 REASON FOR INCLUSION IN SERIES ............................................. 3 LIFE HISTORY ................................................................ 3 Mating and Spawning ...................................................... 3 Development ............................................................... 4 Eggs ..................................................................... 4 Larvae ................................................................... 4 Juveniles ................................................................ 5 Adults. ............ .................................................. 6 Migrations ............................................................... 6 GROWTH AND MOLTING CHARACTERISTICS ......................................... 6 THE FISHERY ................................................................ 7 ECOLOGICAL ROLE ............................................................ g ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS .................................................. 11 Temperature............................................................... 11 Salinity ................................................................. 11 Temperature-Salinity Interactions ........................................ 11 Habitat .................................................................. 12 Other Environmental Factors ............................................... 12 LITERATURE CITED ........................................................... 13 v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are grateful to Maurice K. Crawford, Douglas E. Facey, and'Timothy J.
Welch for reviews and to Sue Anthony for editing and typing this manuscript.
Technical reviews were provided by Kenneth Tenore of the University of Maryland and W. A. Van Engel of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science at Gloucester Point. We wish to thank the authors J. 0. Costlow, Jr., and C. G. Bookhout for use of their drawing of the Zoea for our Figure 4.
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Figure 1. Blue Crab.
BLUE CRAB NOMENCLATURE,TAXONOMY, AND RANGE South America, including the Gulf of Mexico. It has been collected Scientific name .... Callinectes sapidus occasionally in Maine and northward (Rathbun) to Nova Scotia (Piers 1923; Scatter-Preferred common name ........ Blue crab good 1960). It occurs throughout Other common names ...... Edible crab, the Mid-Atlantic Region (Figure 2) crab; young females are called sally (Sullivan 1909; Churchill 1919; Van crabs; adult females are called Engel 1958).
sooks; and males are called jimmies, jimmydicks, or channelers (Van Engel 1958) MORPHOLOGY AND IDENTIFICATION AIDS Class ........................ Crustacea Order ......................... Decapoda The blue crab is grayish or Family ...................... Portunidae bluish green, with red on carapace Subfamily ................... Portuninae spines (Williams 1965). Pincers on the chelipeds are blue in males and Geographic range: The blue crab red in mature females. Underparts are (Figure 1) occurs in coastal off-white with tints of yellow and waters--primarily bays and brackish pink (Williams 1965). Young crabs estuaries--from Massachusetts Bay often are brownish with conspicuous southward to the eastern coast of white markings (Newcombe 1945).
1
NEW .YORK Cz 0z I
ATLANTIC OCEAN Coastal distribution
- Area of high abundance tLE "o0 UND MILES 0 so 100 0 50 100 KILOMETERS HATTERAS Figure 2. Distribution of the blue crab in the Mid-Atlantic Region,eastern United States. Chesapeake Bay supports the major commerical fishery in this region.
2
Although these are typical color pat- !'id-Atlantic States and along most of terns, rare forms have been captured the eastern and gulf coasts of the that were entirely blue (Maryland United States. Estuaries are essen-Tidewater News 1950; Haefner 1961). tial in its life history; the species' high abundance in estuaries and its The carapace, including lateral omnivorous feeding habits suggest that spines, is usually 2.5 times as wide it plays an important role in the as long, moderately convex, and nearly structure and function of estuarine smooth, except for small tubercles on communities. It is a predator of inner branchial and cardiac regions. commercially valuable clams and The anterior margin of the carapace oysters (Newcombe 1945), and young are has a median or frontal region that preyed upon by a large number of extends between the compound eyes, and estuarine and marine animals, includ-two lateral regions. ing other commercially important species such as the striped bass, Members of the subfamily Morone saxatilis (Manooch 1973).
Portuninae have nine anterolateral teeth on the carapace, with the lateral tooth similar to others in LIFE HISTORY size. The genus Callinectes has an antenna that is not excluded from the Mating and Spawning orbit; male Callinectes also have a T-shaped abdomen.ý The abdomen is Blue crabs mate in Chesapeake Bay triangular in immature females and is from May through October (Van Engel broadly rounded and folded loosely 1958; Williams 1984). The spawning against the ventral side of the season was significantly shorter thoracic sterna in mature females during years in which temperatures (Figure 3). The medial region of C. were low for extended periods sapidus has two frontal teeth between (Daugherty 1952). Mating occurs the inner orbital teeth (Williams primarily in relatively low-salinity 1984). waters in the upper areas of estuaries and lower portions of rivers (Pyle and Cronin 1950; Darnell 1959; Williams REASON FOR INCLUSION IN SERIES 1965; Tagatz 1968).
The blue crab supports a valuable Williams (1965) described the commercial fishery throughout the blue crab's mating behavior. The male may mate during its third or fourth intermolt phase after it matures. Females mate only once in their lives, but the sperm from this mating is stored in seminal recep-tacles and may be used as often as the female spawns, generally two or more times during a I- or 2-year period (Van Engel 1958; Williams 1965). When the female is ready to molt into the mature stage, it is carried under the male's body; these pairs are called doublers. The female is released during molting and is then reclasped with the abdomens facing each other.
Figure 3. Ventral view of the blue Spermatophores produced by the male crab male (A), immature female (B), are then passed via copulatory stylets and mature female (C) (Truitt 1939). into the spermathecae. Pleopods of 3
the male and swimmerets of the female Development are intromittent organs which aid in copulation. After copulation, the Growth and development of the female is turned around and carried blue crab, as in other crustaceans, until her shell hardens (Williams consist of a series of larval, 1984). juvenile, and adult stages during which a variety of morphological, behavioral, and physiological changes After mating, females migrate to occur. These changes are most high-salinity waters in lower dramatic when the animal molts (sheds estuaries, sounds, and nearshore its rigid exoskeleton) permitting spawning areas (Churchill 1919; growth and changes in body shape.
Darnell 1959; Fischler and Walburg Before molting, a new shell is formed 1962). These overwinter before beneath the old exoskeleton, which spawning by burrowing in the mud at then loosens and is cast off. The new the mouths of bays (Cook 1981; Schmidt shell is initially soft, but it 1985). Most females spawn for the expands and hardens in a few hours.
first time 2 to 9 months after mating The stage between molts is termed (Churchill 1919; Williams 1965). intermolt. Much of the information 1965). summarized here was obtained from comprehensive studies of the blue crab in the Chesapeake Bay area by Churchill (1919), Newcombe (1945), and From May through August, the Van Engel (1958).
female extrudes fertilized eggs into a cohesive mass or "sponge" that remains Eggs attached to setae on the appendages of the abdomen until the larvae emerge The eggs are bright orange when (Churchill 1919; Newcombe 1945; Pyle first deposited, but become yellow, and Cronin 1950). The sponge, which brown, and then dark brown before may contain 700,000 to 2 million eggs, hatching (Van Engel 1958). The color is formed in about 2 hours2.314815e-5 days <br />5.555556e-4 hours <br />3.306878e-6 weeks <br />7.61e-7 months <br /> (Churchill change is caused by absorption of the 1919; Truitt 1939; Williams 1965). yellow yolk and development of dark Incubation generally requires 1-2 pigment in the eyes and on the body.
weeks. In Chesapeake Bay, larval Eggs are about 0.25 mm in diameter release appears to be concentrated (Churchill 1919). Sandoz and Rogers between the Virginia capes (McConaugha (1944) reported that hatching of blue et al. 1986). The presence of empty crab eggs only occurs at salinities of egg' cases on swimmerets or the 23-33 ppt and temperatures of 19-29 0
occurrence of large, bright-red adult C. Mortality of eggs has been nemertean worms (Carcinonemertes attributed to fungal infection, carcinophila) on the gills of a mature predation, suffocation in stagnant feale indicates that the crab has water, and exposure to extreme spawned at least once (Churchill 1919; temperatures (Couch 1942; Humes 1942; Hopkins 1947). After reaching Rogers-Talbert 1948). On the average, sexual maturity, these worms feed on only one out of every million eggs the egg masses carried by female crabs survives to become a mature adult (Van and live in the gills of the crab Engel 1958).
after the eggs hatch (Hopkins 1947).
In lower Chesapeake Bay, mature red Carcinonemertes occurred in the gills Larvae of more than 95% of the female crabs that had spawned; immature crabs First stage larvae, called zoeae, supported only immature, light-colored measure approximately 0.25 mm wide at worms (Hopkins 1947). hatching (Figure 4). Churchill 4
width; development to this stage requires 31-49 days (Costlow and Bookhout 1959). The megalopa larva, illustrated by Churchill (1919) and Newcombe (1945), is more crablike in appearance than the zoea; its carapace is broader in relation to its length, and it has pinching claws and pointed joints at the ends of the legs. It swims freely, but generally stays near bottom in nearshore or lower-estuarine, high-salinity areas (Tagatz 1968). The megalopal stage lasts 6 to 20 days, after which the larva molts into the "first crab" stage, charac-terized by. adult proportions and appearance.
Figure 4. Zoea (from Costlow, Jr. and Bookhout 1959).
Juveniles The juvenile "first crab" is (1942), Hopkins (1943), and Costlow typically 2.5 mm wide (from tip to tip and Bookhout (1959) provided illus- of the lateral spines of the cara-trated descriptions of the morphology pace). Juveniles gradually migrate of zoeae. The larvae bear little into shallower, less-saline waters in morphological resemblance to adults upper estuaries and rivers, where they (Hopkins 1943), are filter feeders, grow and mature (Fischler and Walburg and are planktonic (Darnell 1959). 1962). Van Engel (1958) reported that many juveniles had completed this Evidence suggests that blue crab migration by fall. New evidencel, zoeae hatch in Chesapeake Bay, Chinco- however, suggests that the bulk may teague Bay, Delaware Bay, and other not reach the upper parts of tribu-estuaries and drift out to sea, where taries and Chesapeake Bay until the they feed and grow (Cook 1981; Finch- following summer (W.A. Van Engel',
ham 1981; Sulkin et al. 1982). These Virginia Institute of Marine Science, larvae may migrate vertically in the Gloucester Point; pers. comm.).
water column to reach flood and ebb Males, which prefer low-salinity tides, which transport them back into waters, general ly migrate farther the bay area. upstream than do females, which tend to stay in the lower rivers and The zoeae and all subsequent life estuaries (Dudley and Judy 1971; stages can increase body size only by Music 1979).
molting (Hay 1905). Zoeal development depends on salinity and temperature, Growth and maturation proceed but development time has been shown to during a series of molts and intermolt be variable even in a single salinity- phases; each of these crab stages is temperature regime (Costlow and Book- identified by the number of molts that hout 1959). Larvae molt seven to have occurred since the megalopal eight times before entering the next stage. Churchill (1919). estimated stage of development (Costlow and that juveniles reached the 9th or 10th Bookhout 1959). The final molt of the crab stage by October in Chesapeake zoea is characterized by a conspicuous Bay. Molting and growth stop during change to the second larval stage winter (Churchill 1919; Darnell 1959),
(megalops) at about 2.5 mm carapace but resume as waters warm. The crabs 5
generally reach maturity during the Migrations of blue crabs within spring or sunmer of the year following estuarine systems are related to the year of hatching. phases of their life cycle, to the season, and (to a lesser extent) to searches for favorable environmental Adults conditions (Churchill 1919; Fiedler 1930; Truitt 1939; Fischler and In the Chesapeake Bay, sexual Walburg 1962). Most blue crabs move maturity is reached after 18-20 to relatively deeper, warmer waters in postlarval molts, at the age of 1-1.5 winter and return to rivers, tidal years (Van Engel 1958; Williams 1965). creeks, salt marshes, and sounds when Males continue to molt and grow after conditions become more favorable in they reach sexual maturity, but the spring (Livingston 1976; females cease to molt and grow when Subrahmanyam and Coultas 1980).
they mature and mate.
After the females mate and migrate to spawning areas, they either GROWTH AND MOLTING CHARACTERISTICS remain there for the rest of their lives or move only short distances out From the first crab stage to the to sea (Williams 1965). In warmer adult, successive intermolt stages of months, males generally stay in the crab are morphologically similar low-salinity waters such as creeks, except for size. The number of molts rivers, and upper estuaries (Churchill during certain life stages (e.g.,
1919; Van Engel 1958; Dudley and Judy larval and juvenile) is relatively 1971; Music 1979). Early work by uniform among crabs, but the rate of Fiedler (1930), Truitt (1937), and molting (and hence growth) varies Cronin (1949) on blue crabs in the considerably and is affected by many Chesapeake Bay indicated that females environmental factors, including overwintered at the mouth of the bay temperature and salinity. Consequent-and spawned there in spring, whereas ly, it is generally not possible to the migration of males was nondirec- determine the developmental stage of a tional. Crabs bury themselves in mud particular crab from its size or in winter and emerge when temperatures external characteristics (Churchill rise in spring (Cook 1981; Schmidt 1919). Migrations and movements 1985). The maximum age for most blue within estuaries further complicate crabs in the Mid-Atlantic Region is 3 estimation of growth rates, and years (Churchill 1919; Williams 1965); repeated sampling at one location can adults thus live an average of less lead to erroneous conclusions (Darnell than 1 year after reaching maturity 1959; Adkins 1972; Palmer 1974).
(Hay 1905; Truitt 1939). Thus, the growth and molting patterns described here were derived in part Migrations from laboratory studies.
Adult blue crabs are excellent Crabs molt often when small, but swimmers and also can move quickly on less frequently as they grow larger land. They rarely move from one (Van Engel 1958). Each molt typically estuarine system to another (Porter results in a 25%-40% increase in 1956; Cargo 1958; Fischler and Walburg carapace width (Churchill 1919; Gray 1962; Judy and Dudley 1970). When and Newcombe 1939; Van Engel 1958).
they do leave an estuary, they usually Results of Churchill's (1919) labora-remain in adjacent coastal areas, tory studies on growth of Chesapeake though a few tagged female crabs have Bay blue crabs serve as a general been recovered 100-540 Il from their guideline for growth patterns of blue release sites. crabs in Virginia and adjacent States 6
(Table 1). Rates of growth vary with (Churchill 1919). Mature females age and sex (Newcombe 1948). The range in size from 55-204 mmn; males increase in size associated with spe- may reach 209 mm (Williams 1984).
cific molts may be genetically con-trolled, but environmental conditions are believed to have a greater influence. Unfavorable water condi- THE FISHERY tions, inadequate food, or injuries such as the loss of one or more legs The blue crab supports the can cause smaller increases in size or largest crab fishery in the United no growth following a molt (Van Engel States, representing about 50% of the 1958). In juveniles, the increment of total weight of all species of crabs growth in successive molts appears to harvested (Thompson 1984, NMFS 1986).
be greatest in high salinity waters Annual commercial landings in the (Tagatz 1968). United States averaged 86,000 t (190 million lbs) in 1980-85; the harvest Van Engel (1958) reported that in 1985 was valued at $53 million crabs hatched in late May in Chesa- (NMFS 1986). In 1982, the average peake Bay were 64 mm wide by November wholesale price for live blue crabs and 127 mm wide (harvestable size) by was $24 per bushel (NMFS 1982).
the following August. The age of Sholar (1982) summarized most aspects sexual maturity varies from 12-18 of the Atlantic blue crab fishery and months in Chesapeake Bay (Newcombe reported landings, by State, for 1945; Van Engel .1958). Average size 1950-77. An annotated bibliography at maturity is also variable; it has on the blue crab fishery and biology been estimated to be about 178 mm was published by Tagatz and Hall carapace width in Chesapeake Bay (1971). A report on the blue crab Table 1. Growth of different life stages of blue crabs in the laboratory at temperatures and salinities typical of Chesapeake Bay (Churchill 1919).
Life stage Carapace width Increase in width Molt interval Age (mm) (mm) (days) (days)
Megalops 1.0 1st crab 3.2 2.2 1 1 2nd crab 5.0 1.8 8 9 3rd crab 6.6 1.6 4 13 4th crab 8.8 2.2 5 18 5th crab 11.6 2.8 6 24 6th crab 13.1 1.5 13 37 7th crab 20.6 7.5 11 48 8th crab 27.0 6.4 13 61 9th crab 34.9 7.9 10 71 10th crab 42.8 7.9 15 86 11th crab 57.2 14.4 16 102 12th crab 79.4 22.2 20 122 13th crab 109.5 30.1 21 143 14th crab 139.7 30.2 25 168 15th crab 177.8 38.1 35 203 7
dynamics in Chesapeake Bay was pub- business because these crabs must be lished by the Chesapeake Biological tended continuously (Adkins 1972).
Laboratory (Jones et al. 1983).
Management of the commercial blue Harvests from the Mid-Atlantic crab fishery is usually local, and has Region during 1977-85 composed about included measures such as carapace half of the total U.S. commercial blue width limits, net mesh-size Timits, crab harvest; commercial landings were constraints on gear type, closed sea-about 40,000 t or 90 million lbs (NMFS sons and areas, prohibition of the 1982). Almost 90% of commercial harvest of sponge crabs or other fe-blue crab landings in the Mid-Atlantic males, quotas, and licensing (Bearden are from the Chesapeake Bay region in 1978). Even so, an assessment of the Maryland and Virginia; landings are blue crab fishery in Chesapeake Bay much smaller in Delaware and New suggested that blue crabs are cur-Jersey (NMFS 1981, 1986). Much of the rently being overfished (Tang 1983).
harvest is processed for commercial packaging singularly or mixed with The blue crab also supports a other food products and represents a recreational fishery and a variety of
$60 million industry (NMFS 1985). small-scale commercial harvests and sales by "weekend operators." Gears used include handlines, pots, and Blue crabs are caught throughout collapsible traps. Recreational the year, but most are taken during fishermen generally are limited to a the summer and early fall (Music maximum of five pots (Sholar 1982).
1979). Hard crabs (having hardened Landings from these activities have exoskeletons) are taken primarily in rarely been quantified.
shallow water. in the warmer months with crab pots or trotlines. The use Commercial harvests of blue crabs of trotlines for blue crabs has fluctuate widely. For example, the generally diminished in the New annual harvest in Chesapeake Bay England states (Sholar 1982), whereas fluctuated between 45 and 94 million the use of crab pots has increased lbs from 1966 to 1980, typical of (Tang 1983). Dredges (and less harvests over the last 50 years frequently, scrapes) are used in (Finchham 1981). Rees (1963) and More deeper offshore waters in winter to (1969) found no direct relationship take crabs burrowed into the mud between commercial catches and (Adkins 1972; Tang 1983; Schmidt recruitment of harvestable crabs in 1985). Fishing pressure has been subsequent years. Pearson (1948) steadily increasing in the Chesapeake found that the size of the spawning Bay area; numbers of fishermen, boats, stock also failed to determine the and pots increased threefold between size of the population that survived 1950 and 1975 (Table 2). Cronin to legal size for commercial fishing.
(1983) reported a 7.6-fold increase He noted that fluctuations in between 1948 and 1981 in the number ot abundance were related primarily to licenses for crabbing issued in rates of survival during the first Maryland. year of life.
Recently molted "soft-shell" Apparently, there are no reliable crabs represent a smaller portion of methods for predicting harvests. Pop-the total industry, although they have ulation fluctuations have apparently a higher value per crab (Haefner and been caused by extreme cold weather, Garten 1974). Methods of processing reduced salinities from heavy rains used in the soft-shell industry were (Pearson 1948), parasitism by the reviewed by Haefner and Garten (1974). leech Myzobdella lugubris (Hutton and Few fishermen engage in the soft shell Sogandares-Bernal 19594, toxic wastes 8
Table 2. Numbers of gear units, crab pounds, fishermen, and boats operating in the blue crab fisheries of the Chesapeake Bay states, 1950-1975 (from Sholar 1982).
Crab Fisher-Year Pots Trotlines Dredges Scrapes Pounds men Boats 1950 85,530 1,596 268 596 - 4,653 3,879 1951 87,200 1,455 332 733 - 5,044 4,209 1952 72,250 1,479 364 640 - 4,574 3,834 1953 82,500 1,527 328 750 - 5,005 4,089 1954 88,650 1,306 333 802 - 4,896 4,006 1955 94,650 2,494 437 747 - 6,319 5,289 1956 95,552 2,914 450 466 1,783 6,418 5,668 1957 133,935 2,608 416 720 2,182 5,845 5,148 1958 129,430 2,604 370 611 2,441 5,737 5,064 1959 169,545 2,491 320 586 2,535 5,658 5,025 1960 195,073 2,231 348 563 2,550 5,506 4,855 1961 175,270 2,542 704 615 2,787 5,813 5,004 1962 188,164 2,314 596 392' 2,787 5,687 4,938 1963 192,083 2,305 407 614 2,805 5,708 4,920 1964 184,595 2,342 366 579 2,839 5,304 4,826 1965 217,376 2,735 325 414 2,687 6,306 5,469 1966 213,622 2,976 298 373 2,815 6,414 5,524 1967 203,488 3,139 283 322 2,798 6,189 5,396 1968 212,490 3,080 320 355 2,168 6,194 5,435 1969 229,995 3,263 300 348 2,331 6,743 5,813 1970 254,435 5,650 324 197 1,990 9,237 7,981 1971 227,480 7,982 285 428 1,476 11,576 9,417 1972 235,270. 8,130 273 410 1,588 11,697 9,330 1973 221,200 7,993 320 410 1,181 10,582 8,547 1974 232,599 9,272 158 428 3,168 13,841 11,454 1975 264,536 9,964 173 371 .2,338 14,437 11,710 (Cottam and Higgins 1946; Mills 1952), fluctuations can be explained by and predation (McHugh 1967). Larval variations in oceanographic and movements may affect recruitment back atmospheric conditions (VIMS 1981).
into bays (McConnaugha 1983). If larvae are scattered by winds and storms while they are offshore, or if water currents in fall do not allow ECOLOGICAL ROLE larvae to return to the bay, harvests are likely to be low the next fall and following spring. Conversely, calm Blue crabs perform a variety of conditions or mild storms with onshore ecosystem functions and can play a winds that direct currents into the major role in energy transfer within bay may lead to exceptional harvests estuaries. At various stages in the (Finchham 1981). In accord with this life cycle, blue crabs serve as both hypothesis, Van Engel (1958) deter- prey and as consumers of plankton, mined that a large part of blue crab small invertebrates, fish, and other 9
crabs. They are important detriti- Blue crabs are the prey of a vores and scavengers throughout their variety of animals. Egg masses, range. carried by females, are often specifically. attacked by some fishes Zoeae are phytoplanktivorous (Adkins 1972). Larval stages are (Darnell 1959), and readily consume eaten by fish, shellfish, jellyfish, dinoflagellates and copepod nauplii combjellies, and various other plank-(Tagatz 1968). The omnivorous tivores (Van Engel 1958). Juveniles megalopa eats fish larvae, : small are inportant prey of many fish such shellfish, and aquatic plants (Van as spotted sea trout (Cynoscion Engel 1958; Darnell 1959; Tagatz nebulosus), red drum (Sciaenops 1968). Cannibalism is common among ocellatus), black drum TP-ogonias all life stages of blue crabs (Hay cromis), and sheepshead (Archosargus 1905; Churchill 1919; Darnell 1959; pro at cephalus), as welT as of Tagatz 1968). shorebirds and wading birds (Fontenot and Rogillio 1970; Adkins 1972; Barrass and Kitting 1986). Barrass Post-larval crabs are considered and Kitting (1986) showed that crabs general scavengers, bottom carnivores, less than 10 mm long respond to detritivores, and omnivores (Hay 1905; recorded vocalizations of laughing Darnell 1959; Adkins 1972). Food gulls (Larus atricilla) by fleeing or habit studies have shown that the hiding; thus, the absence of visual predominant foods consumed vary cues in turbid waters apparently does greatly among localities. Some common not hinder the detection of avian pre-items are dead and live fish, crabs, dators by blue crabs. Juvenile and organic debris, shrimp, mollusks adult blue crabs are consumed by (including mussels, clams, oysters, mammals, a variety of birds, and and snails), and aquatic plants several fishes, including striped bass (Newcombe 1945; Darnell 1959; Williams (Manooch 1973), American eel, Anguilla 1965; Tagatz 1968; Seed 1980; Arnold rostrata (Wenner and Musick 1975) and 1984; Warren 1985). Truitt (1939) sandbar shark, Carcharhinus plumbeus found that roots, shoots, and leaves (Medved and Marshll1 1981).
of eelgrass (Zostera), ditch grass (Ruppia), sea lettuce (Ulva), and salt marsh rass (Spartina)-were commonly The blue crab is host to sev-eaten by crabs in salt marshes, tidal eral parasites and diseases, but many creeks, and other shallow estuarine infections are temporarily eliminated areas. Darnell (1958) concluded that during molting. After their last mollusks were the dominant food of molt, adult blue crabs may serve as a crabs larger than 120 mm wide. lodging place for barnacles, bryo-Although predator-prey interactions zoans, and other sessile organisms are complex (West and Williams 1986), (Darnell 1959; Williams 1965). The these relationships may be stabilized barnacles Balanus amphitrite and by predator avoidance mechanisms. For Chelonibia pap-a attach to the cara-example, the periwinkle (Littorina pace-but generaly have little physio-irrorata) reduces injury and mortality logical effect on the crab (Darnell rates caused by blue crab by climbing 1959; Williams 1965)', although the tall grass during high tides (Warren stalked barnacle Octalasmis lowei may 1985). Some bivalves also escape clog a crab's gills and gill chambers predation as they develop thicker (Causey 1961) and sacculinid barnacles shells. Blue crab feeding on infaunal may prevent molting (Steele 1982).
bivalves was found to be a function of Infections by the protozoan Paramoeba prey availability and shell strength perniciosa have been responsible for of the prey relative to predator numerous crab mortalities along the strength (Blundon and Kennedy 1982). eastern seaboard (Mahood et al. 1970).
10
Blue crabs have been implicated within a range of 15-34 0 C (Leffler as carriers of strains of the bac- 1972). Experiments by Holland et al.
terium Vibrio cholerae which are (1971) indicated that mortality responsibTe for outbreaks of human increased at temperatures above 30 *C.
cholera (Moody 1982; Welsh and Leffler (1972) noted that crabs also Sizemore 1985; Huq et al. 1986). This acclimated to 34 °C were hyperactive.
Vibrio is apparently a natural part of Activity and aggression of crabs also the estuarine ecosystem and inhabits decreased with temperature until at 13 Chesapeake Bay and other major fishing °C almost no movement occurred.
areas (Greer 1981); however, these and other parasites pose no threat to humans if the blue crabs are properly Salinity stored, cleaned, and cooked.
Blue crabs occupy water ranging from a near-ocean salinity of 34 ppt ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS to freshwater in rivers as far as 195 km upstream from the coast (Tagatz 1968; Palmer 1974). Newcombe (1945)
Temperature wrote that salinities of 22-28 ppt are needed for normal hatching of eggs and Water temperature influences for normal development of zoeae, but growth and survival of blue crabs. survival and growth of megalopae and Williams (1965) found that larval small juvenile crabs may be normal at crabs, reared at temperatures less salinities as low as 5 ppt. When than 21 'C, did not develop beyond the salinity is very low, larvae may hatch first zoeal stage and did not progress prematurely and die in the prezoeal past the third zoeal stage when reared stage (Van Engel 1958). Gunter (1938) at 30 °C or higher. Blue crabs are noted that post-larval blue crabs move more tolerant of low temperatures than into freshwater and may do so through-are many species of fishes and shrimp out the species' range. Specific (Music 1979). Their ability to burrow salinity levels are not critical for into the substrate apparently enables postlarval crabs (Odum 1953; Costlow them to be insulated from cold water 1967; Adkins 1972; Palmer 1974),
(Music 1979; Weinstein 1979). The although the occurrence of mature upper incipient lethal temperature for males generally decreases with juvenile blue crabs is 33 'C (Holland increasing salinity above 10 ppt et al. 1971). (Music 1979). Holland et al. (1971) found that salinities within the range Leffler (1972) measured growth of of 2-21 ppt had little effect on crabs at four temperatures, starting growth and survival of juveniles.
with 22-mm crabs, and found the following mean carapace widths after Temperature - Salinity Interactions 70 days: 56 mm at 34 °C, 48 mm at 27
°C, 40 mm at 20 °C, and 38 mm at 15 Optimal temperatures may vary OC. The relationship between growth with other environmental variables rate and water temperature was including salinity (Winget et al.
reported by Churchill (1919), Winget 1976). Costlow (1967) found that et al. (1976), and Leffler (1972). survival of megalopae exceeded 70% at Growth rate was proportional to water 20-30 °C when salinity was greater temperature; growth and molting ceased than 10 ppt, but never exceeded 50% at below 15.5 0 C (Churchill 1919) and 15 *C. Larval development progressed below 13 'C (Leffler 1972). normally at 25 °C when salinity was between 20.1 and 31.1 ppt, but did not Mortality was determined to be progress normally beyond this salin-directly proportional to temperature ity range (Williams 1965).
11
Habitat nursery areas are pesticides, domestic and industrial wastes, alteration of The blue crab inhabits all areas currents, and destruction of marsh-of estuaries to some extent (Churchill lands (Adkins 1972). Blue crabs are 1919; Newcombe 1945; Palmer 1974; adversely affected by a wide range of Music 1979). Weinstein (1979) found toxicants, including naphthalene that shallow salt marsh habitats were (Pearson 1979; Sabourin 1982),
important nurseries for juveniles. dimethylnaphthalene (Mantel et al.
Mature males prefer creeks, rivers, 1985), methoxychlor (Bookhout and and upper estuaries, but this may be a Costlow 1976), DDT (Commercial response to salinity rather than to Fisheries Review 1946; Mahood et al.
other physical or biological features 1970), benzene (Saiff and Cristini of the habitat such as refuge 1982; Mantel et al. 1985), Kepone (Churchill 1919; Williams 1965; Music (Fisher et al. 1983), the organophos-1979). When not mating, mature phate fenitrothion (Johnston and females tend to remain in high salin- Corbett 1985), cadmium (Brouwer et al.
ity areas of lower estuaries and 1984), and acid runoff (Livingston et surrounding waters (Churchill 1919; al. 1976; Laughlin et al. 1978).
Van Engel 1958; Palmer 1974; Music 1979). Effects from these toxicants range from sublethal responses, such The optimal habitat for small as decreases in ion exchange efficien-crabs is shallow estuarine water with .cy at the gills (Sabourin 1982) and bottoms of soft detritus, mud, or decreased growth (Mantel et al.
mud-shell (Adkins 1972). Larger crabs. 1985), to direct mortality (Commercial preferred deeper estuarine waters Fisheries Review 1946). Severity of having harder bottom substrates. the effects depends on the toxicant, concentration, time exposed, salinity, tidal cycle, age and molt phase of Other Environmental Factors crab, and other variables. Many of the toxicants are bioaccumulated in Among the many stresses that blue crabs and passed to humans and affect blue crabs while they occupy other natural predators.
12
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Truitt, R.V. 1939. Our water resources and their conservation. Williams, A.B. 1984. Shrimps, lob-Chesapeake Biol. Lab. Contrib. No. sters, and crabs of the Atlantic 27, Solomons, Md. 103 pp. coast of the eastern United States, Maine to Florida. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
Van Engel, W.A. 1958. The blue crab 550 pp.
and its fishery in Chesapeake Bay.
Part 1. Reproduction, early devel- Winget, R.R., C.E. Epifanio, T. Run-opment, growth, and migration. nels, and P. Austin. 1976. Effects Commer. Fish. Rev. 20(6):6-17. of diet and temperature on growth and mortality of the blue crab, Callinectes sa idus, maintained in a VA. Inst. Mar. Sci. Sea Grant Program. recirculating cu ture system. Proc.
(VIMS). 1981. Predicting Virginia's Natl. Shellfish. Assoc. 66:29-33.
18
S0272o.,n, REPORT DOCUMENTATION 1.
I'*,m" NO. 2. 2. ftc,,ons Aeces.on No.
PAGE Biological Report 82(11.100)*
- 4. Thleen Subtetle 5 Raert Oat.
Species Profiles: Life Histories and Environmental Requirements of March 1989 Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (Mid-Atlantic)--Blue Crab.
- 7. Au~ *)s S. Performina Orninzaetion nept. No.
,1lnnifpr Hill. Dean I Fnwler- and Michapl J. Van Den Avyle
- 1. PeFoming Orgonition NMonteand Address 10. , ts'k/Wadi Unit No.
Georgia Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit School of Forest Resources 11. Contrect(C) of Grmnt(O) No.
University of Georgia (C)
Athens. GA 30602
- 12. Sponsoring Organhwton Mone end Add..es U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Army Corps of Engineers TypeRoomPriodcovered Fish and Wildlife Service Waterways Experiment Station National Wetlands Research Center P.O. Box 631 Washington, DC 20240 Vicksburg, MS 39180 14.
I *.
Su..l Armanta*y ..... Notes
- U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Report No. TR EL-82-4
- 18. Abstract (Umit: 200 words)
Species profiles are summaries of the literature on taxonomy, life history, and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and aquatic invertebrates. They are prepared to assist with impact assessment. The blue crab, Callinectes sapidus, occurs in lower reaches of freshwater rivers, estuaries, and coastal waters along the Atlantic seaboard.
and Gulf of Mexico, and the species supports the largest crab fishery in the United States.
Chesapeake Bay provides the greatest production of blue crabs on the east coast. The blue crab's high abundance in estuaries, diverse feeding habits, and importance as prey for other marine animals indicate its important role in the structure and function of estuarine communities. Female blue crabs spawn in high-salinity lower estuaries of coastal areas; the resulting larvae are planktonic and develop into juveniles at 5 to 10 weeks of age. Juveniles gradually migrate into shallower, less-saline upper estuaries and rivers where they grow and mature at 1-2 yr of age. Mating occurs in the upper estuaries after which females migrate to areas having higher salinities. Growth and survival of blue crabs are strongly affected by water temperature and salinity, but tolerances vary with life stage. Larvae require temperatures of 20-30 °C and salinities of 10-30 ppt for proper development, but salinity and temperature tolerances are broad for advanced juveniles and adults. Blue crabs use nearly all areas within estuaries as nursery habitat, and crab populations are sensitive to changes in physical features of contamination of these areas.
- 17. Document Analysis a. ODscriptors Estuaries Feeding Shellfish Spawning Crustacea Growth
- b. fldntfiers/Opon-wnded Terms Blue crab Temperature requirements Callinectes sapidus Habitat requirements
- c. COSATI Flaid/Gmup I& Asahiabllty Statement St. Securfty Closs (This Report) 21. No. of Paos Unlimited Unclassilied 18
- 20. Security ClMss Ti Pew) Z. Price Unclassified ooAMSS-3.1,) OPTIONAL FOM 27 (4-77)
(Forn~ety NTIS-3$)
Oepatmern Of Ccommerce
As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has responsibility for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering the wisest use of our land and water resources, protecting our fish and wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places, and providing for the enjoy-2/ ment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses our energy and mineral resources and works to assure that their development is in the best interests of all our people. The Depart-ment also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for people who live in island territories under U.S.
administration.
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