ML12090A846
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| Issue date: | 12/31/2010 |
| From: | National Wind Coordinating Collaborative |
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ENT000502 Submitted: March 30, 2012 Wind Turbine Interactions with Birds, Bats, and their Habitats:
A Summary of Research Results and Priority Questions Spring 2010 www.nationalwind.org This fact sheet summarizes what is known about bird and bat interactions with land-based wind power in North America, including habitat impacts, and what key questions and knowledge gaps remain.
Introduction W ind energy has gained prominence as a means of generating electricity without emitting air pollutants or greenhouse gases. As the wind spins a wind turbine's blade assembly, known as a rotor, a generator connected to the rotor generates electricity. Large wind turbines generate electricity at a lower cost and higher efficiency than smaller ones, because longer rotor blades capture the energy from a Photo courtesy of National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), PIX 15249.
larger cross-section of the wind, known as the rotor-swept mph. Wider and longer blades produce greater vortices and area, and because taller towers generally provide access to turbulence in their wake as they rotate, posing a potential stronger winds. The greater and more consistent the wind, the problem for bats. Because large turbines are more efficient, more electricity is produced. most modern wind developments for a given number of megawatts (MW; 1 MW equals 1 million watts) have fewer Early turbines were mounted on towers 60-80 feet in height machines with wider spacing. Still, larger turbines are being and had rotors 50-60 feet in diameter that turned 60-80 developed.
revolutions per minute (rpm). Today's land-based wind turbines are mounted on towers 200-260 feet in height with Wind turbines are typically described in terms of their rotors 150-260 feet in diameter, resulting in blade tips that rated (or nameplate) power generating capacity, which can reach over 425 feet above ground level. Rotor swept areas can vary from a few hundred watts for home applications to now exceed 1 acre and are expected to reach nearly 1.5 acres commercial turbines of several MW.1 A 1.5-MW turbine, a within the next several years. Even though the speed of rotor capacity commonly installed in the United States over the past revolution has significantly decreased to 11-28 rpm, blade tip five years, could produce 4.6 million kilowatt-hours (kWh) per speeds have remained about the same; under normal year; actual energy generation is dependent upon the wind operating conditions, blade tip speeds range from 138-182 speeds and wind availability at the site where it is located.
Although there are wide regional variations in electricity consumption, a 1.5-MW turbine can generate enough electricity for 300 to 900 households.
Wind energy's ability to generate electricity without many of the environmental impacts associated with other energy sources (e.g., air pollution, water pollution, mercury emissions, climate change) could benefit birds, bats, and many other plant and animal species. However, possible impacts of wind facilities on birds, bats, and their habitats have been documented and continue to be an issue. Populations of many bird and bat species are experiencing long-term declines, due in part to habitat loss and fragmentation, invasive species, and numerous anthropogenic impacts, increasing the concern over the potential effects of energy development.
Photo courtesy of National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), PIX 15223.
1 Nameplate capacity is the maximum rated output of a generator under specific conditions designated by the manufacturer. Installed generator nameplate capacity is commonly expressed in MW.
Two general types of local impacts to birds have been About the Fact Sheet demonstrated at existing wind facilities: (1) direct mortality T his fact sheet summarizes what is known about bird and bat interactions with land-based wind power in North America, including habitat impacts, and what key questions from collisions and (2) indirect impacts from avoidance of an area, habitat disruption, reduced nesting/breeding density, habitat abandonment, loss of refugia, habitat unsuitability, and knowledge gaps remain. It uses a three-tiered and behavioral effects (Stewart et al. 2004, 2007). For bats, classification of wind-wildlife relationships based on the only direct mortality resulting from collisions and barotrauma weight of the evidence and agreement, or lack thereof, among (i.e., experiencing rapid pressure changes that cause severe researchers in the field on each particular statement internal organ damage; Baerwald et al. 2008) has been contained herein. demonstrated.
What Studies Have Shown are conclusions widely supported by peer-reviewed studies and on which there is broad consensus among researchers.
What Is Less Well Understood presents ideas reached by some field studies, but either the evidence is too limited to support a firm and broadly applicable conclusion, there is some evidence to the contrary, or there is some controversy regarding the idea among researchers.
Areas Where Little Is Known presents questions to which even tentative conclusions cannot yet be reached based on current information and data gaps. These questions are hypotheses yet to be tested or are gaps in current knowledge that have been identified by researchers.
Photo courtesy of NREL PIX 17244.
The information presented is restricted to land-based wind facilities. Literature citations supporting the information presented here are denoted in parentheses and found at www.nationalwind.org/publications/bbfactsheet.aspx. Direct Mortality Wind turbines can kill What Studies Have Shown birds and bats.
Birds are sometimes killed T he number of studies using rigorous methods and research protocols to determine the potential impacts of wind development on birds and bats has increased in collisions with turbines, meteorological towers, and power transmission substantially since the publication of the original NWCC fact lines at land-based wind sheet in 2004 (NWCC 2004). Impacts on birds and bats have facilities; turbine-related been demonstrated at most facilities, but these impacts vary Photo courtesy of NREL PIX 16112.
bat deaths have been among facilities and regions.
reported at each wind facility studied to date (GAO 2005; Kingsley and Whittam 2007; Kunz et al. 2007a; Kuvlesky et al.
Studies have indicated that relatively low raptor (e.g., hawks, 2007; NAS 2007; Arnett et al. 2008; see Figures).
eagles) fatality rates exist at most wind energy developments with the exception of some facilities in parts of California (Figure 1, page 3). All developments studied have reported Fatality rates vary widely regionally across wind fewer than 14 bird (all species combined) fatalities per resource areas.
nameplate MW per year, and most Fatalities of birds and bats are highly variable among facilities have reported less than 4 fatalities and regions of the country. For example, more raptors are per MW per year (Figure 2, page 3). killed each year at Altamont Pass, Although several developments have California, which has over 5,000 reported relatively numerous bat older and smaller turbines and fatalities, most studies have reported high raptor use, than at other low rates of such bat fatalities developments where fatality (Figure 3, page 3). However, much studies have been conducted uncertainty exists on the geographic (GAO 2005; Kingsley and distribution and causes of bat Whittam 2007; Kunz et al. 2007a; fatalities (see discussion under direct Kuvlesky et al. 2007; NAS 2007; Photo courtesy of Coastergeekperson04, mortality). en.wikipedia. Arnett et al. 2008; see Figure 1).
Photo courtesy of NREL, PIX 16694.
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Figure 1: Summary of Raptor Mortality Rates at Various Wind Energy Facilities*
0.9 0.8 0.7
- fatalities/MW/Yr 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 Wind Energy Facility Figure 2: Summary of All Bird Mortality Rates at Various Wind Energy Facilities*
14 12 10
- fatalities/MW/yr 8
6 4
2 0
Wind Energy Facility Figure 3: Summary of Bat Mortality Rates at Various Wind Energy Facilities*
40 30
- fatalities/MW/yr 20 10 0
Wind Energy Facility
- Ph = Phase. References for the data found in the figures can be found at www.nationalwind.org/publications/bbfactsheet.aspx. Figures compiled by WEST, Inc., in Spring 2010.
3
Direct Mortality, cont.
Most birds killed at wind turbines are songbirds.
Most of North Americas birds are songbirds, most of these are migratory, and most of the migratory species migrate during the night at altitudes generally above rotor swept areas Photos courtesy of US Fish and Wildlife Service.
when weather conditions are favorable. Risk may be greatest Bat fatalities peak at wind facilities during the late during take-off and landing where wind facilities abut summer and early fall migration.
stopover sites. Songbirds are vulnerable to colliding with man- All studies of bat impacts have demonstrated that fatalities made structures such as buildings, communication towers, peak in late summer and early fall, coinciding with the power lines, or wind turbines during poor migration of many species (Johnson 2005; Kunz et al. 2007a; weather conditions that force them to Arnett et al. 2008). A smaller spike in bat fatalities occurs lower altitudes (Winkelman 1995; Gill et during spring migration for some species at some facilities al. 1996; Erickson et al. 2001; Johnson et (Arnett et al. 2008). However, the seasonal fatality peaks al. 2002; Robbins 2002; Kerlinger 2003; noted above may change as more facilities are developed and Manville 2009). Songbird collisions studied.
typically account for roughly three quarters of bird casualties at U.S. wind There are two significant factors important in facilities (Erickson et al. 2001; Johnson et assessing fatality risk to birds.
al. 2002) and result in spring and fall Studies have indicated that the level of bird use at the site and peaks of bird casualty rates at most Photo courtesy of NREL, PIX 16708. wind facilities (Johnson et al. 2002; the behavior of the birds at the site are important factors to consider when assessing potential risk. For example, raptor Erickson et al. 2004). However, current turbine-related fatalities appear to increase as raptor abundance increases.
fatalities are unlikely to affect population trends of most Certain species (e.g., Red-tailed Hawks and Golden Eagles)
North American songbirds (NAS 2007; Kingsley and Whittam that forage for prey in close proximity to turbines appear to 2007; Kuvlesky et al. 2007; Manville 2009).
have increased fatalities, while others like common ravens The estimated cumulative impact of collisions with appear to avoid collisions with turbines (Erickson et al. 2002; Anderson et al. 2004, 2005; Kingsley and Whittam 2007; wind turbines is several orders of magnitude lower Kuvlesky et al. 2007; NAS 2007).
than the estimated impacts from the leading anthropogenic causes of songbird mortality. The lighting currently recommended by the Federal Although only general estimates are available, the number of Aviation Administration (FAA) for installation on birds killed in wind developments is substantially lower commercial wind turbines does not increase collision relative to estimated annual bird casualty rates from a variety risk to bats and migrating songbirds.
of other anthropogenic factors including vehicles, buildings The FAA regulates the lighting required on structures of over and windows, power transmission lines, communication 199 feet in height above ground level to ensure safe air traffic.
towers, toxic chemicals including pesticides, and feral and The FAA currently recommends strobe or strobe-like lights domestic cats (Erickson et al. 2001; NAS 2007; Manville 2009). that produce momentary flashes interspersed with dark Collisions with wind facility structures will likely increase periods up to 3 seconds in duration as lighting for commercial relative to other anthropogenic structures as the number of wind turbines, and they allow commercial wind facilities to wind power facilities increases. light a proportion of the turbines in a facility (e.g., one in five),
firing all lights synchronously (FAA 2007). Red strobe or strobe Some migratory tree-roosting bat species appear -like lights are frequently used. Such lighting does not appear particularly vulnerable to wind power. to influence bat and songbird fatalities (Avery et al. 1976; Several species of bats are vulnerable to collisions with Arnett et al. 2008; Longcore et al. 2008; Gehring et al. 2009; turbines. Three migratory tree-roosting species - the Hoary Manville 2009).
Bat, the Eastern Red Bat, and the Silver-haired Bat - currently compose the majority of bats reported killed at wind facilities in most regions of North America (NAS 2007; Johnson 2005; Indirect Impacts Kunz et al. 2007a; Arnett et al. Siting turbines away from where raptors concentrate 2008). These species are not may reduce raptor collision rates at wind facilities.
currently classified as Raptors are known to concentrate along ridge tops, upwind threatened or endangered, but sides of slopes, and canyons to take advantage of wind this pattern of higher collisions currents that are favorable for hunting and traveling, as well among certain species may as for migratory flights (Bednarz et al. 1990; Curry and change as more facilities are Kerlinger 1998; Barrios and Rodriguez 2004; Hoover and Photo courtesy of William Leonard, NPS. developed and studied. Morrison 2005; Manville 2009).
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What Is Less Well Understood Pre-development site evaluation may reduce potential negative impacts on wildlife.
A pre-construction evaluation conducted at a potential wind site can help indicate whether a wind power development is likely to cause avian and bat impacts at levels of concern, help determine sites to avoid, and help to design a less impactful project. Such evaluations with respect to the site can include assessments of relevant existing information, physical inspections, and use of direct observation and technological methods designed to document levels of bird and bat use and behavior (Anderson et al. 1999; Kunz et al. 2007b). There is not currently a strong linkage between pre-construction assessment of activities and post-construction fatalities.
Therefore, additional work is needed to determine which pre-construction surveys of bird or bat use correlate and better Photo courtesy of J. Glover, Wikimedia commons.
align with post-construction fatalities. It remains unclear on how best to use pre-construction site assessments for siting Using newer monopole tubular support towers rather and development decisions and how best to align these than lattice support towers associated with older assessments with post-construction monitoring, including the designs may reduce raptor collision rates at wind types of data to collect and the duration and intensity of facilities.
study.
Lattice support towers offer many more perching sites for raptors than do Birds monopole towers, and hence may encourage high raptor occupancy in the Siting turbines in areas of low prey density may immediate vicinity, or rotor swept area, reduce raptor collision rates at wind facilities. of wind turbines (Orloff and Flannery A high density of small mammal prey and the conditions 1992; NAS 2007). Most utility-scale wind favorable to high prey densities (Smallwood and Thelander turbines installed in North America 2004, 2005, 2008) have often been presumed to be the main today have monopole towers. Because factors responsible for the high raptor use, and hence high the transition to monopole tubular raptor collision rates at the Altamont Pass wind facility support towers has largely coincided Photo courtesy of NREL, PIX 17015.
(Kingsley and Whittam 2007; Kuvlesky et al. 2007; NAS 2007). with a number of other transitions in turbine technology and siting practice, it is difficult to separate the individual effects and thereby determine the degree to which the type of support tower affects raptor collision rates.
Larger turbines invariably use tubular tower supports.
Newer, larger (500 kW) turbines may reduce raptor collision rates at wind facilities compared to older, smaller (40 to 330kW) turbines, but have uncertain effects on songbirds.
Larger turbines have fewer rotations per minute but have similar blade tip speeds compared to the smaller turbines commonly used in older U.S. wind facilities (NAS 2007). This difference may be partly responsible for the lower raptor collision rates observed at most wind facilities where larger turbines have been installed (NAS 2007). Additionally, fatalities could be fewer because fewer larger turbines are needed to produce the same energy as smaller turbines.
However, because the transition to larger turbines has largely coincided with a number of other transitions in turbine technology and siting practice, it is difficult to separate the individual effects and thereby determine the degree to which turbine size affects raptor collision rates.
Photo courtesy of NREL, PIX 12704.
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Birds, cont. Bats Waterbird and waterfowl collision risk at land-based Weather patterns may influence bat fatalities.
wind facilities is typically low. Some studies demonstrate that bat fatalities occur primarily Limited information exists on wind turbine collision risk of on nights with low wind speed and typically increase waterbirds and waterfowl because of limited experience with immediately before and after the passage of storm fronts.
coastal wind facilities, particularly in the United States (GAO Weather patterns therefore may be a predictor of bat activity 2005; Kingsley and Whittam 2007; NAS 2007). Most, but not and fatalities, and mitigation efforts that focus on these high-all, bird collision studies at land-based and non-coastal wind risk periods may reduce bat fatalities substantially (Arnett et facilities to date have reported low rates of waterbird and al. 2008).
waterfowl collisions (Everaert 2003; Kingsley and Whittam 2007). More adults and more male bats tend to be killed by wind turbines.
Wind turbines in grassland and shrub-steppe Although this pattern has been documented environments may cause some displacement of at a number of facilities, it may represent an prairie grouse. idiosyncrasy of the three species most Various species of grassland and shrub-steppe grouse, commonly killed during their fall migration in including Sage Grouse, Sharp-tailed Grouse, Lesser Prairie- North America (see page 4). Furthermore, chicken, and Greater Prairie-chicken, are of particular concern the pattern of adult fatalities may not because they exhibit high site fidelity and require extensive Photo courtesy of National necessarily reflect increased susceptibility of grasslands and open horizons (Giesen 1994; Fuhlendorf et al. Park Service (NPS). adults, but rather a preponderance of adults 2002). The concern is even greater because of population in the populations. There are notable exceptions, and some declines over the past 30 years, and because prairie grouse studies have reported female and juvenile bias among bat distributions intersect with some of the continent's prime fatalities (e.g., Brown and Hamilton 2004, 2006a, 2006b; wind generation regions (Weinberg and Williams 1990). The Fiedler 2004; Fiedler et al. 2007). It has recently been availability of contiguous unfragmented habitat for prairie hypothesized that migratory tree bats (e.g., Hoary and Eastern grouse is critical in order to provide connectivity among local Red Bats) may exhibit lek mating systems,2 so that males may populations (Woodward et al. 2001). In addition to habitat be congregating around turbines during autumn in an effort to disruption concerns from wind energy development, prairie attract females (Cryan and Brown 2007; Cryan 2008).
grouse may also be displaced by wind turbines; specifically, many of these species are known to avoid displaying, nesting, Bat fatalities in the southwestern or brooding within close proximity to roads, utility poles or United States are poorly lines, trees, oil and gas platforms, and/or human habitations. understood but the Brazilian Free-Estimates of this proximity vary; it is less well understood if tailed Bat appears to be vulnerable.
the impacts that these structures have on prairie grouse also The Brazilian Free-tailed Bat comprised a apply to wind developments (Manes et al. 2002; Manville large proportion (41-86%) of the bats 2004; Robel 2004; Kingsley and Whittam 2007; Kuvlesky et al. killed at developments within this 2007). It is commonly assumed that prairie grouse would also species range (Arnett et al. 2008; Miller Photo courtesy of NPS.
avoid wind turbines, although the magnitude of this avoidance 2008).
is unknown.
Curtailment of operations during high risk periods may substantially reduce bat fatalities.
Scientists have hypothesized that bat fatalities could be lowered substantially by reducing the amount of turbine operating hours during low wind periods when bats are most active. This can be done by increasing the minimum wind speed, known as the cut-in speed, at which the turbines blades begin rotating to produce electricity. Three studies worldwide (one each in Germany [O. Behr, University of Hanover, unpublished data], Canada [Baerwald et al. 2009],
and the United States [Arnett et al. 2009]) have tested whether or not increasing the minimum turbine cut-in speed reduces bat fatalities. These studies demonstrated that bat Photo courtesy of South Dakota Department of fatalities were reduced by 50 to 87%. While these studies Tourism.
indicate that reduction in bat fatalities can be achieved with modest reduction in power production, more studies are needed to determine the cost-effectiveness of this mitigation Photo courtesy of US Fish and Wildlife Service.
2 A lek is a gathering of males, of certain animal species, for the purposes of competitive mating display.
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Areas Where Little Is Known As the wind industry continues to expand, what is the cumulative impact of bird and bat collisions on some species and/or local populations?
The relationship of current fatalities to the demographics of bird and bat populations is poorly understood, but it is unlikely that current fatalities are causing declines in populations (NAS 2007). However, as wind energy facilities become substantially more numerous and as wind development continues to grow, fatalities and thus the potential for biologically-significant impacts to local populations increases (NAS 2007; Erickson et al. 2002; Manville 2009).
Photo courtesy of NREL, PIX 16051.
Can wind turbines be designed in such a way as to render them easier for birds to see and avoid?
Two hypothetical mitigation methods based on avian vision have been proposed to reduce bird collisions with wind turbines. Motion smear, in which the spinning action of the turbines may render the blades difficult for birds to see and avoid, may be reduced by painting blades with a color pattern that makes them more visible (Hodos et al. 2001; Hodos 2003). It has been hypothesized that towers and blades coated with ultraviolet (UV) paint may be more visible, making them easier to avoid. However, Young et al. (2003) compared fatality rates at turbines with UV coatings to turbines coated with standard paint and found no difference. Few data are available on the effectiveness of these and other potential methods for making turbines more visible to birds.
What is the effect of barotrauma injuries to bats?
Photo courtesy of NREL, PIX 06328.
While direct collision is thought to be responsible for most of the bat fatalities observed at wind facilities (Horn et al. 2008),
Current research indicates that wind facilities located recent work by Baerwald et al. (2008) suggests that some of in agricultural habitats generally have lower migrant the observed bat fatality may be due to barotrauma (i.e.,
songbird and bat fatality rates than facilities in injury resulting from suddenly altered air pressure). Fast-forested landscapes, but it is unclear if this correlation is caused by the difference in habitat type. moving wind turbine blades create vortices and turbulence in Reduced fatalities in agricultural areas may be related to their wakes, and bats may experience rapid pressure changes fewer songbirds being present. However, there are fewer as they pass through this disturbed air, studies in some landscapes (e.g., forests), limiting the ability to potentially causing internal injuries make landscape comparisons (Kunz et al. 2007a; Kuvlesky et leading to death. The occurrence of al. 2007; NAS 2007; Arnett et al. 2008). Bat fatalities in barotrauma in bats, the proportion of agricultural lands may be relatively high (Jain 2005). individuals that succumb immediately versus those that fly away injured, and the associated influences on the Does turbine height have an impact on the collision estimation of bat fatalities are Photo courtesy of US Fish and rate for songbirds and bats? uncertain. Wildlife Service.
Taller turbines reach higher above the ground, have much larger rotor swept areas, and thus further overlap the normal To what extent will wildlife become habituated to flight heights of nocturnal migrating songbirds and bats wind facilities?
(Morrison 2006; Barclay et al. 2007; Johnson et al. 2002; Kerlinger (2000) reported that prairie songbirds increased in Manville 2009). Larger, taller turbines and their wider and abundance within a wind facility in years following longer blades also produce far greater blade-tip vortices and construction, suggesting habituation,3 but there is no other blade wake turbulence; the potential influence on collisions empirical evidence currently to support the habituation with birds and bats and barotrauma to bats is uncertain. hypothesis. Additional research is needed to confirm whether Collision risk might also increase during inclement weather habituation results in a long-term reduction in the events that coincide with bird migration (Manville 2009). displacement of birds by wind facilities.
3 Habituation describes a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure.
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Areas Where Little Is Known, cont.
Do topography, geography, land cover type, and proximity to key resources influence bat fatality rates?
There is a need to better relate bat fatalities among wind facilities to landscape characteristics (e.g., geology, topography, habitat types, proximity of facilities to features such as mountain ranges or riparian systems). Relating fatalities to features within the immediate area of a turbine (e.g., proximity to water or forest edge) will help with designing future facilities and locating turbines to avoid higher risk areas within a site. (Kunz et al. 2007a; Kuvlesky et al. 2007; NAS 2007; Arnett et al. 2008) Photo courtesy of NREL, PIX 16110.
Are bats attracted to wind turbines, and if so, what The significance of bat fatalities is poorly understood.
are the primary attraction factors?
Bats are long-lived and have low reproductive rates, making Bats appear to be attracted to wind turbines (Horn et al.
populations susceptible to localized extinction (Barclay and 2008), and there are several plausible hypotheses that Harder 2003; Jones et al. 2003). Some have suggested that bat warrant testing as to how and why bats may be attracted to populations may not be able to withstand the existing rate of turbines (Kunz et al. 2007a), which may prove useful for wind turbine fatalities (Kunz et al. 2007a; NAS 2007; Arnett et developing new solutions to prevent collisions. Reasons for al. 2008) and/or increased fatalities as the wind industry apparent attraction may include sounds produced by turbines, continues to grow. Because population sizes are poorly a concentration of insects near turbines, and bats attempting known, it is difficult to determine whether bat fatalities at to find roost locations. For Hoary and Eastern Red Bats, wind facilities represent a significant threat to North American additional studies need to be performed to better understand bat populations, although cumulative impacts raise concern lek mating systems in these two species, especially regarding and more studies are needed to assess population impacts attraction to turbines.
(NAS 2007; Kunz et al. 2007a; Arnett et al. 2008).
To what degree does siting of wind facilities within F
migratory routes of birds and bats contribute to ederal laws applicable to wildlife and wind collision risk?
developments include the following: There is a need to conduct studies to identify migratory x Migratory Bird Treaty Act (16 U.S.C. 703-712) as pathways, congregation areas such as staging and stopover amended habitats, and other areas of high concentration to aid in risk x Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act (16 U.S.C. assessment and avoidance of high risk sites when developing 668-668d) as amended wind power. Species such as Golden Eagles tend to migrate at x Endangered Species Act (16 U.S.C. 1531-1544) or below ridge lines, potentially putting these species at risk if turbines are built in these ridge areas (Manville 2009).
About the National Wind Coordinating Collaborative The National Wind Coordinating Collaborative (NWCC) is a consensus-based network of stakeholders formed in 1994 to support the development of environmentally, economically, and politically sustainable commercial markets for wind power. The mission of the NWCC Wildlife Workgroup is to identify, define, discuss, and through collaboration address wind-wildlife and wind-habitat interaction issues by seeking broad stakeholder involvement on scientific and public policy questions. In addition to convening biennial meetings on the state of the art in wind-wildlife research, the workgroup seeks to provide reference documents as a resource to stakeholders.
Literature Cited and Other Bibliographic Materials Please go to www.nationalwind.org/publications/bbfactsheet.aspx to access the literature that supports information presented herein and obtain other background information.
The production of this document was supported, in whole or in part, by the United States Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AT01-07EE11218. Financial support by the Department of Energy does not constitute an endorsement by the Department of Energy on the views expressed in this document, nor do the views and opinions of authors expressed herein necessarily state or reflect those of the United States government or any agency thereof.