ML081330183

License Renewal Environmental Scoping Meeting Written Comments

ML081330183
Person / Time
Site:	Three Mile Island
Issue date:	05/01/2008
From:	Portzline S Three Mile Island Alert
To:	Office of Administration
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Download: ML081330183 (142)

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NRC Public Meeting May 1, 2008 Environmental Impact TMI re-Licensing Application Comments of Scott D. Portzline Harrisburg. PA 1

• The new proposed security requirements have potential impact on the environment.

• This is especially true at TMI which has unique geographical features and will require special attention by the NRC.

• This issue must be included in the environmental impact assessment.

2

Power Reactor Security Requirements (RIN 3150-AG63)

"Licensees shall describe the site-specific factors affecting contingency planning and shall develop plans for actions to be taken in response to postulated threats."

"The safeguards contingency plan must include a site description, to include maps and drawings, of the physical structures and their locations."

Power Reactor Security Requirements (RIN 3150-AG63)

The site description must address the site location in relation to nearby towns, transportation routes (e.g., rail, water, air, roads), pipelines, hazardous material facilities, onsite independent spent fuel, storage installations, and pertinent environmental features that may have an effect upon coordination of response operations."

6

Power Reactor Security Requirements (RIN 3150-AG63)

"Owner controlled area. The licensee shall establish and maintain physical barriers in the owner controlled area to deter, delay, or prevent unauthorized access, facilitate the early detection of unauthorized activities, and control approach routes to the facility."

"Licensees shall describe the site-specific factors affecting contingency planning and shall develop plans for actions to be taken in response to postulated threats. The following topics must be addressed:

Approaches: Particular emphasis must be placed on main and alternate entry routes for law-enforcement or other offsite support agencies and the location of control points for marshaling and coordinating response activities."

"Limit and control all approach routes."

8

To meet these Regulations

• TMI must control the entrances and pathways which emergency responders are planning to utilize.

" TMI has only two entrance points since it resides on an island surrounded by water.

" Methods to control pathways would include closed vehicle barriers, watercraft barriers, and other denials systems to prevent the loss of usage of each bridge.

" NRC must assess what effects these denial systems will have on the environment.

Aircraft Crash The NRC must re-evaluate the effect of aircraft crashes at TMI as promised by the Atomic Safety and Licensing Appeal Board in its ruling at the original licensing process (9/15/1978).

TMI is less than 3 miles from the Harrisburg International Airport.

NRC Commissioner Ivan Selin stated that a small airplane can do "a lot of damage" and that "you probably would not even have to put explosives on it."

10

Spent Fuel Repository It is totally unconscionable to continue making more high level nuclear wastes without a working solution for the waste or a fiscal accounting of the future costs.

The industry has promised a solution for nearly 50 years with little results.

Even if Yucca Mountain ever opens, it is already out of storage space.

The NRC must include the economic impact of spent fuel issues in its re-licensing assessments.

11 Spent Fuel Economics The single greatest issue; second to none other, paramount too all, surpassing any short or long term issue, is the problem of generating even more highly radioactive spent fuel which will require utmost care and protection for longer than all of recorded history.

• To exclude this factor from the re-licensing process would be one of mankind's greatest follies whereby....

12

Future generations will curse our generation for saddling it with the costs of a perpetual waste bill. The price will far exceed the benefits of the electrical power we consumed from nuclear plants.

Imagine how we would view the ancient Egyptians if they had created a waste and stored it in the pyramids, causing mankind to ceaselessly foot the bill - just so they had some long-forgotten benefits for five decades.

(~ 50 years the period of nuclear power generation)

_______________ 13 Imagine translating ancient manuscripts where the Pharaoh's team of scientific experts and rulers decided that the controversy of creating this waste was not part of the decision making process.

Imagine the problems of having to rebuild the Egyptian's repository and stopping the leakage of the waste, and having to guard against the terrorists' threat or theft of fissionable materials on and endless basis 14

200,000 Years Now do the math and realize that if this were actually the case for the last 5000 years, if the generations prior to ours had paid all of those O o*

bills until right now, then we would still not have -

CD paid 1 / 10,000th of a percent of the price of C) maintaining such a site. 0 U) C,,j E

How can generating more waste be considered fiscally responsible, or "thoughtful" planning, or .

morally acceptable?

5000 Years F- <C 1 st

" PA reactors received more than $11 billion dollars in bailouts known as "stranded costs."

" For decades, nuclear generated electricity has been the most expensive of all the conventional electrical providers in PA..

" Nuclear power has no effect on gasoline prices.

" Nuclear power does not relieve our dependency on foreign sources.

Reactor vessels and components - Japan Reactor and head retrofitting and milling - France Pebble Bed nuclear fuel - United Kingdom 16

Nuclear Utilities have, sued and are suing the US Dept. of Energy to receive more than a billion dollars yearly (of taxpayer money) to maintain the spent fuel stored onsite at the plants.

Amergen Claims to save Pennsylvanians $288 million in electrical charges each year.

$288 million / 13 million PA citizens = $1.85 per month saved TMI has cost PA citizens at minimum $1.92 dollars per month in bailouts and governmental subsidies (taxpayer dollars).

17 Capitalism and nuclear power are incompatible.

Nuclear power has always been an economic failure in the free market, and has been and always will be subsidized by the government.

Forbes Magazine has called nuclear power "the largest managerial disaster in business history, a disaster on a monumental scale."

Nuclear power is a corporate welfare fiasco with risks, dangers, costs and consequences unlike any other industry.

end 18

Nuclear Utilities have sued and are suing the US Dept. of Energy to receive more than a billion dollars yearly (of taxpayer money) to maintain the spent fuel stored onsite at the plants.

• Amergen Claims to save Pennsylvanians $288 million in electrical charges each year.

$288 million / 13 million PA citizens = $1.85 per month saved TMI has cost PA citizens at minimum $1.92 dollars per month in bailouts and governmental subsidies (taxpayer dollars).

17

" Capitalism and nuclear power are incompatible.

Nuclear power has always been an economic failure in the free market, and has been and always will be subsidized by the government.

• Forbes Magazine has called nuclear power "the largest managerial disaster in business history, a disaster on a monumental scale."

" Nuclear power is a corporate welfare fiasco with risks, dangers, costs and consequences unlike any other industry.

end 18

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Toronto, Canada July 18, 1986 In May, 1983, my father-in-law, Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, told me that at the time of the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor accident, a full report was commissioned by President Jimmy Carter. He (my father-in-law) said that the report, if published in its entirety, would have destroyed the civilian nuclear power industry, because the accident at Three Mile Island was infinitely more dangerous than was ever made public.

He told me that he had used his enormous personal influence with President Carter to persuade him to publish the report, only in a highly "'diluted" form. The President himself had originally wished the full report to be made public.

In November, 1985, my father-in-law told me that he had come to deeply regret his action in persuading President Carter to suppress the most alarming aspects of that report.

ane. Rickover JANE RICKOVER appeared before me and swore as to the truth of the above statement.

Dated at Toronto this 18th day of JulyA 198 William F. Lamson Q.C.

Notary Public for the Province of Ontario

From: "The Talk of the Town , " The New Yorker, November 12, 1979:-

"According to Dr. Theodore Taylor, a nuclear physicist and one of the twelve members of the President's Commission on the Accident at Three Mile I sland, a comnmercial nuclear plant routinely produces, aotogtcally hazardous substances. 'two particuv.arl troublesomne' materials, cesiurn 137 p and strontium 90. The uan IAty of these two life-threateni.ng radioactive ele-ments contained insiide. a tVpi.cal nuclear power plant, Dr. Taylor exlt.nai.rl* is i5Fequal tthamount that would be released by the detonation of twe~y five megatons of nuclear-fission bomnbs, 'This is larger than the fission yield of an single_therp2_qonucliear weapon that's ever beern exploded) he adds, Shoul~d large amounts of strontium 90 and cesiumn 137 leak out of an acci.dent-darnmaged nuclear power plant '--andsuch athn er n a nuclear explosi.on, was the threat that developed during the accident at Three Mile Island _ terribl.e harm might be inflicted on people living downwind of the plant. The potential consequences include cancers, genetic defects, and other radiation-induced injuries. The number of casualties could mnount, under the most adverse cir-cumnstances, into tens or even hundreds of thousands. Dr. Taylor believes, therefore, that nuclear power plants should not be built near densely populated areas. Several dozen, unfortunately, already have beon. and t:heyr have federal licenses permitting them to operate in the midst of millions of our fellow-citizens, "The over-all safety of the seventy-two currenIly licensed nuclear power plants in the United States - .- a worrisome question in the aftermath of the Three Mile Island event -_ was curi.ously sidestepped in the report just released by the Commission, which was chartered by President Carter last April to re-view the causes and implications of that accident, and was chaired by John Kemeny, the president of Dartmouth College, The Commission's report; which is a hundred and sevenfy..nine pages, provides a fascinating compendiumr of de.

tails about the accident and abouf the federal.. government's nuclear-powe r-plant licensing process. The document is harshly critical of the United States Regu-.

latory Commission -_ the federal authority responsible for -!:he safefy and li-

.. censing of nuclear power plants -- for allowing the plant to disregard the nom*i-nal safety precautions required. Because the N. R. C. requi.res so little disci-pline of the industry, the report concludes, the Three Mile Island plant was not equippe1 with adequate safety apparatus. its operators were'poorly trained, its emergency procedures were defective, and its control roow:n was simply not

.... set up to cope with a maejor'em ergency. Metrop--. itan Edison, the company to which the N. R. C. awarded a license to operate the plkant, lacked the basic corn-petence to d,) so safely. The President's Commission also concluded that the N.R. C, itself, when i.t was called upon to provide crisis management, per-for:mted with marked ineptitude, The Commission's summary judgment was

'With its present organization, staff and attitudes, the N.oR°C. is unable to fulfill its- responsibility for providing an acceptable level of safety for nuclear power plants. ,

"The Commission, with unimpeachable common sense. recommended a variety

of general. reforms aimed at achieving, at some unspecified future date, a competent federal program for regulating the nuclear power industry. Given the pathetic disarray of the present federal nuclear-safety programs, as the new report describes them, the sweeping reforms that are necessary cannot be expected to occur overnight. The N.R.C. does not have a satisfactory set of basic safety standards, and these will have to be written. The N. R. C. is operating in an ambience of confusion about a wide variety of unresolved tech-nological and safety issues, and research to resolve them will have to be car-ried out over a period of years. The N. R. C., which has left many key nuclear-power-plant safety features unreviewed, will have to carry out laborious inves-tigations to determine the scope of needed safety improvement. The Cornmis-sion's recommendation for a 'totally restructured' N. R. C. will obviously take several years to carry out -- perhaps, even with a high federal priority, the better part of a decade.

"What is to be done in the meantime with the seventy-two existing United States nuclear power plants? The President's Commission, in a promisingly forth-right paragraph on page 24 of itsreport, states that it 'had to face the issue of .7 what should be done in the interim with plants that are currently operating and those that are going through the licensing process.' Immediately after raising this urgent question, however, the Commission turns away from it. Nowxhere on page 24 or elsewhere in the report does it again, except in passing, discuss the problems posed by the con.inued operation of these seventy-two facilities, some of which are uncomfortably close to New York, Boston, Chicago, Sacramento, and other metropolitan areas. The burden of the Commission's recormmendations

-- most of which are mild, pro-forma exhortations for the N.R. C. Is long-term self-imp rovement. -_- relates to the licensing of future nuclear plants. Present nuclear plants, the relics of over twenty years of impetuous and ineffectively regulated nuclear power expansion, pose safety problems that the Cornmission decided not to explore. Its silence on this sensitive subject was determined, it would appear, from its inception. President Carter, by means of Executive Order 12, 130, signed on April .11h,sharply restricted the work of the group.

Within the Executive Order, a delicately worded set. of instructions to the Com-mission limited its investigation as narrowly as possible to the Three Mile Island accident. The panel, was explicitly told to evaluate the N. R. C. 's performance

'as applied to this facility.' The Administration, strongly committed to nuclear power as a part of the President's 'comprehensive energy policy, ' evidentl.y had no desire to ask the pertinent larger questions about the over-all safety of the existing plants and about whether there really was a basic necessity for a major commitment to nuclear power, or any other questions that could conceivably bring the Commission1 s conclusions into conflict with established federal poli-cies. Mr. Carter, having somre technical background in nuclear power as well as some political sophistication, knew what questions not to ask. "

(9 NIRS - TMI 2 5 th - Rayburn Building Mari"Stamos Ouassiai 61/212 mile"s NNW CongressionalBriefing 1,/< ..

Wednesday, 24 of March, 2004 ' -"' . . */' .

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During the first days of the accident we didn't know the solid reactor fuel was melting into liquid, flowing like "hot olive oil" or that TMI was burping, venting and dumping unfiltered radioactivity into our communities, our river and our bodies. [via atmospheric dumps; when losing vacuum; & venting the hydrogen bubble]

But our bodies knew, and the animals knew. Our bodies reacted by displaying symptoms & effects: the metallic taste or smell, burning or reddening of skin, burning in nose or throat, itching or tearing of eyes, the nausea, vomiting, the subsequent diarrhea and hair loss. Birds died. Many of our pets & farm animals died & many were born deformed. Flowers & leaves started growing deformed or mutated and many trees died.

They continue to do so.

The human suffering includes a neo-natal mortality rate that doubled following the accident and increases in cancers and cancer deaths. Every TMI health study I have read clearly show increases in cancers.

HEALTH STUDIES Volunteer health studies and surveys

" Local residents, realizing there were many cancers and other ills in their communities, repeatedly asked the health department to investigate, but they refused. Not only were they refused by Dr. George Tokuhata of the health department, he bragged about refusing to help '(minutes). So, out of necessity, volunteers went door-to-door, collecting data on health effects.

o In 1984, the first "Voluntary Community Health Survey" was undertaken by a group of local residents led by Marjorie Aamodt; it showed a 600% cancer death rate increase for three 4- p(4,7 / 1 t 7 /E AM-r~U/

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locations west of the plant. This was independently verified by members of the TMI Public Health Fund experts.

In 1985, six years after the accident, Jane Lee surveyed 409 families in a development within five miles of TMI. Lee documented 23 cancer deaths, 45 living cancers, 53 benign tumors, 31 miscarriages, stillbirths & deformities, and 204 cases of respiratory problems. The "metallic taste" was reported by 98 people interviewed.

Columbia University Study on Cancers

• Columbia University Study, Maureen C. Hatch, et al, reported, "Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma showed raised risks relative to both accident and routine emissions; lung cancer... showed raised risks relative to accident emissions, routine emissions, and background gamma radiation." Then goes on to say, "Overall, the pattern of results does not provide convincing evidence that radiation releases from the Three Mile Island nuclear facility influenced cancer risk ...." and increases in lung cancer, Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, and childhood leukemia were not caused by TMI. [because not enough radiation escaped]

• Dr. Rosalie Bertell criticized Hatch's study, saying, her "...fundamental error in assuming a two year. latency for childhood cancer clearly invalidates, the whole study." Renowned epidemiologist, Dr. Alice Stewart commented, "She [Hatch] actually has a positive finding."

University of North Carolina Study on Cancer

• Steve Wing of The University of North Carolina verified increased cancer incidence around TMI and ties them to radiation. The UNC study found, "Accident doses were positively associated with cancer incidence. Associations were largest for leukemia, intermediate for lung cancer, and smallest for all cancers combined" and "Inhaled radionuclide contamination could differentially impact lung cancers, which show. a clear dose-related increase." Wing states in his re-analysis of the Columbia Study that positive results were found but Columbia interpreted them as negative.

• Wing also reported that Federal District Judge Rambo issued aCourt Order prohibiting Columbia to use "upper limit or worst case estimates of releases of radioactivity or population doses... [unless] such estimate would lead to a mathematical projection of less than 0.01 health effects." In essence, the Judge "Ordered" the finding of no adverse health effects from the TMI accident. The Judge also "Ordered" the data collected by Columbia be destroyed "some time" after publication.

In the AJPH article of June 1991, Columbia actually shows there was more than a doubling of all observed new cancers after the accident at TMI - including lymphoma, leukemia, lung, colon and the hormonal category of breast, endornetrium, ovary, prostate and testis.

And for leukemia and lung cancers in the 6-12 km distance, the numbers of observed was almost four times greater and in the 0-6 km distance colon cancer was exactly four times greater. This journal article finds "a statistically significant relationship between incidence rates after the accident and residential proximity to the plant." [ So now, stress can be blamed for cancer but radiation can not.]

Millersville University Study on Cancer 0 "Number of cancer cases increasing here" Flannery, Intelligencer Journal, Lancaster, 4/30/98. According to James Fenwick, of Millersville University, he found statistically significant increases of prostate & urinary/bladder cancers in men; increases in kidney/renal, pelvis & ovarian cancers in women; and small increases in the rate of thyroid cancers in both men & women.

Richard E. Webb, Ph.D., Report on Infant Deaths o Dr. Richard E. Webb found a "...clear statistically significant increase of infant deaths in Dauphin County" in 1979 following the TMI accident, using the Health Department's own vital statistics.

Penn State Study on Infant Mortality and Cancers

• Penn State professor, Dr. Winston Richards, reported, "Infant mortality for Dauphin County while average in 1978 becomes significantly above average in 1980. Death from leukemia while average in 1979 is very close to above average in 1980, and deaths from cancer for ages 45-64 while average for 1978 become decidedly significantly above average for 1980."

Pennsylvania Department of Health Studies I The PADoH studies were based on the "TMI Census Registry," a special census of those living within five miles of the reactor, and for women who were pregnant living within ten miles.

• e An important fact to consider in all TMI health studies is that 50% of the population living within five miles of TMI moved within the five years following the accident.

• The health dept. shamelessly admitted that "...much of the collected data have never been analyzed." One follow-back was attempted, with only "ten percent" of the TMI census registry contacted in 1985-1986 (with a 30% response), and fifty percent of the mother/child registry participants were contacted.

o The health department's official cancer study was released in the fall of 1985 claiming they found no increases in incidences of cancer within a 20 mile radius of TMI. Shortly thereafter, the Sunday Patriot-News exposed the Health Dept. had "included 28,610 people" who lived beyond the five mile radius of the plant as living within five miles, and, "Another 122,000 people who live farther than 10 miles from the plant were included in the population of those living 'within' 10 miles," which substantially diluted any cancer rates. ( Frank Lynch, "TMI Survey Method Doubts" Sunday Patriot News, 10/6/85)

• Independent experts have charged the PA Health Dept. with using "statistical fraud and deceit," [Dr. Irwin Bross ltr to Jane Lee 1/26/89] and of lacing its studies with, "errors, inconsistencies and mathematical impossibilities." [Former PA Sec. of Health, Gordon MacLeod, "TMI & the Politics of Public Health" 11/22/80.]

" The PA Vital Statistics, which had included "Induced Abortions" under the "Fetal Death" column prior to 1*979, had excluded them following the accident, thus showing lower than

normal results and making yearly statistical comparisons almost impossible. AND, the PADoH admitted to only one occurrence of ne0-natal hypothyroidism within 10 miles of the plant, but discounted the other 19 cases concentrated further downwind.

Government and industry still insist "that not enough radiation escaped to cause any of the effects people reported," therefore TMI didn't do it. The fact is, people died as a result of the TMI accident. Those of us exposed to the fallout were the true dosimeters. If-T-M-1 d id r d-t-do-itwh-*f -did-To this day, the symptoms ha,'e never been investigated. To this day, the nuclear industry prostitutes continue to deny that TMI caused harm to any living thing. If Three Mile Island didn't do it - what did? Nothing else happened in Central Pennsylvania during those days; actually, nothing has ever happened to cause the effects experienced, except for the accident at Three Mile Island!

$ Dr. Rosalie Bertell, GNSH, said that former President Carter, by his continued silence on the evidence withheld from his own President's Commission Report has been "complicit in keeping the true facts of the Three Mile Island accident from the American and world public." Dr. Bertell was a member of the Citizen's Advisory Council to the Blue Ribbon Panel of the Kemeny Commission.

The entire panel was dismissed when she asked about the implications of having a staff cleared for' security and a Blue Ribbon Panel which was not. cleared, except for Dr. Kemeny, and that the, ".. staff was able to withhold any information they wanted from the Panel under the guise of 'classified under national security."'

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__ __ ==__ý Zýý A. Let me speak more in a generic sense the election for that. I think it is best rather than specifics. I hope to estab- that I do this. But I 1will make contact lish, as best I can, a position where our with the Soviet Union, the People's Re-country is the leader of the world, based public of China, the major European na-not on military might or economic pres- tions, Canada, Mexico.

sure or political persuasion but on the fact that we are right and decent; that Q. You've repeatedly said that you we -take a position with every nation as would issue a blanket pardon for all Viet best we can according to what is best Nam draft resisters in your first wekin

• for the people who live there. I strongly office. Is that a promise you inend to favor majority rule in Rhodesia and keep?

South Africa. I plan to let that be known to the world. A. I intend to keep all my promises..J Second, I plan to appoint diplomatic officials who have superb credentials, Q. That presumably is something that strictly on the basis of merit, not reward will have very high priority right after people for political favors. And that's a you take ofice? K commitment that I've made on my word of honor. I'm not going to break it. A. That's right.

Another thing is to treat developing nations as individuals, not as a bloc. And Q. Some people have expressed con-this would apply not only to the Afri- cern about what they see in your polit-can nations but also to those in Latin ical philosophy as a move toward egal-America and in Eastern Europe as well. itarianism. How do you feel about the I'd like to try to cement, as much as I question of equality versus individual can, a good relationship on trade, cul- initiative?

tural exchange, student exchange, tour-ism and foreign aid; using myself, the A. I have no inclination to want a ho- -'A members of my Cabinet, maybe Gov- mogeneous society in which someone k*

ernors on occasion, as special emissaries, who is strong or able or brilliant or even and members of my own family, I hope fortunate is punished, and his substance ..

to get what we call "world order" in- -speaking about his financial sub- "I stead of power politics. World order stance, now-is taken away from him means to me to try to establish peace. and distributed among those who are less highly motivated. I would not have Q. That sounds like Kissinger's policy a punitive tax rate at the upper levels, by a different name. but I will continue to explore ways to make sure that those who are downtrod-A. I haven't detected any aspect of what den, who are chronically unemployed, I've just described to you that would be whose families have been required to compatible with what Kissinger said. suffer from past discriminations, are in-volved in the processes of Government Q. Keeping the peace by making coun- and private life.

tries see that peace is in their own best in- The ones who make decisions in terests-isn't that just about what Kis- Government and those that have been singer says? blessed with influence-I think they very seldom suffer when the Govern-A. I think there has been in Kissin- ment makes a mistake. I want to make ger's foreign policy an inclination to di- sure that we get away from that, and I vide the world into two major power believe that the powerful are eager to blocs and almost force nations to take a see that done as well. It is not a delib-stand: "I'm for the U.S., I'm against the erate thing: that the big-shot crooks go Soviet Union." "I'm for the Soviet free-they never go to jail-and that the Union, I'm against the U.S." I think that average American who violates a law that is a permanently divisive attitude has a much greater chance of going to to take in world affairs, and what I'll DRAWINGBYD. FRADONQI916 jail. That's not right. It is not fair, and do is try to get away from that position p THE NEWYORKERMAGAZINE,INC it is not decent.

and deal with nations on an individual Unfair differences still exist. They basis as far as what is best for their own still exist in the tax structure. They still people. Not for-ce them to choose be- exist in job, opportunities, in employ-tween us [and the Soviet Union] but let ment opportunities, in housing oppor-them choose our country because our tunities. Even when the Congress pass-system works best and because their es a law that is designed specifically to trade with us and their open feeling for help the poor, quite often those tax mon-us would be in their best interest. ies tend to move out toward the more wealthy people; the ones who are better iJ Q. You will need to make personal con' organized, more articulate, who under-tact with foreign leaders? stand the complexities of the laws more fully, who are versed in grantsmanship.

A. Yes, I will, immediately, particularly I want to make sure that that kind of with the leaders of the major nations. trend is reversed. I believe I can evoke I've had invitations from many of them my concerns adequately to the Amer-to either come to their countries or to ican people with fireside chats and so let them-the leadersýcome to see me. forth, and there would be a broad sup-But I've deliberately waited until after port for a change.

24 TIME, NOVEMBER 15, 1976

Probr~s of H'orror, Fears By MARY 0. RItADLEY * ,.. parade of citizens filed In and out of ty to tell their stories to an official over misleading Information, tie Staff Writer ' '. the witness box In the gymnasium- TMI Investigatory body. unfairness of the economic burdens Before 4 a.m. oh March 28 they., turned-heoring room at the Capitol IBut, for a time Thursday It they carry and the anxiety over the were ordinary citizens who lived,' .: Campus of Pennsylvania State Uni- appeared that opportunity might be future adverse effects -on their worked and reared children under':,. versity In Middletown. taken from them when the commis- health, their homes and their lives.

the shadow of the four gigantic More than 40 residents had sion aborted the first days or test[- And, on the heels of their dis-cooling towers at the Three Mile is.' d -- >uny because the witnesses could tress was a desperate plea to the land Nuclear Generating Station.. made reservations to address the .--:ot be sworn In. I lowever, the coin- commission to recommend that TMI Today,,they are survivors. '... President's Commission on Three mission ruled to proceed with the be closed permanently to prove that They lived through the 'worqt. Mile Island - dubbed the Kemeny public testimony without placing- the residents of the TMi area aren't nuclear accident In U.S. history, and '. Commission after Its chairman, .-. the citizen witnesses under oath. expendable it the search for energy.

Saturday they told thle Kemreny. Dartmouth President John G. In emotional, sometimes tear- "Have you ever faced the Commission how. . *. Kemeny. Saturday's hearing was filled voices, the citizens talked thought of losing everything and In a public hearing that;- the first time since the accident that about. the fear of radiation, the hor-stretched Into.the evening hours, a .. , ordinary citizens had an opportuni- ror of a meltdowni, the frustration See CITIZENS-Page A20 a Poughkeepsie hospital the morn- S ue Fegin, also a resident of the were subjected to for eight days."

Ing of April 2. TMI area, said before the accident "I Dr. John F. Ilarnoski of Middhi On Easter Sunday she left the had never given much thought to town, a family practice physlclttt country for her native Sweden for nucle ar energy" but the "crisis that told the commission that "as a ph) further. rest and has since returned begot n" on March 28 "changed my siclan the last six weeks have be, with her health Improved - "now '-life a nd the lives of thousands of both enlightening and frightenine:

she only wakes up In a cold sweat peopl a In Central Pennsylvania." lie said that since the accidec When her family evacuated dur- two nights a week Instead of every S lie salti because of the uncon- lie has seen "four or five patlent-the crisis, "We had to face tile night. I suggest to you that accl- trolls d release of radiation on March per day'with emotional problemsi'

ibility we were left with nothi dents like Poughkeepsie happened 30"i t didn't take long to realize the, rectly related to the events whih bitt our lives," she said. I'm on- In the thousands," Petter said. peopil e of the surrounding area were have occurred."

(and) outraged. We were led to ,"I challenge you, the commnls expe- ridable." o ' lie added, "I have had respons

,yre nuclear energy is safe. I sioners, to uncover the real perpe. T lie release came when most ble husbands and fathers In my of I accept that anymore," Mrs. trators - the people who designed childaren were on their way to Ice unable to cope with everydh

. J and built (TMI) but didn't tell us the "er said. schoc lease l. "No one knew about the re- problems. I have seen fear and fri:

';ie told the commission that lhe risks." until It was too late. No one tration In the eyes of young couplt s of an uncontrolled release of Peffer called on the commission excel tt those running the plant." as they bring their babies In ft

thon on tile morning of March to "shine the light of truth through " My fallh In Met-Ed and the ex- checkups. I have had pregant won struck terror ill me. It hit me the darkness of nlisrepresentation." . perts from time NRC (Nuclear Regu-. en contemplating abortion becauti

.Pen the eyes for soime reason. I Angela Hlerrder of Middletown lator y Commission) Is totally of their fear of unknown effects u I kitow why. I wish, If I could said, "What's the use of telling my shatt ered." Fegan said. their unborn fetus."

,(d It, we'd just pack up and (two) children to be careful when SI ie labeled as an "unforgiveable But, Barqoski said, "my, bigge!

out," she added. they cross the street when I can't let outrage" the suggestions from NRC problem lies in the future, for if tit round of applause from the Harry Machifa them go out and breathe the air? Angela Herder. staff to "Wbeak a pipe (or) start a a mnuclear plant continues to operal citizens in the audience fol "We're afraid," site said, adding, fire" to put the damaged reactor in these anxieties and fears will rt

' lier statement that Metropoli- news," lie said. "Please, let it (TMI) shut down. Let ered normal for the (nuclear) Indus- an "c .ccident mode" the equipment main and probably increase.".

'.dison Co., which operates TMI Pleffer told a story of his family's us relax for a while." try was not normal for citizens who could handle. Jacqueline Relgle said she ha holds 50 percent interest iit it, panic-striken evacnatioi to stay Harry Machita of. Middletown live a 'I-mile from the area." . been through "two floods, a tornad rhank God, I didn't know until Id have its license revoked for with relatives itn Poughkeepsie on RD I, who lives 1/2-mile from the lie said the "normal" operating. April 14" about tllose considers- and two car accidents, but I canni

':lessly endangering tite lives" March 28, followed by several days' plant, said his problems with TMI noises "scare the daylights out of tions, site said. "Why are these men co-exist with this monster In nit 1nrca's citizens, of poring over maps, plotting wind go back to beforetthe accident. He me.',Because of the these noises and allow;ed to continue In their backyard."

ill Peffer of Newberrytown direction aild planning a further said; when plans for the plant were the effects of' the accident, "nty positl ons?n 91h4 sald property values ha\,

tie didn't want to testify on the / evacuation to Canada. first announced, "I didn't. see any home Is not a home anymore." Fe gan said the operation of nu- dropped sharply in the area. "I catw

",loglcaleffects of the Unit 2 lBreaking'Into tears, lie said that reason to move or to get alarmed at " H'e . said. "President (Jimmy)'* clear plants Should be stopped until give my home away at this time."

-tit tn Middletown but on the as a r'esult of tension his wife suf- that time." . Carter talks about human rights. all Ihivestlgations are completed. Fran Cain of Middletown sai,

-tr'it in Poughkeepsie, N.Y. fered "traumatic shock" and had to But, he said, since Unit I opened. What happened to human rights inI "No one anywhere In the world "property has gone down but.

idn't see it on the I I o'clock be rushed to the emergency room In "I realized what would be constd- I.*Middletown?"

[ ,., shoul d go through the living hell we presutie our taxes will stay tip."

ell"~~1 X 71'-

-le, al'24~

C2' trin-Dies, arriburg Pa ,

51 e

of the Year,9

ý;yRbsie DIMW dToronto Star in later years, and said "so*. in

'Y

,j*ýe Am,6"r).can.. b~ý. ý; . e Congress h 1982.'

k~heAmercan ~ro~~y clled '"esaid he was 'if '`Oroud.qf. ~e t1ýfather of the'nuclear navy was,

.seni,.e", " -Id part he "had playd d(n_oL develop-the ~nuc~ear-

• -ftrfact, clinicaly.

"a ....

....... ,,¢ ...... men"

,nan.who was exlieb.0ppor-,- . - d" L*, *

.. t'uHsts and proiteers in thhe:nu-* ".washed thatd.

--clear Industry, according~to his son n.wll".d"he :ni*.

8nd daughter-m -law. 'in..k "t nd"'.

.. dmir . .

• G .. . .. '.over clear ships." -

A . y mn ."Rickover and his.

waý "cynically expflited'1because: wife Jae,.a writer, he was 01d, weak, vulnetable and . '

senile," said'Robert Rickover said .th admiral

.e:ono, ist'.who' ,ha been livirg an realizhed" to "how incompetent late Toronto for the past 14 years. R"ckover c6uld be."

-people Rickover charges that his father "He also didn't realize.tha tpeo-burjeo at AringtonNational eF1R -Arlington was..

Cem~et~ery y~e~s-teday_, -as me6a)1TE" ple and companies .. were

.. 1 prepared,

' "~abl" *at~ when*evn~n*r wo * "avoa e for.gain, I*W~raethe liv¢e~s"of.-:thhe~r- todeliberately.endanger

• eoplej,,, Jane S eports for the co mpan ,I that 2.erates theUi-Tree Mile-Island ,. ,

n1earower iVo. .i ,983'hsaid tihe a.mra* ýhadtol

- Ie wrote nt ýaff-l-a-T.

ia f-p -7in ow e.reports for General[ ... by 983that

.. ar~p6rt;ýC:6fr-MIhssiOn*ý Pr ..si e ..t im..... y Ca l

'Public Utilities following a 1979 eesi ere o.ec e en ad'e~npar-JimmCart-accident at the plant, near Harris- eat he urognng__f" .

brPae.ridents.advisers to protect 5380,000 donation e xn".str ..

In an interview with The Star He sai the report showed that yesterday, Rickover said his hate the acci en ha come 'muc father was induced to write re- ler meltdown than

'ports *'hioh supported restarting a I.n yody reaized..

reactor at.the'closed plant.' An eMc o-vers- said that it'

-In return, General Public Utili- -was 6"crucial" for the .utility ties gave donations totalling $380.- compiny to get. the admiral's sup-000. to an educational foundation port because of the tremendous

.,.the admiral had formed.

• prestige and clout that he carried.

_."Absoluly, he was clinically se- Want answers nike at that time," Rickover said.

Rickover said his father, ý.Ion g- The Rickovers say they want an-time supporter of nuclear energ y, swers concerning the $380,000 that had reversed his position complet e. was paid to the'admiral's founda-tion.

William G. Kuhns, chairman of General Public Utilities, told The

.. Star in an interview last night from the company's executive of-fices in Parsippany, N.J., that it

_Ftn was the company which approach-ed Rickover to compile the report.

"We saw the admiral as prob-ably the single most knowledgeable man in nuclear energy in this country," he said.

Kuhns insists that Rickover did not change his opinion about the

-merits of nuclear energy. And he was equally adamant that 'Rck-over Was not senile at the time he wrote his reports.

But he said the admiral had "occasional lapses" in -memory, usually late in the day when he was tired.

62 Statement by President Carter on the Kemeny Commission Report I have reviewed the report of the Commission I established to in- Fifth, I am asking all relevant government agencies to implement vestigate the accident at Three Mile Island nuclear power plant. The virtually all of the other recommendations of the Kemeny Commis-Commission, chaired by Dr. John Kemeny, found very serious short- sion.

comings in the way that both the government and the utility industry A detailed fact sheet is being issued to the public, and a more ex-regulate and manage nuclear power. tended briefing will be given to the press.

The steps I am taking today will help ensure that nuclear power With clear leadership and improved organization, the Executive plants are operated safely. Safety has always been, and will remain, branch and the NRC will be better able to act quickly on the critical my top priority. issues of improved training and standards, safety procedures, and the As I have stated before, in this country, nuclear power is an energy other Kemeny Commission recommendations.

source of last resort. By this I meant that as we reach our goals for But responsibility to make nuclear power safer does not stop with conservation, direct use of coal, development of solar power and syn- the federal government. In fact, the primary day-to-day responsibili-thetic fuels and&enhanced production of American oil and natural ty for safety rests with utility company management and suppliers of gas, we can minimize our reliance on nuclear power. nuclear equipment. There is no substitute for technically qualified Many of our foreign allies must place greater reliance than do we and committed people working on the construction, operation and on nuclear power, because thay do not' have the vast natural inspection of nuclear power plants. Personal reponsibility must be resources that give us many alternatives. We must get on with the job charged both at the corporate level and at the plant site. The industry of developing alternative energy sources-by passing the legislation I owes it to the American people to strengthen its commitment to I,-

proposed to the Congress, and by making an effort at every level of safety.

society to conserve energy. I call on the utilities to implement the following changes:

We cannot shut the door on nuclear energy.

First, building on the steps already taken, the industry must The recent events in Iran have shown us the clear, stark dangers organize itself to develop enhanced standards for safe design, opera-that excessive dependence on imported oil holds for our Nation. We tion, and construction of plants.

must make every effort to lead this country to energy security. Second, the nuclear industry must work together to develop and to Every domestic energy source, including nuclear power, is critical maintain in operation a comprehensive training, examination and if we are to free our country from its overdependence on unstable evaluation program for operators and supervisors. This training pro-sources of high-priced foreign oil. We do not have the luxury of aban- gram must pass muster with the NRC through accreditation of train-doning nuclear power or imposing a lengthy moratorium on its fur- ing programs.

ther use. A nuclear plant can displace up to 35,000 barrels per day. Third, control rooms must be modernized,, standardized and We must take every possible step to increase the safety of nuclear simplified as much as possible to permit better informed decision-power production. I agree fully with the spirit and intent of the making during an emergency.

Kemeny Commission's recommendations, some of which are within I challenge our utility companies to bend every effort to improve my power to implement, others of which rely on the Nuclear the safety of nuclear power.

Regulatory Commission or the utility industry itself. Finally, I would like to discuss how we manage the transition

• " To get the government's own house in order I will take several period during which the Kemeny recommendations are being im-steps. First, I will send to Congress a reorganization plan to plemented. There are a number of new nuclear plants now awaiting strengthen the role of the Chairman of the NRC and provide this per- operating licenses or construction permits.

son with the power to act on a 'daily basis as the chief executive of- Licensing decisions rest with the NRC and, as the Kemeny Com-ficer, with authority to put needed safety requirements and pro- mission noted, it has the authority to proceed with- licensing these cedures in place. The Chairman must be able to select key personnel, plants on a case-by-case basis, which may be used as circumstances and act on behalf of the commission during an emergency. surrounding a plant dictate. The NRC has indicated, however, that Second, I will appoint a new Chairman of the NRC-someone it will pause in issuing new licenses and construction permits in order from outside that agency, in the spirit of the Kemeny Commission's to devote its full attention to putting its house in order. I endorse the recommendation. In the meantime, I have asked Commissioner approach the NRC has adopted, but I urge the NRC to complete its Ahearne, now on the NRC, to serve as Chairman. Dr. Ahearne will work as quickly as possible, and in any event no latter than six stress safety and the prompt implementation of the needed reforms. months from today.

In addition, I will establish an independent advisory committee to Once we have instituted the necessary reforms to assure safety, we help keep me informed of the progress the NRC and the industry are must resume the licensing process promptly so that the new plants achieving in making nuclear energy safer. which we need to reduce our dependence on foreign oil can be built and operated.

Third, I am directing the Federal Emergency Management Agen-The steps I am announcing today will help assure our country of cy to head up all off-site emergency activities, and complete a the safety of nuclear plants. Nuclear power has a future in the United thorough review of emergency plans in all states with operating reac-.

States-it is an option that we must keep open. I call on the utilities tors by June.

and their suppliers, the NRC, the executive Departments and agen-Fourth, I have directed NRC and other agencies to accelerate our - cies, and the State and local governments to assure that the future is a program to place a resident federal inspector at every reactor site. safe one.

-t4e, I ~C 7&2A-L4P w

Yom: Rosalie Bertell,

>To: Jimmy Carter, INTERNET:library@carter.nara.gov

>Date: 2/10/98 11:29 AM

>RE: Rickover Report on TMI

>Former President Jimmy Carter

>

Dear Former President Carter,

>Many of us have been impressed with your activities on behalf of Habitat for Humanity and for Conflict Resolution since leaving the presidency.

>There is only one large blot on your record, which distresses those of

>us who respect you, and that is the cover up of the Three Mile Island

>accident, and In particular the serious health damage done to the Lppp.e who! liyed na*rby, I was on the Citizen's Advisory Council to the Blue

>Ribbon Panel whc h you established to look into the accident. I, and

>indeed the whole advisory council, were dismissed when I asked the implications of

>having a staff cleared by the FBI for security and a Blue Ribbon Panel which was not

>cleared, with the exception of Dr. Kemmeny who had worked on the Manhattan

>Project. The staff was able to withhold any information they wanted from

>the Panel under the guise of "classified for national security'. Another

>Advisory Council member asked who was in charge during the accident. These

>two questions were enough to cause the dissolution of the entire advisory council. In

>fact, Dr. Kemmeny even stated publically that we had never been invited to

>Washington (although the Panel paid our air fare).

>You were especially trust by.the people because of your own nuclear

>background. You fWiled to deserve that trust. Can you not make it up now

>by joining with those of us who want the true documents released to the

>public? The nuclear industr6 has frustrated all of the serious health

>claims of the-people, in spite of the Supreme Court's ruling. Their

>lawyers are gloating that they are "invincible" before the Courts because

>of their dirty tactics. Other countries find it hard to believe that in

>America the people cannot get justice after their experiencel

>Please put your moral authority to work' to make the truth finally knownl

>Sincerely,

>Dr. Rosalie Bertell, President

>International Institute of Concern for Public Health

>Toronto, Canada

.&. s *.ALL~

.i...*LAfl .?!fA\IL O~.£IIIflUIN j UtU H. Josm,,- HEPPORD, P.C HEPFORD JAMES C. .oRAN,JR,.

SWARTZ & S.NT. L, MFITON STEFN M,GREECIHE JR.

MORGAN DENNIS R, SHEAFER PLEASE RESPOND TO HAFtfUSBenG OPPICE, RI-Lk*oD A.ESTAC.O ANxiM.R1GLS LxW OrnLCF SUSAN M. SEIOHMAN March 6, 1998 STANLEY H.Sisica III No,)Rn FRONT STa'*br OF COLNSHL PO. Box 889

'CERTWID ,- ACivn Thu.Li AvýocATc BYTmH NATIONAL H.,-USBURG, PA 17168.-0589 BOaF. of TRLa+/-ADvocAcy

'AnDMnni L1I LYN ILUNOS Tam-*'HotI 717-234-41ZI SENT VIA FACSIMILE TO 516/421-0818 FAx 717-232-6802 Mr. Bill Smirnow.

TOLL Fpz. 800-257-4121

Dear Mr. Smirnow:

Eh,MLu hsandmr@aol~com We are one of the firms that represent over 1,000 Three Mile Island personal injury clients. Steve Wing sent IsjA me some information which you had provided to him concerning the Rickover statement of which we are familiar.

your reference to "President Carter's suppressed 1979 However, report" has peaked myrPinterest. Is this the "Kemeny" report or scme other document?

Would you please call me at 800-257-4121 in order that 1 can get more complete information as to exactly what I want to request through my congressman or at the 202-224-3121 telephone number. If I am not here, kindly leave your-telephone number and I will return the call.

Thank you for your kind consideration.

Sincerely yours, HEPFORD, SWARTZ & MORGAN LCS : pj g LrwsrnwN OyFFICES 12 Soin-r MArN STREET P.O. BOx 867 4 L*mT5OWN, PA 17044-0867 TELEPHONE 717-245-3913

F REOM Panasonic FRX SYSTEM PHONE NO. J INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF CONCERN FOR U-710-264 Queens Quay West Toronto ON M5J 135 CANADA Tel: 416-260-0575/Fax: 416-260-3404/ Email: IICPH@compuserve.com April 16, 1998 Affidavit of Dr. Rosalie Bertell, President, International Institute of Concern for Public Health, and by Profession an Epidemiologist and expert Ln the health effects of low level radiation exposure:

I feel that former President Jimmy Carter should come forth with all of the facts surrounding the

,1Three Mile Island (TMI) Accident, especially those which involved the radiation release and the dose tio the public This disclosure should moreover, be in language which can be easily and correctly understood by the public, and not massaged to hide the truth. After the accident, for example, I found that the dose officially assigned to the public, _ww.*_oalled: "measured dose_to the public from

...the a t"- where "measured" meant it only included the dose after the rate metres were in place the third day after the accident began; "accident" meant only the first eight days, after which it was called "clean up"; and "from the accident" meant that the radiation dose received during the same time period in 1978 when the TMI reactors were all operating and there was Chinese nuclear test fallout, could be subtracted.

President Carter was and continues to be by his silence, complicit in keeping the true facts of the \

Three Mile Island Accident from the American and world public. While it may have been legally, although not morally, permissible to withhold this information in 1979 under the guise of national security needs, now that the Cold War is over it isno longer credible that the US government protect the nuclear industry at the cost of the lives and health of its citizens.

As I, Dr. RosalieBertell, President of the International Institute of Concern for Public Health, stated in my E-mail to President Carter of February 10, 1998 (enclosed), President Carter was and is involved in the cover up of the Three Mile Accident,'and in particular the serious health damage to the people who lived nearby. I was on the Citizen's Advisory Council to the Blue Ribbon Panel set up by President Carter to investigate the TM[ accident. The members of this public panel did not have FBI clearance, with the possible exception of Dr. Kemnmeny who had worked on the Manhattan Project. The staff, selected from those who worked for the NRC or DOE, did have such security clearance, *andtherefore they were able to withhold any information they or their superiors wanted to declare "classified", from the Panel. The nuclear weapon program demanded that workers and the military personnel handle this radioactive material and the nuclear ordnance, therefore health effects of radiation could be classified for national security to prevent rebellion-

/I Recipient of the Right LivelihoodAward 1986 C*airtala Regoafratlon No. 13053 12*201UWO1I

I [-HuF.l ; PanaScnic FAX-, SYSTEM PHflkwF flJn Jul. 25 1999 8:92F'H F'C-At the first meeting of the Citizen's Advisory Council to the Kenueny Commission, I brought up this potential problem and asked what provisions had been made for the Commission members to have security clearance so that they might have full access to the truth about the accident, Another Advisory Council Member asked who was in charge of reactor operations during the accident . These two questions were never answered, and they were enough to cause the dissolution of the entire dvisory panel. In fact, Dr. Kenumeny even stated publicly to the press that we had never been invited to Washington [although the Commission paid our air fare and hotel bills]. The Industry Advisory Council to the Kemmeny Commission continued to function during the investigation.

The nuclear industry has frustrated the litigation of all of the serious health claims of the TMI exposed people, in spite of the Supreme Court's ruling in 1997 that these claims must be heard. Lawyers for the nuclear industry are gloating that they are "invincible" before the Courts. Using dirty tactics, they have managed to eliminate all of the expert witnesses which the victims had engaged to bring their cause before the Court, subsequently causing the cases to be dismissed for lack of witnesses; There may be as many as 2,000 people who have not had their grievances heard by the courts. This dismissal, after the Supreme Court ruling, was accomplished through a judge's ruling, not through the court hearing which the people had been promised. The people have still, almost 20 years after the accident, not had their day in court!

It is my opinion that former President Carter should come forth and make the truth known so that the court cases for the victims can be reopened. I believe that it should also be made a court ruling that defendants, such as the nuclear industry, should not be allowed to declare their own witnesses the official spokespersons for a branch of knowledge, able to define for the court the methodologies which they accept and practice as the only legitimate ones! It was such a ploy that was used to /

dismiss the TMI plaintiffs witnesses. This is blatant violation of justice and of the hwnan rights of the victims. It is especially abhorrent in the questions of health effects of radiation, a field of public health which was usurped by the nuclear physicists under the exigencies of potential nuclear war after World War 11. Professional Health Physicists are not required to have any training in biology, public health or any medical discipline. Their methodologies are very imited and unacceptable to many

professionals in the fields of epidemiology, occupational and public health.

Dr, Rosalie Bertell, Ph. D., GNSH President, International Institute of ,oncem for Public Health 710-,264 Queens Quay West Toronto ON M5 1B5 CANADA p2 Elk.

~ X~~' \~m~

Ft& hLmt I* t hm, FROM :Panasonni, PvcZ yc:TCzm P. I 08 : 44P PA' TRPE'3. I.HlT.

rnA1 '33 04'

" ~.4 of centrai pennsylvania

'Thre-me Mile~s-I 1$

ang1di C'ove O &E0 t PresidentCarterWas Persuadedto Release "Dil By Robert Smirnow

)1l&flvW~

--- C-Nuoetoar power iN an xttnordinatily din. Pra.qidenthiimself had originally wished the gerous technology, which here in the United full report to be niade p4ablic.

~i'aws) States has already killed 9 million people, "In November, 1J83, ntyfazher-in-law told ma that he had come to deeply regret his according to Dr. Ernest Sternglass, prafes-goremeritkis of radiological physics at she oction in persuading President Carter to University of Pittsburgh and Dr. Jay Could, suppress the most alarmingapects of thai

"

with the, nvlronmental Protection Agency report."

undor President Jimmy Carter, in their bonk i $tgned] Jane Ric/cover Deadly Deceit; Low-Level Radialion,Hi-g/h Level Cover-Up (published by 4 Wals, R Windows, New York),

Since nu;*ear power is so deadly here, it 18 deadly wherever it exIsts.-be that Japan, China, Indonesia, France, etc. Clearly it must he abolished: In addition to its inherently murderous nature, the waste problem and the possibility of meltdown or excursion due to :j* Now.) 1P63. myflhr;w4Ls human ;reor. eorthquake (particularly rel. VI$ at th4 tq91i oft95S~~M evant In Japan 3nd Indonesia), war, or

,torm-nnuilear power is felt to bo so dan- iO~uaU that OhO vspavt. it pub~thqt yu0404 the ePivltlma nu~a IOftnit gerous that the hoar! of th* accident at Throe 1qftrlMt~t) ur4 Sim

• 101Islhnd wasn Mile Island in 1979 hap been and continues 0:6i that ho had Use h0 Ui tl to be covered up and lied about to both the the rep American public and world public. Here ar* 4 1 pOIuweuauhPluý 1416'i~.

the basic Faets; recommendations for clti-zens' public actipn are provided at tho end lIin lktru ap~tkitn i 44 or this article. j111%io 8§66b W.mei The basic cover-up i's de,-qcrid by Jane Rickover, Admiral Hymen 0, RjikevvT'n daughter-In-law in this signed, notarized

.st~tOeln t:

'4.

"In May" N.03, mnyfathler-in-law, Admi. Iv I~j nil HyRan Q. Rickover, toldnite that at-the-tme ofAth Three Mile lsland nuclear reac.

Pnra~cdent, afull report was commissioned NriC OVtft napppeu .etfifer , 5 3,,ind I hy P'.esident Jimmny Carer. Helmy $I 4teby i~tr~t..-

fadler.in.lawJ said that the repo lhed in its enire, wold__d ted At 'k MsbnteUt o, idly Thil civilidnnuclearpower industry becavie IL

/.

the accident a: ThreveMile island wa-s I-rj nkfely morei dangerous than was ever made uy.blic: He told me that he had used his enos',

molls personni influence with President I.-'

Carter to persuade him to publish the re- 4' porE only in a hig1hy, 'dihted' form. The,

,/.

May 1998 td Hides True Disgasterr ited'Repor't,says Admiral's Daughter-in-Law "Jane Rickover appeared before me and that Dan Rather, the CBSTV news anchor

?wore as to lto truth ofthe cibove statement. for many years and then with the farnmus D1ted at Toronto this 18th day of July A.D. Amerittn' TV show "60 Miiutes" called her

J980, and her husband and sounded VERY inter.

smignedJ William P Larnvon. . C. ested in looking Into this story. They never Notary Publicfr. the Province of Ontario hward from him again. Obviously, Rather wm*told by his corporate masters just how I spoke with lane R.ckover twieo in deptit. far serious investigative journalism was al.

She verified the absolute truthfulness of this lowed to got signed, notarired staten*ent. She also told me Another alarming plee of evidence In thig cover-up was sent to me and President Carter recently by Dr. Rosalie b1orall, presidnt of the International lnstitute of Concern for Pub-He: Health in Tbronto. Dr. Bertell states In her uHymn, jt4 4aq cul anai February 10, 1998 a-maill to Preident Caner:

"There is only one larse blot on your record, which dlstriesses those of us who "'.

d Iii s,%4 Q0St.-'tq 4hy. rpoct.you, and that is the cotarr up of the Th/rae Mile IslandAccident, and in partict-lar the serious health danage dane to ilia 9A~~~N only

'ihy'Otuo" .r people who lived nearby. I was on the

-i L'hi~ d fl *eip,012 16be C~tizen ' Advisory Council to the Blue Rib-told ho~i1, Ms 4b0 t  :.'ban Panel which you IPresident Carter]es.

Snu~t~ouipptaPthuie, u@~e.w1 tablished to look into the accident. 4, and indeedthe whole panel, was dismissed when I asked the implications of having a staff clearadfor securityandaBlur Ribbon Pfraw which was not cleared, whih the exception of Dr. Rammneny who had worked nit the Manha:tan!Pmjact. The staff was able to P% 1A a

9. withold axry Information they wantedfrom the Panel trnder the guise of "classifiedfor

• 2 nationalgecu rity." Another Advisory Council Alember asked who was in chapge during the i ;.~,; accident. These two questions were enough to caosite the dissolutl n of the entim panl. In ii,, fact, Dr. Kernien),even smtted publicly that

.A11 4t- 'I I we had never been invited to Washin8 ton lal-thnuaiugh ih zal paid oui . ;P .

Talso spoke recently with Dr. Bertell, who verified the validity of her e-mail to prepi-dent Carter. She has not heard from Presi.

dent Carter. The only way the or the rest or the world will is by having ionumerable in.

dividual citizens e-mail, fax, call, write President Carter at,

-,,mllh lihrary @caruir.nnra.gov Pax: 404.730-22I5 Phone- 404.331-3942 Address: Carter Library, 44 Freedoin Park-way, Atlanta, Gacrgia 30307-1498 U.S.A.

March 28th, 1998 marked marked the 19(h anniversary or the Three Mile Island disns-ier. (Anyone wanting a copy or the signed, notarized statement hy Jane Rickover can get it hy Foxing to: 516-421-0818.)

Concorned citizens are urged to a*t. Call your local TV, rudio one newspaper outlets and demand that thej investigate and write/

Lell tho truth. Also, call, write, tax, & E-mail former President Jimedy Carter and demand that he finally tell the world the truth about the accident -and cover-up at 3 Mile Island,

, , , I.9 .I ' , ',

%f. I .

Cancer - NPCR - USCS 2001 - Incidence and Mortality Data Page I of 4 ZA _-9. - WrArV-.T-KR CR - PT!

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---

'Site lCancer of the Thyroid Rate JAge-adjustedý i;: Incidence C Mortality Geographic area by sex and site: 20.01, Males and Fe.males, Cancer of the Thyroid, Age-adjusted, Incidence (Table 2.21.1.1MF) *tt Casecounts I .opulaoid nia datal _Printer-friendly form.at All Races White Black Hispanic §_El 7.5 7.8 4.7 7.1 United States (7.4-7.6) (7.7-7.9) (4.4-5.0) (6.7-7.4)

Northeast 9.5 9.7 5.8 8.2 (9.2-9.8) (9.4-10.0) (5.2-6.4) . (7.3-9.2) 8.4 8.4 4.5 8.8 New England (7.9-8.9) (7.9-8.9) (3.1-6.6) (6.6-12.0) 9.3 9.8 10.4 (8.3-10.4) (8.7-11.0) (6.9-17.0)

• 7.5 7.6 Maine. (6.1-9.1) (6.2-9.3) 8.6 8.3 .5. .3 Massachusetts -9.3) -9.0) (3.3-8.8)

(7.9-93 (7.6-90 6.7 6.7 New Hampshire (5.4-8.3) (5.4-8.3) -

9.0 9.3 Rhode Island9.93 (7.3-10.9) (7.5-11.5) 5.9 6.0 Vermont,. (4.1-8.2) (4.2-8.4) '_

Middle-Atlantic 9.9 10.3 5.9 8.0

.Mi n l A (9.6-10.2) (9.9-10.6) (5.3-6.6) (7.1-9.1)

, Cancer - NPCR - USCS 2001 - Incidence and Mortality Data Page 2 of 4 9.7 10.0 6.0 9.2 New Jersey

.f(9.0-10.3) (9.3-10.8)

(4.6-7.8) (7.2-11.7) 9.0 9.5 4.8 7.4 (8.6-9.5) (9.0-10.0) (4.1-5.7) (6.3-8.6)

Pe nyvna .(10.7-!11..9) (10.9-12.1) (7.2-10.8) 8.9

• Pennsylvania 11.3 11.5 Midwest 7.1 7.3 4.3 5.7 (6.9-7.3) (7.0-7.5) (3.8-4.9) (4.6-7.1) 7.0 .7.3 4.3 5.9 East North Central (6.7-7.2) (7.0-7.5) (3.7-4.9) (4.7-7.6)

Illinois 7.3 7.6 4.9 (6.8-7.7) (7.1-8.2) (3.9-6.2)

Indiana 6.3 6.6 (5.7-7.0) (5.9-7.3) 7.6 8.1 4.9 Michigan (7.1-8.2) (7.5-8.7) (3.7-6.4) 8.0 9.0 5.3 (7.2-8.9) (7.9-10.1) (3.8-7.1)

Ohio 6.5 6.6 3.3 Ohio_(6.0-6.9) (6.1-7.1) (2.3-4.6).

7.1 7.3 (6.4-7.9) (6.5-8.1)

West North Central 7.2 (6.9-7.6) 7.3 (6.9-7.7) 4.3 (3.1-6,0) 4.7 (2.9-8.3)

Iowa 7.9 7.8 Iw(6.9-9.0) (6.8-8.9)

Kansas 7.8 7.7 (6.8-9.0) (6.7-8.9)

Minnesota 7.3 7.2 (6.6-8.1) (6.4-8.0) .. "

Missouri 6.4 6.8 3.5 (5.8-7.1) (6,1-7.5) (2.1-5.6) 7.7 7.8 Nebraska 7 77.

(6.5-9.2) (6,4-9.3)

North Dakota South Dakota South South Atlantic Delaware District of Columbia 8.7 9.7 7.4 (6.4-11.5) (5.7-16.5) (4.9-10.9)

Florida 7.4 7.8 4.7 (7.0-7.9) (7.4-8.3) (3.9-5.8) 6.0 6.7 4.3 10.4 Georgia (5.5-6.6) (6.0-7.4) (3.4-5.3) (6.2-18.9)

Atlanta 6.7 8.1 3.9 (5.7-7.7) (6.9-9.6) (2.7-5.7)

Maryland North Carolina 5.6 5.8 4.7 (5.1-6.2) (5.3-6.5) (3.7-6.0)

South Carolina 5.8 6.5 3.8 (5.1-6.6) (5.6-7.5) (2.7-5.2)

Virginia West Virginia 7.7 (6.5-9.1) 7.6 (6.4-9.0) "_

http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/uscs/TableV.asp?arouD=2a&Year-2001 &Ciend(,r=MVRMX rl =/Cn /q(Tn

1..Cancer - NPCR - USCS 2001 - Incidence and Mortality Data Page 3 of 4

/ ,*.

• E East South Central 5:1 (4.5-5.9) 5.4 4.6 (4.6-6.2) (3.4-6.1) 7.1 7.4 (6.3-7.9) (6.6-8.3)

Mississippi Tennessee West South Central 6.3 6.5 4.3 6.5 (6.0-6.6) (6.2-6.8) (3.6-5.0) (5.8-7.2)

Arkansas4.7 (3.9-5.6) 4.9 (4.0-5.9)

Louisiana6.6 (5.8-7.4) 7.2 5.5 (6.328.2) (4.2-7.0)

Oklahoma 5.1 5.4 -

(4.4-5.9) (4.6-6.4)"

Texas 6.6 (6.3-7.0) 6.8 3.9 6.5 (6.4-7.2) (3.1-4.9) (5.8-7.3)

West 7.7 (7;5-7.9) 7.8 (7.6-8.0) 4.1 (3.4-5.0) 7,2 (6.6-7.8) 9.1 M n(8,6-9,5) 9.3 3.5 8,1 (8.8-9.8) (2.0-6.1) (6.9-9.4)

Arizona. 8.2 8.5 7.3 (7.4-9.0) (7.7-9.4) (5.4-9.8)

Colorado' 8.8 8.8 8.5 (7,9-9.7) (7.9-9.8) (5.9-12.2)

Idaho 9.5 9.6 (7..9-11.4) (7.9-11.5)

Montana 10.5 (8.5-12.9) 10.7 (8.6-13.2) _

Nevada Nevada__ 10.5 10.9 (9.2-12.1) (9.4-12.6)

New Mexico 10.5 11.2 10.0 (9.0-12.1) (9.6-13.0) (7.7-12.9)

Utah 8.7 (7.5-10.2) 8.9 (7.6-10.4)

Wyoming 8.1 8.2 Wyoming_ (5.7-11.1) (5.8-11.3) _ _

Pacific 7.1 7.1 4.2 6.9 (6.9-7.4) (6.8-7.4) (3.4-5.2) (6.3-7.6)

Alaska 7.2 7.7 (5.2-10.3) (5.4-11.6)

California 6.8 7.0 4.2 6.7 (6.5-7.1) (6.6-7.3) (3.4-5.3) (6-1-7.4)

San Francisco- 5.7 5.5 5.4 Oakland (5.0-6A4) (4.7-6.4) (3.5-8.2) 605,8 4.3 San Jose-Monterey 6.05,4.

(5.1-7.1) (4.8-7.1) (2-5-7.6)

Los Angeles .8.2 8.9 4.2 7.5 (7.6-8.8) (8.2-9.6) (2.9-5.8) (6.4-8.7)

Hawaii 10.7 6.1 (8.9-12.6) (3.8-9.7) "_

Orgn7.0 6.8 Oregon (6.2-8.0) (6.0-7.8) 848.1 12.6 Washington 8.4 8.1 12.6 (7.7-9.2) (7.4-8.9) _________ (7.2-21.7) 8.1 " 8.1 http://apps.nccd.cdc.gcv/uscs/TableV.asp?oroup=2a&Year=2001 &Gender=MF&Var 1=Can... 6/9/2005

Cancer - NPCR - USCS 2001 - Incidence and Mortality Data Page 4 of 4 II Seattle-Puget Sound I (7.3-9.1) 1 (7.2-9.1) I Printer-friendly format I M Download data Updated on Table 2.21.1.1MF. Cancer of the Thyroid. Age-Adjusted Invasive Cancer Incidence Rates*

and 950/ Confidence Intervals by U.S. Census Region and Division, State and Metropolitan Area, and Race and Ethnicity, United Statest*

Footnotes

• Rates are per 100,000 persons and are age-adjusted to the 2000 U.S. standard population.

t Data are from selected statewide and metropolitan area cancer registries that meet the data quality criteria for all invasive ca ncer sites combined. See A.ppendix I for registry-specific data quality information. Rates cover approximately 920/a of the U.S. population.

• Invasive cancers only

§ Data for specified race/ethnic groups other than white and black should be interpreted with caution. See technical notes.

II Hispanic origin is not mutually exclusive from race categories (white, black).

Rates are suppressed if fewer than 16 cases were reported in the specific area-race-ethnic category.

- Rates are suppressed at state's 'request. See technical notes.

Notes: Cases from suppressed rates are included in the U.S..and region/division rates. Observed region/division age-adjusted incidence rates are presented for regions/divisions with >= 80% of the population covered by registries that meet the data quality criteria specified above, and if the 95% confidence intervals around the observed region/division rates for each of four major cancers include "bias-corrected" estimated region/division rates (see tech..ical notes) for each of those cancers. U.S rates are as presented in Table 1.1.1.1MF. Michigan, Georgia, California, and Washington state rates each include cases from the SEER metropolitan areas.

Top. f P age Privacy Policy I Accessibility Cancer Home I About DCPC I Events I En Espa~ol I Site Map I Contact Us cDC Home I Seaqrch I Health Topics A-Z Page last reviewed: November 24, 2004 United States Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion Division of Cancer Prevention and Control 9

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FOR POBLLI10 I-IL'AIH,

(.1J.) 533 -7:",, P , (4 1 G 78 7 INTERNATIONA INSTITUTE OF CONCER.N FO,7PJ'BTI*VF-IALTH 830 Bathurst Street, Toronto, Ontaiio, Canada M5R 3g1 (416) B33-7351 e Fax (416) 533-7879 October 10, 1990

"'Lý milies .Hoye V lJidway Road Shelter I8land, NY 1196-USA

Dear liuies,

T-anR, you for sending the TMI Study. It certainly did not1hing to follow up or-elucidate the serious study conducted by the Aamodt's. It was my understanding that, that was the tasR given to Dr. Hatch by the TMI fund. /

ply comments are enclosed. Your further. reflection and comments would be w4elcome. £ Sincerely, losalie Ber'tell, Ph.D.,GNSH Copy: Mr tid Mrs Aamodt (CorresPO\HoyeOct,10/90)

Charitable Raegirit'1t);, No. 0715045-59.13

T E L 1. o I j F Re: Cancer Near the TMI Nuclear Plant by Maureen C. Hatch, '3. beyea, J.W. N ie've s and N. Susser Perhaps Dr. Hatch is unfamiliar with the etiology of radiogenic cancers in children, the focus of her study around TMI. These leukemias and cancers are. thought to originate from in utero exposure. Dr.. Hatch made no attempt to trace women who were pregtant and who resided around TNI at the time of the accident. The Hatch study was based on place of residence at diagnosis.. Therefore, in addition to cases lost to follow-Up, she included cases without knowing the place -of birth or pregnancy.

This same error permeates all of her cancer cases. For example, a nine year old diagnosed with leukemia in 1985 was most likely carrying the malignancy since 1976, However a five year old diagnosed with leukemia in 1984 may be related to the 1979 accident. She has so many irrelevant cases iJ1 the stiudy that it would be impossible or at least highly improbable that she would observe a statistical relationshi~p.

On page 406, Hatch clearly indicates her belief that radiogenic childhood leukemia has a two year latency period, This r-ror colors her entire analysis.

There are several other sources of error in the paper:

1. Page 403, Hatch assumes the median exposure in the.

study tract to be 0.4 mSv due to the accident and 0.001 mSv due to the routine emissions. The mathenuatics and sources of these estimates are of doubtful accuracy. Hatch apparently was not acquainted wit h Bernd Franke's study of the accuracy of dose measurements, also done for the T.M.I. Fund,

TEL I-Io. i5.

-: K 25-5;5,-l J':a t-1 1 i t-, ; " t.--, I "i U . U i ý--j rý . .1- 4 11"(j 3

2. Page 400, Hatch demonstrated ignorance of the variety of radiochemicals released in the accident, their radioactive decay products, and the high likelihood of inte*nal contamination.

3, Hatch assumes an.absense of alpha radiation, a highly unlikely scenario given the flooding of the reactor floor 6nd auxiliary building and unfiltered escape of radionuclides. Again, Bernd Franke's research would have helped.

4. Hatch states (p 400) that no data was available on routine emissions at TMI. Such data must be filed with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission and should have been available to her.

5. Hatch failed to deal with strontium 90 (decay produlct of krypton 90) and cesium 137 (decay product of xenon 137). These fission gases were released at TMI.

"6. Hatch assumed that all releases were from the vent stack, neglecting l.iquid releases and releases from the f'looded auxiliary building.

7. Out-migration and in-migration was completely ignored, although it was known to be widespread.

It is regretable that the State of Pennsylvania allowed so many nuclear facilities to be built and operated with no proper base line data on cancer, no tumor registryand no audit of their health effect forcast. A base line would have been of assistance to Dr. Hatch. However her fundamental error in assuming a 2 year latency for childhood cancer clearly invalidates the whole study.

Rosalie Bertell P1nDN

DOSE-RATE CONVERSION FACTORS FOR EXTERNAL EXPOSURE TO PHOTON AND ELECTRON RADIATION FROM RADIONUCLIDES OCCURRING IN ROUTINE RELEASES FROM NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE FACILITIES*

D. C. KOCHER Health and Safety Research Division. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge. TN 37830 (Received 21 March 1979; accepted 24 July 1979) Ný Abstract-Dose-rate conversion factors for external exposure to photon and electron radiation are calculated for 240 radionuclides of potential importance in routine releases from nuclear fuel cycle facilities. Exposure modes considered are immersion in con-taminated air, immersion in contaminated water, and irradiation from a contaminated ground surface. For each exposure mode, dose-rate conversion factors for photons and electrons are calculated for tissue-equivalent material at the body surface of an exposed individual. Dose-rate conversion factors for photons only are calculated for 22 body organs.

INTRODUCTION ment, and radioactive decay including build-IN ASSESSING radiation dose to an individual or up and decay of any radioactive daughter to the population from external exposure to a products. Such considerations are beyond the radionuclide dispersed in the environment, a scope of this work. We are concerned instead dose-equivalent rate at a given location at with the determination of the external dose-time t, denoted by R(t), can be written in the rate factor D.

general form R(t) = Q(t) x D, where Q(t) is a For a given radionuclide, the dose-rate radionuclide concentration at the particular fa-c tuors - ar e7--C-rrfa-rt-s"-wh-Wii-c'h,ý-rr d- et*ri'fi-e-d location and time and D is a quantity called b--' rich- 1Tf*---ld-----n.dtype 6Tt-int-eresti the external dose-rate conversion factor. phOtons pusuy or ele--c tr6ons)Ya-ad-t-h-n ener-From the general equation, the quantity D, g in~tdh~se oi':I'hleýrnitted r atiTiihT which we also call the dose-rate factor, can of 1h-f-a-rype, t*e mode-f exposure (e.g. tmi be regarded as a dose-equivalent rate per unit m in vnt-n 'n o radionuclide concentration.

In general, estimation of the concentration Q(t) requires detailed *consideration of the D6§-fa-tdT-fT6`ri -ref-ndepeneiicf6_n6f-the rate and manner of release of the radionu- ayna-mi-c-13-e avior ot -rdadlo-nucffes-in thfe, clide of interest, its transport in the environ- envirohfiffi-iif-ese Ta-coFs are crearyue

• inradiological assessments, since multi-

• Research sponsored by Division of Safeguards, plication of an assumed radionuclide concen-Fuel Cycle and Environmental Research, U.S. tration in the environment by a dose-rate Nuclear Regulatory , Commission under Inter- factor gives an external dose-equivalent rate.

agency Agreement DOE 40-550-75 with the U.S. This paper presents a tabulation of dose-Dept. of Energy under Contract W-7405-ENG-26 rafe f-actoýrs-fo kee5ih-lreFxpo-sutre to pF--ortn with Union Carbide Corp. -afd-d-ctiofsf-24 =rai5-u~cfRIe~soi oteni-tial importance, in..routine releases from Photons, water immer nuclear fuel.cycle facilities. The exposuri:e Il mSes considered are*-imirersion in con- D '_ =. ](1.87 x 107) 1l '

taminated air, immersion in contaminated p.,,

water, and irradiation from a contaminated ground surface. For each radionuclide, radia-tion type, and exposure mode, dose-rate fac-tors are calculated for tissue-equivalent Electrons, water imme material at the body surface of an exposed individual. In addition, dose-rate factors for photons only are calculated for 22 body D*0=1(1.87 x 10') z organs. 2 ~ P.

The dose-rate factors are calculated by .4, assuming that the contaminated air, water, and ground surface are infinite in extent and I n these equations, the that the radionuclide concentration. is uniform clenote air, water and tis:

throughout the medium. For immersion in s ubscripts -y and /3 deno contaminated air and water, the calculations t rons, respectively, ar are based on the reouirement that all of the clenotes a nnirtir.iier,nhc)

MATERIALS THREE MILE ISLAND HAS r (gamma radiation-a-n intense Cesium 137 B- (negative b t .energy wave)

Cobalt 60 B-,r emlss-o Strontium 90 B- rfiT4G Iodine 131 B-,r Xenon 133 K~~~~ADONB_-2 R *a,* *4*

Krypton 85 B-,r Rubi dium88 THYRO0ID B-,r IlANIILJA.2~ v~b~c a(pl r620O~

PLI-[O?

,* . ]UMZsi t,".oi' .* .,- ,.,

IODINE- 01! KRYPLTO NK6IV(a-d.c,')

erns i j~mlA g(JIS SKIN-5liL.F'LF- 15 frn. 87 d*

]'<I-ITK-1NI1M - (06 ONLARIES'.

THE RE? RODU 11 ORý,N

-]MONf c,mithn qmmnni* rvtion. c In miurfdon.

the dacly PLUTONIUJ--239 is h,,ow. tn C concentrnl in the 3,,,m&..

zINC- 6" The ractiafion it enib cmn cause. STNNTYh11 - 90 birth dMra. ztnubtiow'ns rnis-m~acvrzgs in the flt~nercron YTrlPtLA4- 90 sifrr OcPrpcs Mid Or"suceCire km . 6+-horv PRO-0ME7THLI.JA i- -117 kiia. *y-s.

krAKI YMlt C-OJMLT-0nemtiam . 60 10DINE-i3i BHORI ininI.At- HO*-

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\KRYPTON,- 65 PHOSP-FR-1.S1'z RUTHENIRIM- Wo6 6M-A. 't d'.y, ZI '-Gr5 "

ýINC-65 CA C,.N-16.0 fern 1AIrt) 5.600jtsri PARIUM- 140

-)T'ASS111MA4*'

jmvfUJfA- J.36 CUTULINA," 137 qts is oW Winmizizi4 raddtrion is nnin1tanm

i. ibr ' bidy..A Itl4 nsadftatj i5s hiUtalL PLIITWIWUM-239 4 0 y. hllwihl o, ,1wIn,*l rissl. fctmel';i a~Ai celts f'dwt. bdc. (- r*-c'ril*, akil. o.

MTISCLE4ý ,nd. bf' naa) an"r hanrth m i 41'.ti,.

POTASSIIIAI -1Z y'o bitr brvdw. or car Arnn. bIti& M "

Feri-. (q *i.u). z:ri . tdirni tfty 5*c up irrnaztcttt" l ltI'h" *r u

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'TltedAn c~inii~zsltt radittWimi a4itl i,,,uxhatc. fxO,.,,,* i-P n,,liath,,m, a,-a, catieit'lS uiatly >zcap later. E.jISurr t7 atdti =t6Itr~arr1' 6luliw:iw lo w vety low tevwls of- nd1tiauou 'll l 11Crql, lh41F4 the t-Iwiztiiardwtriww Te I dAnigmuts ,'wr fwI.

State Represetative Stephen Reed's Letter to the NRC August 8, 1979 (

Honorable Joseph M. Hendrie, Chairman U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Washington, District of Coluxmbia

Dear Chairman Hendrie,

I am entirely baffled by the apparent refusal of the U.S.

Nuclear Regulatory Commission to have extensively reviewed the reports by hundreds of Three Mile Island area residents who, during March 28-31, 1979 primarily, and at times subsequent, experienced:

(a) metallic taste tn their mouth (b) metallic or Iod ne-like odor in the air (c) irritated and watery eyes (d) moderate or severe respiratory inflammation (e) gastro-intestinal dysfunction and diarrhea (f) disruption of the menstral cycle in females (g) skin rashes (some appearing as radiation burns)

(h) sharp, abnormal pains in joints.

The U.S. Public Health Service and Pennsylvania State Dept.

of Health are jointly conducting a survey of TMI area residents to record medical histories so that the full health consequences of TMI' radiation releases in the next 25 years will be documented.

That is all fine and should be done. But why is there a complete dismissal by the NRC of any immediate indications of exposure to levels of radiation higher than what were immediately thought the first dates of the accident? Psychosomatically induced ailments are possible with some, but not with hundreds or even more persons and I suggest this matter has been conveniently laid aside.

The NRC is charged with ascertaining full details about the TMI accident. You are further charged with knowing the full effects of even low level radiation onpopulations near to nuclear reactors.

Failure to pursue the aforementioned reports from TMI area residents is a dismal failure of your most important safety responsibilities to the *tens of millions of people living near reactors, not to men-tion the people around TMI.

I thereford recommend that all available expertise be applied to ascertaining the cause of these physical ailments associated with the TMI accident and a completely accurate public disclosure made of its cause and the level of radiation or contamination that people may have been exposed to. The inability of both Metropolitan Edison and the NRC to know even to this day (or at least to have disclosed if you actually do know) the levels of exposure is in itself a major, most serious failing of pre-THI accident obligations by both parties. And if it is determined that the exact cause of these physical ailments cannot be determined due to the lack of-adequate research on the subject pre-TMI, then the public should know the extent to which we indeed are unprepared to deal with nuclear plant emissions.

Yours sincerely,f A e AhAh, L STEPHEN R. REED State Representative

,.. and the NRC'S Response (SEP 20, 1979)

~tii~;Th *,* ....... :........

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F hi a sta-ff aiembers-

.

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<'~~~~~~~Q M6c ~z tr H~ 6.r D6~ ii: ksiýo- (ýC. th~ epartt Hah

~O :c6~t~tted ar Ad Hoc Dos- ssmsent" Gru, pe ed" the' report.

-.e--T,:,

eitc*( des that"he site. dsfs a;so iated with the accident

.P../e." , Mar.. i &-to.-. ..- T: J-I9;75 re.-- nt.. nirr. ri-sks. .

addiloral h .Tt-afects to the o~s-te~~pa~ior & T iO~jected, numbe

.:O*,ai-tiaonaa-aai1 cal rs-due *t-O:the- ac.identtthat could occur over the

"-..:

ar,]nn l., 'u . or ...t-e.. .ui on wtihi:n- 50 m:-T es; is l.es-s than onre.

. Tt ep~t; f .- course.- d*' . 'dre

'.. des-: t e . infedi ate-. pysto ogical ractions-ý ad-re~sed.:. n--your .. e tti*, r Ht ever-, we- have" consulted with , .

.Ž-.; ?4a-*v.t'n- e"ld-r.an;Zat med'iaTl consu..ltant for- N.P"C and- he. ha.s, s-tated that  ;

-.. ti~e-rc-rartiio- dneA* *te:.~!,ed *a s-described in the reo~ort,. none

. . .- _ .T t. s'. a)thu-.-(h)above -can be. expected to

-b: , u.,sed, by.radiation . ' -..  :- .. .. . ..

-'" Ca.

-be of firther` asst.stance to you,.-please do not hesitate to w Uss -- -te ..

• ~

~.7 ~ S V~ nc arel y ,

" ::;-'  ? :? i" - .- .. .. - "-

Harold R. Denton, Direc t or Office of Nuclear Reactor Peegulation The above is a part of the NRC's after spending much time and reply to Stephen Reed which was energy, one throws one's results written by Harold Denton on be- in front of those bureaucrats half of Chairman Hendrie. It only to receive in return, if stated that,"The only knowledge anything at all, the empty echo that we have of a large number of of one's own voice. No, it is people experiencing physiological worse than empty-it echoes reactions to the accident comes maliciously.

through Mr. Arnold of ParaSci-ence Internationl." Enclosed Thus, this was the NRC's only with the reply was a copy of response to the question of the Larry Arnold's letter to the NRC strange experiences people had in which literally the same eight had at the time of the accident.

kinds of symptoms Mr. Reed had hic'thelo but b ask, even if, listed can be found. It is ap- for examole, the me l-lcI--taste--

parent that Mr. Reed's letter was -inthe mouth had nothing to do based on Larry Arnold's report. "wih--1-the--r&dioactive materials from the nuclear powerplant,. L*

It is as though the 'information' how_the ..NRC can justify its fail- i went round that closed circuit: ure _to-ascertain -what caused it? "

50

UNITED STATES NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION WASHINGTON, D. C. 20555 AR 9 1984 Mr. Albert Manik 919 Hoffer Street Middletown, PA 17057

Dear Mr. Manik:

Your letter to Commissioner Bernthal (postmarked January 31, 1984) has been referred to ine for response.

Your letter requests the type and amount of radioactivity released during the Three Mile Island Unit 2 (ThI-2) accident and the reason for the metallic taste reported by area residents during the first few day's of the accident.

I understand that at the February 9., 1984 TMI-2 Advisory Panel Meet'i no in

,Harrisburg, PA, you raised the same issues. As you remember Mr. Lake Barrett.

Deputy Program Director of the Three Mile Island Program Office, responded to both issues at that time and promised to forward to you spe-diTic inzor-ation On February 17, 1984, Mr. Barrett forwarded to you a letter detailin* the type and amount of radioactivity released during the accident. Enclosed is a copy of the letter.

I simply do not have a definitive answer for the reasons why some individuals experienced a metallic taste in the early days of the accident. H!oav=r , zfrom the tVpes and quantities of radioactive materials released... during the accident and the concentrations of radionucl ides -hat could be

,resent in the ofsite environment, I have determined that t"'hes-e relatively low acrident concentra-tions could not have caused a metallic taste.

In conclusion I would like to add that official inquiries into the P1!-2 accident (the NRC's Rogovin Report and President Carter's Kemeny Report) found that there would be no, or very minimum, adverse Public health Eff-c-ts caused by the accident. I trust that this infomation. responds to the issues you raised in your letter.

Sincerely, Harold R. Denton, Director Office of Nuclear Reactor Rerouiation

Enclosure:

As stated

Recently GPU and the NRC acknowledged that the core of Unit 2 at TMI reached a temperature of 5,100OF and that transuranic materials %ere released into the enviroment. Below is a statement that was part of the May 28 press conference in Washington D.C. sponsored by the SVA May 21? 19-ý5 TRANSURANICS AND THE IMPACT ON HEALTH Carl J. Johnson, MD, MPH*

A typical nuclear reactor like TMI-2 has about 97 tons of uranium 238 and 3 tons of U-235. Although some reactors are also fueled with plutonium, all operating reactors make large amounts of plutonium.

A typical reactoV in a.year will 'produce 100,000 to 600,000 curies of alpha-radiation emitting plutonium, 7,000 to 110,000 curies of americium, and 400,000 to over one million curies of, curium.

Each curie will exceed the Department of Energy's (DOE) maximum permissible body burden for 24 million nuclear workers, or 2.4 billion people.ý This DOE exposure standard does not protect workers, however. At Rocky. Flats, nuclear workers with less plutonium in their bodies than permitted by DOE had sharply increased rates of chromosome damage, even at only 1l to 10% of the permitted dosage of plutonium.

Put another way, a teaspoon of plutonium 238 would exceed the DOE exposure limit for 40 billion nuclear workers, or 4 trillion people, and even a small fraction of this maximum permissible dosage will causesevere chromosome damage...

There are about 40 tansuranics of 'importance, like plutonium 238, produced in all nuclear.,reactors. Some are somewhat less toxic, some are more toxic. Plutonium and similar radionuclides occur in all tissues in -the body in man, and become a permanent resident in the body. The excxetion rate is very slow, about one-half would be excreted evqry 200 years.

In animals, plutonium causes cancer of the lung,.bone, kidney, mammary gland,, lymph nodes, nesothelium, and ten types of soft tissue cancer.

In one animal study, plutonium caused a cancer rate of 114% with a mean induction period of about one year. Many animals has two different types of cancer.

Excess cancer incidence has been reported in Rocky Flats workers arid in the population living downwind in Denver. The children and young adults in Arvada and the area near the plant in 1957, 'when an explosion blew out the filters at the plant, had a greater than four-fold excess of leukemia in 1969-1971 at the time of the National Cancer. lnstitute's Third.

National Survey of Cancer.Incidence. I estimate that.the Rocky Flats exposures.will cause more than 12,000 excess cases of leukemia and cancer in the Denver area between 1960 and 1990, and a somewhat greater number will be affected by birth defects and non-specific effects on health.

This was the only Federally-supported study of cancer incidence around a Federal nuclear facility.

An Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) report states that a nuclear

• reactor can routinely release over a million curie* of fission products in the exhaust each year. These routine releases include 6.8 curies of neptunium, a transuranic. I asked an EPA regional radiation officer why ;the release of the other 40 plus transuranics were not reported, and he said "that would not be self-serving to the industry."

42 Hillside Drive., Denver, CO 80215 (303) 232-2328 CONTINUED TO NEXT PAGE

CONTINUED FROM PREVIOUS PAGE Nuclear fuel, uranium andplutonium, are contained in a reactor in rods.

The rods quickly deteriorate under the heavy bombardment of countless neutrons, and the heat and increasing pressure, as these very heavy metals fission into some 1,800 different lighter isotopes, many of them gases. The rods quickly develop more and more leaks, which pernait fission products and transuranics to escape. An operating reactor like TMI-2 produces as much fallout fission products andtransuranics as the fHiroshima bomb every 4 -hours.

There is evidence that there was a large release of nuclear fuel, of uranium, plutonium, of the 40+ transuranics, along with the release of huge amounts of fission products from the core. At a core temperature of 5,1000 F, or 28160 C, all 'of the nuclear fuel can melt, and many of the transuranics, like americium, will boil, producing large volumes of metal ffumes. Iodine boils at .1840 C, cesium boils at 6780, polonium at 9620, radium at 1,1400, strontium at 1,3840, and americium at 2,.6070.

Contrast a teaspoon of plutonium to the 3 to 11 tons of nuclear material missing from the TMI-2. reactor vessel. I am certain that a large amount of plutonium, curium, and other transuranics have been dessiminated 6ffsite.

These releases in the exhaust fumes from TMI would be in. the form of metallic fumes and gases, and extremely fime particles of radionuclides.

Such exhaust plumes have been called "dry fallout" and are much less likely to be deposited on the ground than "wet fallout" brought down by rain or snow. However, it is very important that a survey of contamination of surface respirable-dust be carried out, to a distance of 20 miles at least, around the plant. The survey should look at all of the important isotopes of curium, plutonium, americium, neptunium and uranium.

After the TMI-2 accident, I asked the NRC and the DOE to do such a' suirvey around TMI, using a surface respirable dust method I developed in collaboration with the U.S. Geological Survey that was published in Science. The Department of Energy itself has used and recommended a very similar approach around the Savannah River Plant.

However, the DOE refused to do this survey around TMI. They did soil tests to a depth of 15". This approach guarantees negative results. A later study by the EPA to a depth of 1 centimeter is not much better,.

A large lawsuit brought by landowners against Dow, Rockwell and DOE for the contamination of their land with plutonium by Rocky Flats was recently settled in favor of the plaintiffs, based in large part on the sort of evidence I.present here. I was the health officer for the county involved in this issue. The federal judge in this case ruiled that the plant was guilty of conducting an ultrahazardous operation, according to the reports in local newspapers. Similarly, I believe that both TMI-I and TMI-2 have been conducting an. ultrahazardous operation, and must not be permitted '

to resume operations. '

. 4

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+++  ? -+*': ýTMI .. + ! . -

By MARY WARNER Staff Writer A Dauphin County. Court judge has approved more than $3.9gmil-lion in settlements of injury claims resulting from the 1979 accident at Three Mile Island . _

The largest.- in a claim filed for a Down's syndrome child -

was for $1,095,000.

The settlements, all reached out of court; had to be approved by-a judge,'because they involved claims on behalf 'of children. or of

. the estates of adults who have died.

since the accident. .

A- statement Issued yesterday by the lnsui-ance companies repre-senting, the nuclear plant's opera..

tors Indicated the claims were being settled without regard to the evidence, strictly to avoid the ex-pense of trials.

• "These settlements r'epresent an economic decision arrived at by the Insurance companies and do not constitute an admission of lla.

billty by the companies Involved, General Public Utilities Corp. -and Metropolitan Edison Co.," the f,-*...

.vtatiueit~sw,

.7 -*-....-

"In exchange for payments to the claimants by the insurance.

companies, all of the defendants in-the settled cases are being given...'

general-releases from claims of ha-.

bility.".

+I- It: could not be learned how much money was Involved in .the settlements that did not. require.

court approval. Plaintiffs and de.

fendants have agreed not toidis-.

statement:.

cuss the settlements, the said. .

In all, the statement said, "the

• great majority of 300 personal in- -

S.jury claims '.were being=settl*ud.,out

" Doug Bedell, a. spokesman for of court.-.7old Bradley'R. Baker of New Cum 'The suit said the plaintiffs TM!

W operator GPU Nuclear Corp., berland, a wn's child.: "most probably came into physical released the statement. He had.no:, . Court documents said Bradley, / contact with some radioactive other comment.. bornm just- over -nine months after debris," which "was dispersed The settlements .approved by- the accident, suffered the disorder, throughout a large area. -

Jtidge William, W.. Llpsiltt closed which includes mental retardation;. Defen.ants in the suit. wer.

claims by70

'M"Hischildren and threees- parents. Blaine. and. De- General Public Utilities Corp.; its A group of 19settlen~ents ap-" ;'. bo.ah Baker were among 62 plaIn-.- subsidiaries, Metropolitan Edison Krved- yesterday e**en d " tiffs l.. a 1981 suit that. sought. Co., Jersey Central Power & Light 855,000 foranGabrielli.

Harrisburg,, infant, borns since o. damages linked to-the for- Injuries allegedly Co., and Pennsylvania Electric Co.,

March' 28, 1979, acci-. .plant designer Babcock and Wil-lthe accident who suffered.cereb.

• dent at the Londonderry.Twp. nu-

.palsy, and $1,095,000. fo- $yea. clear plant .  ; . See Thu - Page A8 S10500 fo 9 *

. 6

Sl a w -m . Anomer group o0 eriL approved Jan. 25, were. prL From Page Al to the court by the Pittsburgi firm of Trasi, 'Tighe, Tierney,

• cox and its parent company J. Ray Johnson, which will receive McDermott & Co.; and engineer percent contingency fees.

Burns & Roe. Each petition said the parents "Based on the extremedifficul- 6f'-the childrem involvedhad en-ty in establishing the connection gaied the firi* "1with respect to between low- level radiation and possible emotiomal and other inju-Br.adley's illnesses, the petitioners -ries" resulting from the accident. .

blelleve the offer of settlement is  ::-None. oft the children had fair and equitable," plaintiff's at- . 'tiotonal.

rvable" injuxres physicalthat. injuries or-torney Lee. Schwartz said in his required.

petition seekin Lipsitt's approval Calcal reatm:ient, the petitions' of the.$ 1,095V000 settlement..

The-. Bakers also entered' a "Therefore, the petitions said, claim, for their-daughter Jennifer,

'now 6,: for physcai damage and thel:paintiffs' attorneys found the emotional an.d 7enf eng. 6ffered settlem ent to be a "fair and The settlement in her case. was reasonable" compromise.

$28,500. Receiving. $10,000 -apiece

. The settlements approved by through those settlements Were:

Lipsitt were in two groups. One a 217 Joseph Moody, T. and Chr*,,ne Moody, 6, hidren ,of 0 lamea and Kathleen Moody of group, approvedyesterday, includ. ~ ,~tk-b.iBelbie. 13. send MeLimta Beible. B..chil.

ed 19 settlements totalling $3.3 *r,*Of Pal mand Wertly Beibla of Yoar Haven.

million., S Nathan Bare. 11 mad Na. Bare.9.c A

.,,*,.f.-.aa', "..., of Terry Bare ofi., Colusotbia.-.,lelter-.:.

.l6..a...e-$

for- coningency" fees for the raw S l man. 14. ws a o MIabael firms of Hepford, Schwartz, SJennifer Petron~eend Jesscatcsrose of.

- Menaker & Morgan and Levin & ' Dlllsburg. daughter-a of-tRoer Petrone of Fishbein and,. in some cases, attor- Dillfaburg.

LJAHBrady. 1 :5. and Amy Brad):. 13. of nney Richard Jamesod and the firm Friedman-and Friedman. , Joseph GaIt Jr.. 9. son of Joseph ean Marylou 9altz of Columbsia.

It was not always clear from Ruth Hoover. 16, Joy Hoover. 15 and Lamar court documents. whether the ad- 37 01.;;W14. ofColum bes.

Sdresses IListed fOr the plaintiffs 43 Grr W. lugold. 8, aon of Gerardand Donna

.9m.8 Ingold ofVerona. I were. for the time of the-accident,.  : lame R. Kilnedeast Jr;, son of James R. and Ci a Kllnedinst of Yerk Haven.

the time of the-suit or now. ' n Me"m wMa.16. daughter of Lewi Saly Bbsides. the. Baker anTFlsEn le¢tzg-r of Mount Joy.

cases,. the settlements yesterday ' .

• neth Ropka , Thomas Ropk,2 12. and Al 3were:..

"--

."

'_. $4M7,0 foMaryella Durborow, 17. daughter-QVRo1 t haud. 6.

dfateOPkaof Baimbridge.

Le Mot.RicharV. and:.

S*7 -- EdrigeSardL,14. and Mr*co Sardi.14. chil

'of Wllllsnand" Catherine Durborow. claining 4M of MarThilko aON DoMnaSa*rdi of Cohem bia.

p aldamage and emotional pain. . S* J b John T. Mlson. 17, and Mousslm.melsm I ,

$4750 -loc: Rennie Croemman. 16. child-of. chi"lden of Sharon Werttau Of Columbia.

'f Kenneth -a&Barbara Crosse=. of Rib-'od.

Nic.l.- Gl*.sy., ..1. Lee Glemsy, 14. and Losp

, VL

/S V,. ia*pml p*ysical-and genet 264.00 for-- haesta~te of Joaeph Dowden damage. ,

e -'* t

',-ll,, ,- . oyark.S7,. children

' Oleny*

• *oc wili.a*and ConieGlenny

' " .

,wo diedofanceruaage 53 in September 198L.

.Angela Lowel.l 9. and Adam LovelL I1. chll.

The addres of the- executor of the estat was GGlen ce. N .Y. .,'-, ""  !.1 1 atoDuan and CHay Lovell of L "ebur

. aul etchr. children of Marlg ftand.

$116 I300(or-e eta'ateo,o Eve"y C"rdoof.

' Ha hiu*r who died of a heart ttac. in Nove.-

-,bar 1980 at the age ot 64.

. Sandeap-Tbatrar. 0. and Monica.Thakrar.

$17040ifor the aute S/ of llbert Mounllof; . chldrem n of Avil aa Neemy Thakrar of Camp

- *larrlsbur. Who die of a heait Attack at the age , Andr BratTc.7,* and Keely Bratie:.5.cbildren ot6sof66.1979.* o

13. tSeletAinofCa1r mawo died "Kathleen Bratic Grantham o

of a heart attack l at year atage 56. ware Wn.

Mlc 17. and Stephoie W*ars. 14..

-/] $41 .lf,*fSamaneha legt 5. daughter: F' 7 -Lo"uiMe elether.- t -dtgtr {BrmaCt childrent ot Valentin anLd Lesda Waseca o Harris-of Rchar an KbtlwnYlengst of Duncassnon.

• claiming congenital heart defects and other phyxi- Robert S. Aquno. 17. end Debramh Aquno.

• aland genetic damag. 14.children of Edwardoand Pegy A4uo of Yort

, $9,50;0 for Jennifer L. YLcigt. 7, lso- the Haven. p Dan Laughman. 13, Dayne Loughman. 7. and SdauSghterof Richard and Kathleen Ylengst. claim.

": "~ Donald Laughman. S. children of Craig and Joan

' lg elotional trauma and physical and genetic

'

67 7 Loughman.

-

-

Mkelle Davis. I 2.daughterof Barbara C.t.-

/. ". $15,200 forSLy Schuchmua 5. daughterto are of Dove. - -

"' -' - _ _ : .. - "- "5.

Gre M.,cha ~ ... NMolte Uinsey. 11. and JIII'insey. 8. daughtiers.

17K

$,0for

t Scnhe , 5, of~ Salem-. Ore., claiming eotiodoal Ub-a.

Ttrryl A~ 70 OF.of / Dennis and Roaemtary Uinsey of Tampa. Fla.

. The remaining settlements were:

me and physical and genetic damage.

S19.000 for Barbara Martin 13. daughter of 21,700- for *Amy Shoop. 6. daughter of. Ed.-

Sea ward and Sydney Shmop of Bainbridge.

" Robert and Marie Martin of Enom* Claiming eno--

7~ ~ S42.000, apiece for Robert Thomas Jr.. 13..

t U0 t anstd physcal and geneso d=1age s2. .900for Elizabeth Malateednic. 5daush.

of Mark and radlelman Maesteetinic of Steel-al 7% 77 atimew Th~omas. 12. and Deanna Thomas. 10..-

children of Robert and Mary Thomas of Lemoyne-_

S24.000 apiece for lames Hartsfleld Jr.. I7,.

77??

'.ton, claiming eiedassai trana and physical and sesetiIA-damage . and Robert Hartaferd. 14, sone of lames and Ma.

-Si 5=20 fqr Matth Idalomettac. 9. also eown -Tlsts Hartsfield of Efunn. N;.C:. -

e-f Mtark and Kale Maleazesthnc. claimin.g imotionia trum-som sphysical and geen~d dam-

'agoi~

6f liark~and. Kathlees ashcn.cas

• 'envonai b-suran and physical and genetic dam-.-

• :.$19.500for Kelly E. Ha. 14. a.nght"rfEll.

t aof. Penbrook' claiming emodnai Ima and-

_ p15e.al and geetic A,-ge

= ' 9.f500"for W Joshua Chubb. 9, son of Julia

". ofMlddletown. claimingutnadou simbaan

• esanhyulcuJ and gene", da-aed

+ at W ly) itate s -

1W (n1UT jj U1 V U V Ulu 11". Ln By Frank Lynch

§untiau fjatriot-News The state's recently released study of health effects of the 1979 Three Mile Island accident may have been flawed by expanding 4 the survey areas beyon-scribed five- and 10-mile zones.

According to 1980 census fig-ures, the state Department of Health included 28,610 people who live farther than five miles from the Londonderry Twp. plant in the population listed for those who live within five miles..

. Another 112,000 people who jlive farther than 10 miles from the plant were included in the popula-ition of those living "within" 10

{miles.-

THE RESULT, according to epw idemiologists and statisticians con-tacted by the Sunday Patriot-News, is that if there actually.

were adverse health- effects such as increased cancer cases among ttiose living close, to the plant, the figures would be diluted by ex-panding the base population.

"It seems like a strange thing Areas included in 5-mile population study tAd," said Dr. Robert A7.Hfuft quist, Pennsylvania State Univer- Areas included in 10-mile population study sity professor of statistics. "I think you would substantially.dilute [as- cess cancer rate [in the five-mile ago, concluded that no adverse the totals listed by the Health De-sumed cancer rat*es] toget even a zone], and not excess rate beyond health effects had been found so .partment, 44 percent of the popu-few miles away." the five-mile zone," he said. "The far in people who live around TMI, lation figured in the five-mile Dr. George Hutchison, Harvard larger population would dilute the site of the nation's worst commer- statistics live outside that zone, professor of epidemiology, con- overall cancer rate. cial nuclear accident on March 28, while 42 percent of those said to be curred.

"t.Wtq ,iinnnnqp thorP Nr qn P-1979.

THE STUDY. released a month Comparing census figures with See STATE'S-Paize AIO

FFTDMED 121 rry St. Hbg 561-1209 Discount to Sr. Citizens A IO--§uiiunat Pitriot-N.Xrs, Harrisburg, Pa., October 6, 1935 DR. MALCHODI & DR. KLEIN, DDS f ta9te I stua '%T Clouded R.D. BOX 35A LEWISBERRY 938-1415 204-206 MUAPER LANE DILLSBURG 233-8044, 432-9762 From Page Al within the five-mile zone had Digon noted that death certifi- 10% Discount Offered ToAII Sr. Citizens about the same number of cancer cates and cancer incidence infor-

"within" the I U-mile zone actually deaths as would have been expect- mation from the state's Cancer Re-live For farther away. ed. gistry. are available according to example, all of Lower Pax- Health Department spokesman "minor civil division" - or by ton Twp.'s 34,830 residents were Bill Lindeberg said, "We think we township and borough.

included in the 10-mile figures, al- have a pretty solid report, and we Since the minor civil divisions*

though only 2,000 of them live in stand on it." do not align with the five- and I0-N\

the sliver of the township inside TMI'S UNIT 2 reactor mile circles, officials included all the 10-mile 'radius. Some Lower overheated'and released some ra- of a division in the study even if Paxton. Twp. residents live as far dioactivity into the environment in only part of it is within the de-.,

-is 16 miles from the plant. March 1979. Government experts scribed zone. )4et/hLr Digon 31- iK/.S, and scientists have said not enough said it was decided to Health Department officials radiation escaped to trigger any use. the divisions - even though defend the way they gathered significant health problems. their use inflates the population their data. They say the data were But doubts~have persisted over numbers - because it will be easi-not diluted by the excess popula- the last six years. er to conduct follow-up studies.

tion included, and that the study Norman and Marjorie Aamodt, could not have been conducted had formerly of Chester County, and "YOU COULD do it [try to di-they attempted to stay close to the now of Lake Placid, N.Y., conduct- vide the divisions to stay close to imaginary 5- and 10-mile zones. ed a study last year that concluded the zone circles]. But you can't do the number of local people dying that for too many years because "IT WOULD be a tremendous from. cancer increased sevenfold the reference books [needed to job, almost humanly impossible" since the accident. c,.) 133.57i-eý7 keep track of residents] would fill to conduct such a study, said Ed- Meanwhile_, the Columbia. up a room," he said. P ward Digon, principal author of (N.Y.) University Department of Therefore, he said futore com-e the report and chief of the depart- Epidemiology is conducting a two- parison studies also will include ment's special studies section, divi- year, $420,000 study of pregnancy those living outside the zones.

sion of epidemiology research. outcomes and cancer rates since Harvard's Hutchison said that Digon said the report should the accident. to do a study expeditiously, "there have noted that. some of the people And the Health Department is a good argument for using town-included in the study live outside will continue to monitor cancer ships and boroughs rather than uso the zones. Such a notation had cases in the area for future studies. ing areas defining a circle around been included in an early draft that Three Mile Island."

he wrote, but was deleted during THE MOST recent study was . But he said that that study the editing process. Leaving the made to find out what, if any, method should have been de-explanation out, he said, was an health effects were suffered by scribed in the report. "If there is "error." residents living certain distances not any footnote [explaining that But Digon stressed that there from the plant. Five- and 10-mile some areas are actually not within was not an increase in cancer. He zones were selected for compari- the described zones], then you said the four communities entirely son purposes. have a problem."

uk

_hlWalul,,ldýZ Y

A LISTING OF SOME OF THE SEVERE SYMPTOMS AND lIE.J..T* EFFECTS IIURINt\* AND AF-F[R 1HE THREE MILE I._.ANU !\CCIDEII1 1 - Zions View: blue fog, earthquake, animal deaths, plant abnormalities, cancers, thyroid disorders, birth defects.

2 - Lisburn, Goldsboro: metallic taste, skin burns, hair loss, plant effects, defoliation, animal deformi-ties, cancers, birth defects, film fogging. Goldsboro received the official high dose of radiation for the west shore, area during accident. -Lisburn is on the 1W mile radius. evacuation line. NRC wants to have a two mile evacuation zonie.

3 -Rural areas: 5 cancers in 6 homes, metallic taste, skini burns, plant mutations, tree damaqe. I\rea of 75 dental films fogged.

Between 3 & 4: On Thursday 3/29/7,9 I was driving on Rt 15, and experieneced eye burning and difficu.lt y seeing - almost like snowblindness.

4 - Rural area: Skin and eye burns, metallic taste, blisters, nausea, diarrhea, antima.[ deaths, p1la- t mutations, .cancers, hair loss, tree defoliation, tree tops died, miscarriages.

5 - Enola, South Bridge: Metallic taste, cancer cluster, plant effects. On South bridge, mriny penpie reported orangey-pinkinsh haze, metallic taste.

.6- Summerdale: Cancers, hair falling out in clumps. Harrisburg-metallic taste all over downtown, '?bone marrow supression cases, plant abnormalities. Enhaut- cancer cluster, plant effects.

7 - Dauphin, Highspire: birth defects. Pa Doo{ even acknowledged high cancers in 1Highspire.

8 - ~Host Inn plume line (see Nureg 0600): Osborn home-metallic taste, skin burns, hair loss, plnt mutationis.

AMP builing on Fulling Mill Road-gardener got sick during accident, eventually died of Leukemia.

Kunkle.School-official high radiation dose for east shore during accident, piant effects. Corradi's home- plant abnormalities, rashes, "fifths disease" in neighborhood, cataracts.

9 - Rt 441 at Nissly: High body radiation count, plant effects, miscarriage, cataracts, cancer.

0 - Colonial Park: Metallic taste all over, burning sensation, menstrual problems in young women.

1 - Linglestown: cancer cases, birthing problems. Rutherford- metallic taste, plant abnormalities, cancer cluster. "e'21 Ae/l ,'7/- /Cy.-

2 - Pineford Village: Eye burns, hair loss all over body, cancers.

3 - Across street from TMI: Animal deformities, deaths, metallic taste.

4 - Columbia: Leukemia and cancer clusters.

5 - York Haven: Metallic taste, respiratory disorders, animals died, human cancers.

Areas in the northeast, southeast, and southwest all reported similar severe symproms, not just northwest.

JTE: This information was collected by Mary Osborn from newspapers, the TMI Alert Questionaires, personal conversations and interviews, Nureg 0600 from NRC, PaDoH cancer report, & personal experiiences. Jiz is not all the data and health effects will continue ....... The humans were the true dosimeters.

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RVEY PLUME POINT FOR A STABLE ATMOSPHERIC CONDITION (WIND DIRECTION VARIABILITY <45'),

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(o SUR PERFORMED 3240 p(r VET ED DURING

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-Available online at www.sciencedirect.com DmIRECT Science ofthe SCIENCE d Total Environment mn En~ d ItsRd4*fl htwith i ua n ELSEVIER Science of the Total Environment 325 (2004) 163-180 www.elsevier.com/locatelscitotenv Processes, dynamics and modelling of radiocaesium cycling in a chronosequence of Chemobyl-contaminated Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) plantations Franqois Goor, Yves Thiry*

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• Radiation Protection Research Unit, Belgian Nuclear Research Centre. (SCK CEN), Boeretang 200, 2400 Mol, Belgium Received 16 June 2003; received in revised form 29 October 2003; accepted 31 October 2003 Abstract In a large forested area affected by the Chernobyl radioactive fallout, especially in CIS, the lasting recycling of radiocaesium ( 137 Cs) by the trees is a source of long-term contamination of woody products. The quantitative description of the 13 7Cs dynamics in contaminated forest is a prerequisite to predictive modelling and further management of such territories. Three even-aged mono-specific Scots pine stands (17, 37 and 57 years old) were selected in a contaminated woodland in southeastern Belarus to constitute an adequate chronos~equence. We determined.

the potassium and radiocaesium annual fluxes involved in the biological cycling in each stand using a well-documented calculation methodology. Qualitatively, "3 7Cs was shown to be rapidly recycled in trees through the same pathways as K and to redistribute similarly between the tree components. Compared to K, a higher fraction of 3' 7 Cs, corresponding to about the half of the annual uptake, is immobilised in perennial organs. With tree development, trunk wood and bark become prevailing sinks for 13 7 Cs since they represent an increasing pool of biomass. In the pine chronosequence, the current root absorption, respectively, mobilizes 0.53, 0.32 and 0.31% year-' of the total

' Cs pool in soil. Variations in the 137 Cs uptake do not reflect differences in the 37 37

' Cs balance between stands. In the two older stands, 51 and 71% of the current tree contamination are related to earlier accumulation subsequent to the initial fallout interception and recycling. The soil is the dominant source of long-term tree contamination. A simple modelling based on the measured 137Cs fluxes indicates that, for young stands, radioactive decay-corrected contamination would stabilize after reaching a maximum of 25 years after the "3 'Cs deposition. Stemwood presents a maximum of 15 years after the deposition and decrease afterwards mainly through radioactive decay. In the older stands, the decontamination is constant without local maximum of 3`7Cs level in the wood. The "3"Cs contamination of tree components is the result of different influential processes like root uptake, internal translocation and immobilisation. For more accurate predictions, the calibration of existing models would be benefited by comparing with the 37 ' Cs annual fluxes instead of the simple transfer factor coefficients. In the perspective of other applications, there is a need of such data for other radionuclides as well as for heavy metals.

2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Forest biological cycling; Annual fluxes; Chronosequence; Chernobyl consequences; Wood contamination; Modelling of radiocnesium transfer

• Corresponding author. Tel.: + 32-14-33-21-15; fax: + 32-14-32-10-56.

E-mail address: ythiry@sckcen.be (Y. Thiry).

0048-969-7/04/$ - see front matter 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

doi:10.10 16/j.scitotenv.2003.10.037

164 F Goor, Y Thiry / Science of the Total Environment 325 (2004),163-180

1. Introduction within a period of 10-20 years after the accident, the age of the trees and the soil properties being The post-Chernobyl atmospheric fallout affected the determining factors (Schell et al., 1996; Avila large forested area with long-lived radionuclides et al., 1999; Ipatyev et al., 1986). A quantitative like "3'Cs, especially in CIS and to a minor.extent comparison of these models suggest that the pre-in western Europe. In the early period following dictions of the 137 Cs transfer to tree wood, needles the "'37 Cs interception by the forest canopy (i.e. and shoots should be improved through a better the acute phase, lasting 2-3 years), large variations description 37 and quantification of the process of have been observed in the '37Cs contamination of 1 Cs root uptake, in particular (Goor and Avila, tree components depending on the nature of depos- 2003).

its and forest ecological features (Tikhomirov et The 137Cs incorporation in tree through root al., 1993; Mamikhin et al., 1997). In the subse- uptake is only one aspect of the forest biological quent years, stemwood, which represents the most cycling which involves various exchange mecha-important pool of aboveground tree biomass, was nisms resulting in a continuous circulation of identified in many situations as the main reservoir elements mobilised during biomass elaboration and for radiocaesium in forest vegetation (Mamikhin turnover (Switzer et al., 1966). These processes et al., 1994; Fawaris and Johanson, 1994; Melin can be quantitatively described with a limited et al., 1994; Strandberg, 1994; Strebl et al., 1999). number of fluxes using a conceptual model of A long-lasting recycling of "37Cs by the vegetation nutrient cycling- in forests (Cole and Rapp, 1981; is promoted by its persistence in the surface soil Ranger and Bonneau, 1984). This assessment tech-layers. The net downwards 137Cs export from the nique of forest nutrition has been implemented' in rooting zone was determined to be less than numerous case studies as a key phase of more 0.007% per year in forest stands of the Chernobyl extensive input-output budget calculations (Rang-zone (Tikhomirov et al., 1993). Besides the humus er and Turpault, 1999) but never for long-term layers were shown to act as a major source of assessment of radioactive contaminant cycling.

"'Cs transfer to, vegetation (Bunzl et al., 1989; Fifteen years after the Chernobyl accident, the Thiry and Myttenaere, 1993; Thiry et al., 2000; 137Cs redistribution in trees has reached a dynamic Kruyts and Delvaux, 2002). Even in moderately quasi-equilibrium and the fluxes are stabilised contaminated forests, several decades (T1, 2 =30.2 (Shcheglov et al., 2001). In these conditions, the years for ' 3'Cs) will likely be necessary before holistic cycle approach can help to quantify the timber wood harvesting will be re-authorised, with uptake and redistribution fluxes characterizing the great social and economical consequences for the "37Cs dynamics in contaminated stands. For that local population and the forest industry (Ipatyev purpose, the cycle approach was applied to a et al., 1986; Shaw et al., 2001). chronosequence of Scots pine stands from a rep-The longevity and heterogeneity of forest eco- resentative Chernobyl contaminated forest area in system-is complicate the modelling of '37 Cs accu- Belarus. The current "3 7Cs distribution and its mulation in tree as well as the definition of simple recycling dynamics was discussed and compared vulnerability indices required to categorize and to those of potassium, a chemical analogue and further adequately manage contaminated forests. major nutrient. Distribution and fluxes data were Even at those sites where a radiocaesium monitor- used to assess the evolution of the 37' Cs contents ing was performed, the studies were generally associated with tree growth.

limited in time or to some narrow aspects of the 37 1 Cs transfer to the trees using integrated para-

2. Materials and methods meters like aggregated transfer factors or residence times (Nimis, 1996). Several models, developed 2.1. Site description independently and calibrated with different site-specific data sets, predict a maximum 1 37Cs con- The sampling site is a vast Scots pine (Pinus centration in wood of coniferous trees to occur sylvestris L.) woodland located close to Vetka

0ý1 ý F Goor, Y Thiry / Science of the Total Environment 325 (2004) 163-180 165 Table I Total "'Csdeposition on soil and redistribution between soil layers 17 years 37 years 57 years 37 Total 1 Cs content in soil (GBq ha-') 17.46 15.21 9.89 Of+Oh 2.25 3.72 5.00 OAh 6.21 6.51 2,54 Ah 9.00 4.97 2.34 (52P37.8' N, 31013.1' E, 159 m above sea level) (Cole and van Miegroet, 1,989; Marques, 1996; in the Gomel district in southeastern Belarus. Colin-Belgrand et al., 1996). Accordingly, we Following the Chernobyl accident in April 1986, selected three even-aged mono-specific Scots pine the Gornel area was severely affected by 137 Cs plantations (17, 37 and 57 years old) established deposits (Izrael et al., 1996). The climate of this on a former-tilled soil in a contaminated zone region is continental and sub-boreal. The average representative of the automorphic conditions, and annual temperature is 6.5 'C but the seasonal categorised as Pinetum cladinosum according to variations are high (annual range: 30 -C). The the local classification (GOSKOM, 1984). The average precipitation is 550 mm year-'. The dominant ground species observed in the different vegetative period lasts for approximately 6 months, stands were Hieracium pilosella L., Thymus ser-from April to October. The landscape consists of pyllum L., Sedum acre L., Calamagrostisepigeios slightly sloping plateaus intersected by a network L., Festuca ovina L., Dianthus arenarius L.,

of rivers and swampy areas. The maximum altitude Antennaria dioica L., Calluna vulgaris L., and variation does not exceed 5-10 m. The soils derive Pleurozium Schreberi (Brid.) Mitt.

from glaciofluvial deposits of the Quaternary age The distribution of trunks circumferences at 1.30 (Dnieper glaciation). The dominant particle size m (breast height, CBH), was determined from a fraction is sand (85-90%). In forest areas, the soil systematic measurement of all trees located within features are closely linked to the relief, the hydro- three circular subplots with a radius of 6 m in the logical regime being the main differentiation factor young stand and of 12 m in the two older stands.

(Sorokina, 1996). On the plateaus, the soils are Ten soil profiles were randomly sampled to a not influenced by lateral water drainage or varia- depth of 10 cm in each stand. Three horizons were tions of the water table level (automorphic condi- distinguished: humus (Of+ Oh), OAh and Ah. A tions, dry soils) (Shcheglov et al., 2001). These measurement of 13 7Cs content in bulk soil samples soils can be classified as Dystric Cambisols (Dries- completed the stand inventory (Table 1).

sen and Dudal, 1991). They are more or less Nine trees were then chosen in the different podzolised depending on previous land use. In the CBH categories, proportionally to their relative region considered, farmlands occupying these soils importance. Three trees are representative of the were largely afforested with pine plantations espe- average CBH category. The trunk dimensions, i.e.

cially after World War II for timber wood total height and diameter at breast height, were producti on. first compared to local forest productivity tables (Fig. 1). Both diameter and height values of the 2.2. The chronosequence of stands average trees of each stand fit well in the relation between age and the former criteria characterizing The chronosequence approach, i.e. the selection the evolution of a reference pine stand of produc-of an adequate age series of forest stands, is a tivity class Ia. In addition to the ecological simi-suitable and well-accepted methodology to study larities, the dendrometric observations including the evolution of biomass production and nutrient the number of trees per hectare confirms that the distribution during stand development, particularly three stands belong satisfactorily to the same if differences in growth factors can be avoided chronosequence of Scots pine plantations. The data

Ia, 166 F Goor, Y Thiry / Science of the Total Environment 325 (2004) 163-180 35-

. (a) A 30 A la A

35 21 (b)

E 20 Ia IV 25- II V

150 IVI lo1 IV 5! 10-05- -- " -

0- **- * -

20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 Age (years) Age (years)

Fig. 1. (a) Diameter and (b) height of the nine trees selected per stand. The filled symbols correspond to the sampled trees and the plain curves represent the evolution of the respective parameter for different productivity classes decreasing from the top, respectively, Ia, I 11, III, IV and V (GOSKOM, 1984).

describing the biomass distribution in each stand was then polished and scanned in order to reveal and the annual production of the above-ground annual rings. The average xylem wood density tree components (stem, branches, foliage, bark) was measu'red from fresh volume (water displace-were extracted from the corresponding productivity ment of a saturated sample) and dry weight from tables and further used to estimate the K and 137 Cs two radial segments sampled on each wood disc.

distribution and budget in each stand. Another large segment was used for determination of the 37 ' Cs and K content in wood. Before 2.3. Sacnple preparationand chemical analyses analysis, the segment was divided into sapwood and heartwood. For the sapwood, wedistinguished After tree felling, the separation of tree compo- the young sapwood (made of the 3 outermost nents and the elaboration of composite samples rings) from the rest. After drying, wood, needles, were performed similarly in the three stands. The twigs, branches and litter samples were separately crown sampling consisted in representative alir grinded and homogenised before analysis.

quots of the needles of the year, old needles (> 1 All the samples were conditioned into 20-ml year old), twigs, living and dead branches for each Packard glass flasks, dried out and weighed (dry tree sampled. In addition, nine aliquots of fresh weight). After calcination at 550 'C in a furnace, litter (needles) were collected. From the three trees the ash samples were solubilised in 10 ml HNO 3 of the average class, 2-cm trunk discs (including 2 N and the volume was brought up to 20 ml with wood and bark) were cut at the trunk base (0 m), distilled water. Reference flasks (blanco's) were 1.30 m, 6 m (5 m for the 17 years stand) and then added to the samples as control for each procedure.

every 6 m up to the top of the trees, allowing the The 37 ' Cs content in each flask was measured by estimation of total trunk volumes as series of gamma spectrometry (NaI detector-Minaxi y' truncated cones (Rondeux, 1993). In the labora- Packard 5000 series). The counting time was tory, internal bark (phelloderm), external bark adjusted in order to maintain the counting error (rhytidome) and wood were separated for each below 3%, The " 7 Cs activity was decay-corrected trunk disc. The wood disc (without bark) surface back to April 26,- 1986. The K content in an

CAI)

F Goor, Y Thiry / Science of the Total Environment 325 (2004) 163-180 167 aliquot of the solutions was measured by atomic immobilisation in the perennial forest compart-absorption spectrometry (AAS). ments (wood, branches, bark), the element returns to the soil (litterfall, throughfall) and the changes 2.4. Determinationof the element cycling of element content in the canopy due to variations in the standing needles biomass (Ranger and Bon-The methodology to assess the element cycling neau, 1984):

was progressively refined and applied to the study of the functioning of various forest ecosystems U= Eimmobilisationi+ Ereturnsj+/-_Af .(2)

(Ulrich, 1973; Malkonen, 1974; Cole and Rapp, 1981; Ranger and Bonneau, 1984; Helmisaari, 1995; Ranger and Colin-Belgrand, 1996; Ranger where i=trunk wood, branches and outer bark; et al., 1997; Berthelot et al., 2000). In this model, j=litter (litterfall) and leaching of standing nee-the tree is compartmented into main annual and dles (throughfall), with U=total uptake (MBq or perennial parts, some components (trunk wood, kg/ha/year); immobilisationi=e,lement immobi-bark, branches) including both annual and peren- lisation in the tree compartment i (MBq or kg/

nial sections. On the basis of the changes observed ha/year), corresponding to the current biomass in biomass production and element content in the production in this compartment multiplied by its various tree compartments, the biological cycling element concentration; for trunk wood, it corre-in the ecosystem can be quantitatively described sponds to the weighted average concentration of with three main annual fluxes: the requirement, wood for the whole trunk; returnsj=element the uptake and the translocation. returns to the soil from the forest compartment i The requirement (R) corresponds to the total (MBq or kg/ha/year). Litterfall corresponds to quantity of element mobilised by the current pro- the current litter biomass production multiplied by duction of biomass (needles, twigs, branches, its concentration in elements. The throughfall wood and bark). It is calculated as ihe sum of the could not be measured directly in situ in our biomass productivity of annual tree parts multi- experimental plots. For K, an average value was plied by the stabilised concentration in element deduced from litterfall measurements using leach-(i.e. measured at the end of the growing season ing-litterfall ratios for Scots pine from the litera-when the internal transfer are accomplished): ture (Malkonen, 1974; Cole and Rapp, 1981; Ranger and Bonneau, 1984; Lim and Cousens, R= Ebiomassi X [element], (1) 1986; Daldoum and Ranger, 1994; Helmisaari, 1995). For "3'Cs, we used measurements from Chernobyl-contaminated Scots pine stands where i~needles, twigs, branches, wood and bark, (Klyashtorin, 1999; Dvornik, unpublished data);

with R=total requirement (MBq or kg/ha/year); kf=changes of element content in the canopy due biomass j= current biomass productivity of the tree to variations in the standing needles biomass (MBq compartment i (t DM ha-'); and [element]i= or kg/ha/year).

element concentration in the tree compartment i The translocation (T) corresponds to the inter-(Bq or g kg -). nal transfer of elements from senescing tree parts For needles, wood and bark, the concentrations to support new biomass production.

in element were measured in, respectively, the For a matter of simplification, the whole life-needles of the year, the three youngest (external) cycle of the needles was integrated (from needles stem wood increments, and the inner bark. For the of the year to litter). For branches and bark, the branches, no radial variation of the element con- translocation was calculated by considering differ-centrations was considered. ences between the pool of, respectively, senescing The uptake (U) corresponds to the quantity of branches vs. twigs, and senescing bark vs. inner elements taken up from the soil through absorption bark. In both the cases, the senescing biomass was by roots. It is calculated as the sum of the element supposed to correspond to the annual production

912) 168 F Goor, Y Thiry / Science of the Total Environment 325 (2004) 163-180 Table 2 Annual productivity and biomass content in the different tree compartments for each stand of the chronosequence 17 years 37 years 57 years.

Productivity Total biom. Productivity Total biom. Productivity Total biom.

(tons/ha/year)* (tons ha- t (tons/ha/year)" (tons ha-')* (tons/ha/year)" (tons ha-')'

Needles 3.64 9.04 3.71 9.82 3.12 8.51 Twigs. 1.35 1.35 0.72 0.72 0.43 0.43 Branches 1.55 9.42 1.76 19.15 1.40 24.32 Total crown 6.54 19.81 6.19 29.69 4.96 33.26 Stemwood 5.17 50.10 5.64 130.20 4.10 176.50 Bark 0.23 4.40 0.45 9.85 0.34 13.40 Total trunk 5.40 54.50 6.09 140.05 4.44 189.90 Total tree 11.94 74.31 12.28 169.74 9.39 223.16 Litterfall 5.91 5.54 4.53 Needles 3.50 3.56 3.03 Branches 2.39 1.96 1.49 Bark 0.016 0.022 0.011

' Dry weights.

of new organs. For stemwood, the evolution of the 3. Results element content was considered for the common wood rings between two successive tree ages.

3.1. Biomass production and allocation between tree compartments Tneedles = biomassliterX ([elementlyoung needles

- [element],,,) - throughfall (3) The production and distribution of dry matter among tree components of the chronosequence as Tbranche_= biomassbT...ches X ([element]twigs well as in litterfall are synthesised in Table 2. The total crown biomass and corresponding litterfall

- [element] branches) (4) reach a maximum of productivity early in the life of the stand (i.e. approx. 20 years) and then decrease progressively with stand ageing. Apart Tbark = biomassbark X ([element] inne bark from the twigs, the annual increment of each individual component is, however, the highest in

- [element]outer bark) (5) the 37 years stand, which is the apparent transition stage towards stand maturity. The trunk contains Twood = biomassh..,wood X ([element] sapwood the main part of the tree biomass and, due to the perennial character of woody tissues; this propor-

- [element]heaJ.ood) (6) tion increases importantly with time. In these stands, the maximum stem growth rate (including with Tj =element translocation from the compart- thinnings) is achieved at approximately 70 years ment i (MBq or kg/ha/year); biomass1 = current with a mean annual volume increment of 10 m 3 /

biomass productivity of the tree compartment i (t ha/year (GOSKOM, 1984), which is intermediate DM ha -1); [elementl]=element concentration in between the yields reported for temperate (Bradley the tree compartment i (Bq or g kg-'); through- et al., 1966; Decourt, 1984) and boreal pine stands fall = element throughfall (MBq or kg/ha/year). (Malkonen, 1974; Helmisaari, 1995).

F Goor, Y. Thiry / Science of the Total Environment 325 (2004) 163-180 169 Table 3 137Cs and K concentrations in the different tree compartments 17 years 37 years 57 years 13"Cs K 137Cs K 13"Cs K (Bq g-')* (Mg g-')" (Bq g-')* (Mg g-'), (Bq g-')" (Mg g-,),

Crown Needles (1) 43.3 3.7 18.2 3.9 21.3 4.2 Needles (> 1) 19.3 3.4 7.3 3.4 8.8 3.6 Twigs 52.6 3.3 25.6 3.3 28.9 3.4 Branches 11.9 1.0 5.1 0.8 6.1 1.0 Total crown Wood (total) 6.1 0.4 2.7 0.3 3.4 0.3 Wood (current) 7.3 0.4 4.1 0.4 4.9 0.4 Inner bark 40.1 1.9 30.7 2.4 62.4 3.5 Outer bark 19.5 0.9 8.1 0.5 7.6 0.3 Litterfall Needles 5.29 0.39 3.92 0.65 4.94 0.47 Branches 1.82 0.10 2.56 0.15 3.09 0.24 Bark 19.5 0.9 8.1 0.5 7.6 0.3 NB: The 137CS concentrations in the 37 and 57 years stands have been adjusted according to the deposition in the 17 years stand, in order to allow the comparison of the 3 stands on a same basis.

" Dry weights.

3.2. Elements content and distribution between the element distribution (Fig. 2). The foliage tree cornpartments compartment dominates for K in the young plan-tation, while ligneous organs becomes more impor-Independently of stand .age, the K concentrations tant in the older stands. This is mostly due to globally decrease in the sequence: young needles> woody biomass accumulation, the K concentration old needles> twigs> inner bark>> branches>> in stemwood and branches decreasing slightly with outer bark>wood (Table 3). As a rule, the young, tree age. The general distribution of 3' 7 Cs and K actively growing tissues of trees are richer in K presents evident similarities. In each stand, the than the older ones. The K concentrations are in contribution of trunk components (wood and bark, the range (lower limit) of usual values reported in particular) to the total element content in trees for coniferous trees (van der Stegen and Mytten- is, however, higher for 131Cs compared to K, and aere, 1991; Helmisaari, 1995; Ranger et al., 1995). this proportion increases as tree ages. At this time, The ranking of tree compartments regarding the respectively, 877, 650 and 662 MBq ha-' are 3

1 -Cs concentrations is significantly different than incorporated in pine vegetation of the 17, 37 and for K: inner bark> twigs>young needles >> old 57 years old stands. These values correspond to, needles = outer bark> branches> wood. A similar respectively, 4.8, 4.1 and 6.2% of the total 137Cs 137Cs pattern was observed in several previous contamination of each soil-tree associations.

studies dedicated to Scots pine (Melin et al., 1994; Strandberg, 1994; Fesenko et al., 2001) as to other 3.3. Elements fluxes coniferous trees (Melin et al., 1994; Barci-Funel et al., 1995; Strebl et al., 1999). 3.3.1. Requirement (Table 4)

There are also differences in element content The 17 and 37 years old stands present similar with increasing stand age, especially for "3 'Cs. levels of K requirement, which decrease in the These differences, combined with changes in bio- older stand. These differences are linked with mass all ocation as the stand develops, affect the changes in growth rate of the canopy components, relative importance of the different stand parts in needles and twigs in particular (Table 2). The flux

/51, 170 E Goor, Y Thiry /Science of the Total Environment 325 (2004) 163-180 (a) (b) l100%

7 50~i 75%

0759'4 50%

25%

0%

57 57 y 17 y 37 y y I7Ty 37y Stand age Stand age young. needles (I year old') .wood M old needles (> I year old) inner bark twigs *] outer bark branches 37 Fig. 2. Relative distribution of (a) K and (b) 1 Cs between the different tree compartments for each stand of the chronosequence.

of 13 7Cs associated with the mobilisation of ele- bution of the branches to the total immobilisation ment for new biomass production is 2 times higher becoming prevailing.

in the young stands than in the two older stands, For 137Cs, the uptake is maximum in the young-which show similar values. The last-formed foliage est stand. The evolution of the uptake with tree mobilizes the largest amounts of both 37 ' Cs and K age shows a distinct pattern compared to K, the in each stand but the fraction of 37 ' Cs allocated to differences being similar to those depicted for the new trunk parts is considerably greater than that requirement fluxes. Compared to K, all stands of K and enhance with tree age. This fraction is immobilize a higher fraction of 13 7Cs correspond-doubled for stemwood and even multiplied by a ing to about the half of the 3' 7Cs uptake (46-factor 3 for bark in the oldest stand. 59%). Among ligneous organs, stemwood is the dominant sink for "37Cs in all stands. The litterfall 3.3.2. Uptake (immobilisation+ return to the soil) pathway is a prevailing vector of 37 ' Cs return to (Table 5) the soil, contrary to K for which the leaching The K uptake, i.e. the K absorbed by roots from process dominates.

the soil available pool, shows a maximum in the 37 years old stand and decreases afterwards. In 3.3.3. Translocation (Table 6) each stand, litterfall and leaching return to the soil ,The amount of K mobilised by the internal a major part of the K uptake (52-63%), this transfers increases slightly with tree age, but rep-fraction increasing with tree age. The part of K resents an important and increasing contribution to that is immobilised annually in perennial organs the K cycling compared to the root uptake (Table decreases greatly in the oldest stand, the contri- 5). In the different stands, 60-72% of the annual

F Goor, Y Thiry / Science of the Total Environment 325 (2004) 163-180 171 K requirement is supplied by retranslocation, the trees, confirming previous assumptions (Ronneau tree crown and especially the foliage being the et al., 1991; Myttenaere et al., 1993).

main sources. Stemwood shows a low retranslo- The K dynamics described for the pine chron-cation efficiency, while bark becomes more impor- osequence is classical for forest trees and in tant in the older stands. agreement with other studies of K cycling in Scots Similarly to K, the rate of 137Cs retranslocation pine (Malkonen, 1974; Helmisaari, 1995) and is high compared to the root uptake flux, which other coniferous (Ranger et al., 1995). The results reflects the important input of internal transfers in show that the K annually incorporated in new the current 13 7 Cs cycling. The 13 7Cs retranslocation organs (req-uirement) and the K absorbed by roots evolves similarly to the uptake, suggesting that the (uptake) decrease with stand age, in parallel with

' 31Cs internal transfer is more closely linked to the biomass production rate. The inverse trend is the pool of 13"Cs available for annual cycling than observed for the K internal transfer. The retranslo-to specific stand development factors. Compared cation flux was 1.5-2 times higher than the uptake.

to K, the role of the foliage in the "3 'Cs translo- The contribution of K internal transfer to tree cation is less important. Conversely, the contribu- functioning is thus important, demonstrating the tion of perennial organs to 13 7 Cs internal transfer efficiency of forest trees to optimise the nutrient is higher. The bark senescence in particular mobi- use by mobilizing K from senescing organs. Lit-lises I*5-2.7 times more 13 7 Cs than K, relatively terfall and leaching return to the soil a major part to total translocation, with a considerable propor- of the K uptake. Considering the total amount of tional Increase with tree age. K mobilised in the system (requirement), this leads, to a limited annual K immobilisation, which

4. Discussion decreases significantly in the older stands. The comparison of the .3.Cs and K fluxes points out 4.1. Eleraent redistributionand processes involved that, in each individual stand, the-current annual cycling of 37 ' Cs can be depicted with a similar scheme than for K, involving a -high mobility and In our study, the current distribution and accu- similar transfer processes. There are, however, mulation pattern for K and 13 7Cs is closely linked significant differences in the relative allocation of to biomass production and allocation between tree these two elements. Compared to K, relatively less components. In particular, the role of foliage as a 131Cs is incorporated in new foliage but approxi-sink for both elements decreases with tree age mately 2 times more "'Cs is allocated to new while that of ligneous compartments becomes wood formation (Table 4) and the immobilisation dominant. Potassium is the second most abundant in trunk (i.e. wood and bark) is also relatively cation after calcium in trees. It is usually present higher (Table 5). Similar discrepancies were deter-in a soluble form, implying frequent redistribution mined in a comparison of 34 ' Cs and K redistribu-(Duvigneaud, 1964; van der Stegen and Myttena- tion in willow trees grown in hydroponics ere, 1991 ; Helmisaari, 1995). One year after the (Gommers et al., 2000). The selectivity pattern of Chernobyl fallout, foliage and bark components trace caesium over potassium in root organs is contained most of the 137 Cs initially intercepted well documented (Shaw and Bell, 1991; Smolders by the forest canopy (Tikhomirov and Shcheglov, et al., 1997). At the xylem vessels, Erdei and 1994; Mamikhin et al., 1997; Plamboeck et al., Trivedi (1991) showed that an additional selective 2000) but 15 years after the contamination, 1 37Cs barrier may prevent the extensive caesium accu-has largely been redistributed, similarly than K, mulation in new shoots, limitations in the transport within the trees of each stand. Radiocaesium pres- of Cs towards the shoot becoming maximal at low ents analogous physico-chemical properties. as K. K supply (van Iren et al., 1981; Buysse et al.,,

Although there is no role for trace Cs' in plant 1996).

nutrition, our results indicate that globally both In the pine stands, the radiocaesium cycling elements circulate through the same pathways in differs from that of K in two other aspects. Foliage

172 E Goor, Y Thiry / Science of the Total Environment 325 (2004) 163-180 Table 4

• 'Cs'and K requirement fluxes 17 years 37 years 57 years 137CS K 137Cs K '37Cs K (MBq/ha/year) (kg/ha/year) (MBq/ha/year) (kg/ha/year) (MBq/ha/year) (kg/ha/year)

Requireirnent 293.3 21.6 131.6 21.8 128.0 18.8 Needles 157.7 13.4 67.5 14.5 66.5 13.2 Twigs 70.8 4.4 18.3 2.3 12.5 1.5 Branches 18.4 1.5 9.0 1.4 8.6 1.4 Wood 37.8 1.9 23.0 2.5 201 1.6 Bark 8.6 0.4 13.7 1.1 20.3 1.1 Table 5

• 'Cs and K uptake fluxes 17 years 37 years 57 years 137Cs K 137Cs K 137Cs K (MBq/ha/year) (kg/ha/year) (MBq/ha/year) (kg/ha/year) (MBq/ha/year) (kg/ha/year)

Uptake 92.4 8.0 56.6 9.8 54.2 6.7 Immobilisation 54.3 3.8 28.1 3.6 25.1 2.6 Branches 18.4 1.5 9.0 1.4 8.6 1.4 Wood 31.8 2.0 15.4 1.9 14.1 1.1 Bark 4.2 0.2 3.6 0.2 2.5 0.1 Return to the soil 38.1 4.2 28.5 6.3 29.1 4.2 Litterfall 23.2 1.6 19.1 2.6 1.96 1.8 Needles 18.5 1.4 1319 2.3 14.9 1.4 Branches 4.3 0.2 5.0 0.3 4.6 0.4 Bark 0.3 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.0 Crown leaching" 11.9 2.3 9.8 3.7 10.1 2.5 Af 3.0 0.3 -0.4 -0.1 -0.7 -0.1 Values inferred from litterfall measurements by using average throughfall/litterfall ratios found in the literature.

Table 6 37'Cs and K internal transfers 17 years 37 years 57 years 137Cs K 13"Cs K 137C S K (MBq/ha/year) (kg/ha/year) (MBq/ha/year) (kg/ha/year) (MBq/ha/year) (kg/ha/year)

Internal Iransloc. 188.6 12.9 93.8 13.3 90.3 13.6 Needle s 121.3 9.2 41.1 7.9 39.4 8.9 Brancli.es 62.9 3.5 36.2 4.3 31.9 3.4 Wood 4.4 0.2 10.1 0.8 17.8 1.0 Bark 6.5 0.3 1.2 0.2 leaching contributes to the t3'Cs recycling to a picture is in accordance with the results of Gom-lesser extent than for K (Table 5) but radiocaesium mers (2001) who measured, for willow coppice, a is relatively more retranslocated through inner bark lower leaching along with a larger shoots-to-roots (Table 6), which 'shows a. high 37 ' Cs content. This retranslocation of 13 7 Cs in autumn, compared to

CT-)

F Goor, Y Thiry / Science of the Total Environment 325 (2004) 163-J80 173 K. The 3' 7 Cs phloem mobility in plants has been ecosystem. The total content of K, native in the shown to be very high (Buysse et al., 1995). In ecosystem, can be calculated as follows:

tulip poplar tree, downward translocation to roots via the phloem exceeded the upward fluxes only TCKva=TCKa._I + (Aa- 1) X immobilisation 2-4 weeks after 137Cs inoculation in the trunk (Olson, 1965). van Iren et al. (1981) demonstrated + uptake (7) that 1 37 Cs uptake in the leaf cell vacuoles is very limited compared to K. In these conditions, as with TCK,.= total content of K in whole trees for suggested by Buysse et al. (1995), a much higher the tree age a (kg ha-'); TCK,-_I=total content proportion of 13 7 Cs remains in the cytoplasm and of K in whole trees in the corresponding preceding is available for remobilisation through phloem stand (0, t7 and 37 years for, respectively, 17, 37 transport. In other terms, the limiting capacity of and 57 years), taking the exportations (thinning) the foliage to withold 13 7Cs, while its transfer to into account (kg ha-1); Aa=tree age difference conductive organs (xylem and phloem) is relative- with the corresponding preceding stand (year);

ly enhanced, indicates that 137Cs can be discrimi- immobilisation= current K immobilisation in nated against K not only at the root level but also whole trees (kg/ha/year); uptake=current K during its transport over biological membranes of uptake in whole trees (kg/ha/year) [for units the aboveground tree parts. As a result of these consistency, the uptake is supposed multiplied by discrimination processes, stemwood, and bark a factor 1 (year)]. However, 131 Cs was only become important 137 Cs sinks with tree develop- recently (15 years) introduced in the ecosystem.

ment, since they represents an increasing pool of In this case, the total 3' 7 Cs content in whole trees biomass. can be calculated as follows:

4.2. Influence of root uptake vs. previous intercep- TCca =ý(At - 1) X immobilisation + uptake (8) tion process on 1 37Cs accumulation in pine trees with TC*.c=total content of 3' 7Cs in whole trees Variations in the current 13 7 Cs activity ratio for the tree age a (MBq ha-'); At=time period between pine vegetation and soil clearly indicate between deposition and sampling (year); immo-that frorm the initial fallout, "37Cs built up 1.3-1.5 bilisation=current "'3 Cs immobilisation in whole times more efficiently in the oldest stand compared trees (MBq/ha/year); uptake = current 131Cs to the younger plantations. The measured current uptake in whole trees (MBq/ha/year). For units 1 37 annual Cs uptake as well as the immobilisation consistency, the uptake is supposed multiplied by are, however, much lower in the oldest stand than a factor 1 (year).

in the youngest stand (Table 5).. In the chronose- Fig. 3 presents the calculated values of K and 37 quence, the current root absorption might thus not 1 Cs contents in whole trees for 17, 37 and 57 reflect differences in the 137Cs balance between years old stands. For K, these values are in good stands. It is possible that, in addition to root uptake, agreement with the measurements, independently the " 3'Cs initial interception and its subsequent of the age of the trees. Conversely, for 137Cs, the translocation in trees had varying influence on the results are satisfactory for the 17 years stand but contamination of each pine stand. Considering a not for the 37 and 57 years stands where, respec-rapid stabilisation of the 37 ' Cs migration and avail- tively, 51.4 and 71.3% of the 13 7Cs measured in ability i n soil after the deposits (Guillitte et al., trees are not explained by the current fluxes. The 1990; Bunzl et al., 1995), this hypothesis was discrepancies for 13 7 Cs in the 37 and 57 years old tested b3y comparing the total K and 137Cs contents stands may be connected with the interception, estimated a posteriori from the current fluxes with redistribution and accumulation of 137Cs in trees the values measured in the three stands. following the atmospheric input. This effect does The equation is slightly different for K and not, appear in the 17 years old stand because the

"'37Cs, wvhich were not introduced similarly in the canopy Was not developed at the time of deposi-

174 F Goor, Y. Thiry / Science of the Total Environment 325 (2004) 163-180 150 1500 (b) 100 OV.5 1000

= 50 C 500)

Q 0 0 37 57 y 17y y 57 y 17y 37v Stand age Stand age measured values calculated values Fig. 3. Comparison of the (a) K and (b) '"Cs contents measured in pine trees of the chronosequence with the values calculated from the current fluxes (according to Eqs. (7) and (8)).

tion. Conversely, the 57 years old stand had a trees though internal translocation involves more maximum foliage development and a wood/foliage important 3' 7Cs activities. In pine stands of the ratio 2 times higher compared to the young stand. chronosequence, we calculated that root absorp-37 Besides, the amount of 1 Cs invQlved in recycling tion, respectively, mobilizes 0.53, 0.32 and 0.31%

from the foliage to the soil but also within the tree year-' of the total radiocaesium pool in soil. This was greatest during the acute phase (Tikhomirov is consistent with the range of values reported in and Shcheglov, 1994), leading to a high transient another study where the soil was the unique source 37

' Cs bioavailability. A higher stemwood biomass, of radiocaesium for pine trees (Plamboeck et al.,

coupled to a high radial mobility of '37Cs in 2000).

stemwood (Thiry et al., 2002), might thus promote the retention of 137Cs originating without distinc- 37 4.3. Modelling the evolution of 1 Cs content in tion from root uptake as well as from foliar pine trees absorption and subsequent shoot-to-root transfer.

The dynamics of 13 7Cs relocation and dilution in As previously mentioned, 15 years after the ligneous organs was illustrated in other studies. Chernobyl fallout, the fate of .37Cs in contaminat-Five months after foliar contamination of a young ed forests may be characterised by a low vertical spruce, 55% of the residual 3' 7Cs activity in the "3'Cs migration in soil layers and a dynamic tree were transferred to woody parts (Thiry, 1997). equilibrium in the 37' Cs redistribution between tree In a root absorption scenario, Plamboeck et al. components. In these conditions, a realistic picture (2000) showed that only one year after artificial of the evolution of the 37 ' Cs content in trees for soil contamination with t3 4Cs, stemwood and the next decades can be approximated from the stump of 40-70-year-old pine trees retained current 137Cs fluxes measured in forest stands. The approximately 80% of the total 134Cs uptake. annual variation of the total 13 7 Cs content in trees Today the soil is the dominant 1-'Cs reservoir in corresponds to the sum of the t 3`Cs immobilisation the stand series and root uptake in particular in perennial tree compartments with the variation governs the rate of radiocaesium accumulation by of 131Cs content in annual tree compartments as

CV. I F Goor, Y Thiry / Science of the Total Environment 325 (2004) 163-180 175 7,5 2500 (a) (b)

'(00U 5.0 1500 zQ 5 A

C 2.5 C

---

U

," 0.0 .

0 0 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 1986 Tree age (y) 1986 'Free age (Y)

- modeled (not decay corrected) A, measurements (not decay corrected) modeled (decay corrected) sanitary limit fbr construction wood 3

Fig. 4. Dynamic modelling of the evolution of the "' Cs content in (a) whole trees and (b) stemwood compartment for a young pine stand, i.e. planted just before the Chernobyl fallout (according to Eq. (9)),

follows: real t37Cs contents, measured in the three stands are included in the same figure. If radioactive TCct ='TCc s_ A+ Y (immobilisationi decay is not considered, the total 37 " Cs content in 37 ij trees increases regularly with time, 1 Cs being immobilised through biomass accumulation in per-

-+ Acontentj)At (9) ennial tree components (stemwood, branches, bark). The 13-Cs contents measured in situ in the where i=trunk wood, branches and outer bark; 37 and 57 years stands (symbolised by A in Fig.

j=needles, twigs and inner bark, with TCc,,,= 4) are lower than the corresponding simulated total content of 131 Cs in whole trees for the year t values. This discrepancy can be explained by the (MBq ha-'); TCc,,,_ -,= total content of 13"Cs in dilution of 13 7Cs in the important volume of woody whole trees for the year t-At (MBq ha- 1 ); biomass in well-developed trees at the time of the immobili sationi= current .3.Cs immobilisation in t37Cs fallout, and by the comparatively higher rate the component i (MBq/ha/year); Acontentj=var- of '37Cs uptake in young stands (Tikhomirov and iation of the 131Cs content in the component j Shcheglov, 1994; Mamikhin et al., 1997; this (MBq ha-1); At=time step (year). study). The dilution effect of "3'Cs in mature The calculation (Eq. (9)) may be limited to one stands is confirmed in Fig. 4b, which shows that or several tree components, and 137 Cs concentra- the current l3 1Cs concentrations measured in stem-tion may be deduced from total 37 ' Cs content and wood of the 37 and 57 years old stands are lower biomass estimates. The evolution of the total 137Cs than the values extrapolated from the young stand content in trees and of the average 1"7Cs concen- using the age-dependent fluxes intensity. Similar tration in stemwood are presented in Fig. 4 for the differences were highlighted in another study. Sev-17 years old stand, representative of young forests en years after the contamination, the specific 137Cs planted just before the Chernobyl accident. The content in stemwood (Bq kg-') of 80 and 50

(:2I.OD) 176 F Goor, Y Thiry / Science of the Total Environment 325 (2004) 163-180 37 the 1 Cs content in the different tree components.

Sesiiraied evolutio, during iheearty Afterwards, the 37 1 Cs concentration in stemwood period a'tcr:atmospheric deposition starts 137 to increase mainly due to root uptake and Cs immobilisation in new biomass (Mamikhin 5.0 et al., 1997). Accordingly, the curve of decay-corrected 13 7Cs content in wood shows no local C maximum contrary to the young stand. This dif-C* ference is confirmed by in situ- measurements

._ ---------- .. (Mamikhin et al., 1994; Tikhomirov and Shcheg-lov, 1994) but is not considered in recent empirical 0.0 models, which predict similar time dynamics of 37 70 1"o'tCs concebtration in stemwood for young and 198i6 Tree age (Y) mature forests (Avila et al., 1999; Dvornik and Zhuchenko, 1999). Actually, the models which do not consider the "'3 Cs translocation nor the 13-Cs deled (ntdecay corected) redistribution in the early phase after deposition odeled(decay corrected) overestimates the part of the uptake which is surements (not decay corrected) immobilised in stemwood.

nitary limit for construction wood The evolution of tree contamination has great implications on the future marketability of woody Fig. 5. Dynamic modellin g of the evolution of the 37

' Cs content product and the nature of forest management. From in mature trees (accordin g to Eq.'(9)). the economic viewpoint, the exploitability of con-taminated forests is primarily based on the corn-years old pine trees was, respectively, 3.3 and 2.4 parison of the "3"Cs content in stemwood times lower than iin 20 years old trees from a (corrected for decay) with sanitary restrictions for comparable forest a rea in Belarus (1patyepv.et al., contaminated wood use. In Belarus, two limits 1999). By taking into account the radioactive have been fixed at, respectively, 1.85 (dashed line decay, the total 137( Cs content in trees (Fig. 4a) in Fig. 4b and Fig. 5) and 0.74 Bq g-' (plain tends to stabilize a fter reaching a maximum of line) for lumber and domestic fuel wood (Dvornik approximately 25 years after the deposition (in and Zhuchenko, 1999). According to our predic-2010). In Fig. 4b, the 37 MCs concentration in tions (Figs. 4 and 5), wood resources from young stemwood shows a rnaximum of approximately 15 and mature stands will have 137 Cs content consis-years after the del )osition (in year 2000) and tent with harvesting criteria in, respectively, 2040 decreases afterwardss. In our conditions, the tree and 2020 in case of lumber, and not before 2050 decontamination is a slow process, which proceeds in case of fuel wood. For possible new plantations mainly through radiooactive decay. (Fig. 6), the extent of stemwood contamination The evolution of t"7Cs content in stemwood is, will greatly depend on the year of planting since however, rather diffierent in forests well-developed in the long term, radiological decay was shown to at the time of the Chernobyl accident. Fig. 5 be a major factor affecting the tree contamination.

focuses on the 57 )years old stand. In this stand, Accordingly, in forests planted after 2010 in the uncertainties remain concerning the 137 Cs redistri- Vetka area, the harvest of timber for construction bution rate in trees in the early period after the wood could begin after 30 years but not before 60 contamination, for vhich no values could be cal- years, for fuel wood purposes. In the study area, culated from the cuLrrent fluxes. The interception the current stock of contaminated wood available of a great part of the '37 Cs deposits by the tree for harvesting is particularly important but the canopy (Schell et al1., 1996), rapidly followed by marketability of woody products is problematic for an active biological decontamination (Shcheglov a long time. Compared to agricultural systems, et al., 2001), likely resulted in a rapid decrease of many countermeasures designed to decrease the

(]ýýDI F Goor, Y Thiry / Science of the Total Environment 325 (2004) 163-180 177 annual fluxes confirmed the influence of discrim-5,0 198 ination mechanisms through element exchange 4,0 -)i 00 between tree compartments. Compared to K, a 2000 higher proportion of 137 Cs was transferred to and 3,0 X 2 10*o immobilised inwood and bark whereas its annual allocation to the foliage was relatively lower.

2.0 The analogy between "37Cs and K seems limited in a perspective of long term modelling of 137 Cs

(.0 A cycling in trees. Important discrepancies were fur-ther highlighted regarding the contribution of root 1 20 31 40 50 61) uptake to the elements cycling. We showed that True age (Y variations in 137Cs uptake only could not account

...... sanitary limit ror construction wood for differences in the measured tree contamination saniiary limit for tuelt wood between stands, suggesting the influence of other processes. In particular, the low input of root Fig. 6. Inflluence of the year of plantation on the expected 131Cs uptake in the 37 ' Cs cycling was evidenced com-content in new pine stands (according to Eq. (9)). paratively to the large contribution of retransloca-tion processes for the automorphic pine level of tree contamination are unworkable (Guil- edaphotopes. Such a pattern explained why the litte et aiL., 1993). In economic terms, Shaw et al. models developed on the basis of soil-to-plant (2001) showed that cost-effective management transfer measurements without considering the strategy requires novel alternatives uses of contain- translocation processes, most likely overestimate inated f(orests which could provide added value to the 137Cs root uptake and its further accumulation the stan ding crop in return for small increase in in trees.

public a nd worker doses. One rational valorisation Practically, our estimations based on root uptake option nnight be the extensive use of contaminated and immobilisation fluxes values confirmed the wood as biofuel (Shaw et al., 2001; Goor et al., model predictions for the young stands for which 2003) t hrough combustion (Dubourg, 1994) or the soil was the primary source of contamination.

gazeificaation (Thiry et al., 2001) in a controlled It was not the case for the old stands in which the industria Ilchain. initial interception and further recycling of the "3'Cs fallout was important and can still influence

5. Cone lusions the "37Cs content in trees. Our results also illus-trated that, due to the low '37 Cs uptake, radioactive Fiftee n years after the Chernobyl atmospheric decay will play a major role in tree decontamina-fallout, the long-lasting "3 "Cs availability to forest tion in the future. For new plantations in the vegetati on cycling is evident. Uncertainties remain, studied area, the wood, which will be harvested howeverr, about the rate of ""Cs uptake and accu- after 30 years may be expected to conform with mulatiorni by trees, which may pose problems for the sanitary rules for contaminated wood use.

the long term management of contaminated forests. The observed 131Cs contamination of tree com-This stuidy reported on an original quantification ponents was. the result of different influential of the processes involved in the 137 Cs and K processes like internal translocation, root uptake recyclin g by Scots pine in a series of three contam- and immobilisation. In case of perennial vegeta-inated stands corresponding to different stages of tion, the use of soil-to-plant transfer coefficients developrment. Our results showed that, qualitative- has limited relevancy since it does not integrate ly, 137Cs was redistributed between tree compart- the effect of the various processes controlling the ments ssimilarly to K. With stand ageing, the continuous element circulation. For more accurate perennia 37 LI organs act as a major sink for K and for predictions, the calibration of existing forest tree 1 Cs to a higher extent. The comparison of the models would benefit from comparison with t37Cs

0 178 E Goor, Y Thiry / Science of the Total Environment 325 (2004) 163-180 annual fluxes instead of' simple transfer factor Cole DW, van Miegroet H. Chronosequences: a technique to assess ecosystem dynamics. In: Research strategies for long-values. In the perspective of other assessments of term site productivity. Proceedings IAE/BE A3 Workshop, vegetation impact on pollutant budget (like for Seattle WA, August 1988. FRI Bulletin 1989. 152, pp. 5-revegetation of contaminated sites, long term con- 24.

sequences of leakage from waste repositories, phy- Colin-Belgrand M, Ranger J, Bouchon J. Internal nutrient tostabilisation of mining sites,...), there is a need translocation in chestnut tree stemwood: HI. Dynamics across an age series of Castanea Sativa (Miller). Ann Bot of such data for other radionuclides as well as for 1996;78:729 -740.

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Decourt N. Tables de production pour le Pin sylvestre (Solog-The assistance and advices of Dr Alexander ne). Tables de production pour les forats frangaises. Paris:

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Sci Total Environ 1994;157:93-105. Strebl F, Gerzabek MH, Bossew P, Kienzl K. Distribution of Myttenaere C, Schell WR, Thiry Y, Sombre L, Ronneau C, radiocaesium in an Austrian forest stand. Sci Total Environ van der Stegen de Schrieck J. Modelling of the 131Cs cycling 1999;226:75 -83.

tOiLfi 180 F Goor, Y Thiry / Science of the Total Environment 325 (2004) 163-180 Switzer GL, Nelson LE, Smith WH. The characterisation of mass for Energy and Industry, London: James and James dry matter and nitrogen accumulation by loblolly pine Science Publishers Ltd.; 2001. pp. 263-266.

(Pinus taeda L.). Soil Sci Soc Am Proc 1966;30:114-119. Tikhomirov FA, Shcheglov Al. Main investigation results of Thiry Y. Etude du cycle du radiocaesium en 6cosyst~me the forest radioecology in the Kyshtym and Chernobyl forestier: distribution et facteurs de mobilit6. Ph.D. Thesis, accident zones. Sci Total Environ 1994;157:45-57.

University of Louvain (UCL); 1997. Tikhomirov FA, Shcheglov Al, Sidorov VP. Forests and for-Thiry Y, Myttenaere C. Behaviour of radiocaesium in forest estry: radiation protection measures with special reference multilayered soils. J Environ Radioactivity 1993;18:247- to the Chernobyl accident zone. Sci Total Environ 1993;137:289-305.

257.

Ulrich B. Influence de la fertilisation sur Ic cycle des 6ltments Thiry Y, Goor F Riesen T. The true distribution and accumu-nutritifs dans les icosystemes forestiers. Paris: IUFRO/

lation of radiocaesium in stem of Scots pine (Pinussylvestris FAO, 1973.

L.). J Environ Radioactivity 2002;58:243-259.

Van der Stegen J, Myttenaere C. The K and Ca biogeochemical Thiry Y, Kruyts N, Delvaux B. Respective horizon contribu- cycles in forest ecosystems: a review. Trends Soil Sci tions to cesium-137 soil-to-plant transfer: A pot experiment 1991;1:271-276.

approach. J Environ Qual 2000;29:1194-1199. Van Iren F, Joolen ML, GerritsenAFC, Noordervliet MAW, Thiry Y, Navez F, Vandenhove H. Fate of biomass-derived Boers-van der Sluijs FP. The lag-pha'se of potassium trans-radiocaesium and radiostrontiuim in downdraft fixed-bed location from the root to the shoot of low-salt barley plants.

gasification process: a test rig approach. In: Kyritsis S et Kinetic and localisation studies. Physiol Plant 1981;52:15-al., editors. Proceedings of 1st World Conference on Bio- 22.

r

-.

The grebe family is an ancient group, Table I Frequency of rare microsatellite variants in the offspring of wheat plants with no close relatives among living birds. Type of variant Frequency' Ratio to control Pt Wilcoxon test As far as we know, all grebes have asymmet- Control Exposed z P't rically lobed toes and the mode of swim- Nulls (homozygotes) 0.0056 0.0066 1.17 0.8334 0.42 0.6754 ming described here is probably optimally suited to this morphology. Losses (heterozygotes) 0.0010 0.0066 6.45 0.0054 2.57 0.0100 L. Christoffer Johansson, Losses Ufla M. Lindhe Norberg (hornozygotes) 0.0015 0.0029 1.88 0.5461 0.74 0.4606 Department of Zoology, Zoomorphology, Gibteborg Gains University,413 90 Giteborg,Sweden (heterozygotes) 0.0031 0.0087 2.82 0.0270 1.84 0.0654

1. Webb, P. & Blake,R.W. in FunctionalVertebrate Morphology Gains (eds Hildebrand, N4., Bramble, D. M., Liem, K.F.& Wake, (hiomozygotes) 0.0015 0.0021 1.34 0.9722 0.41 0.6831 D. B.) 110-123 (liearrd Unin.Press,.Cambridge, MA, 1985). Heterozygotes

2. Braun, I. &Reif. W. -E. N. lb. GeoLPataont.Abb. 169, 307-332 losses + gains 0.0041 0.0153 3.73 0.0003 3.19 0.0014 (1985).

Homozygotes

3. Norberg, U.M. Verrtebrate Flight (Springer, New.York, 1990).

losses + gains 0.0031 0.0050 1.61 0.4686 0.53 0.5930.

4. Hofaon, A.Nw Sci. 146-147 (20 April 1978).

5. Norberg, R. A.Biol. Rev.48, 561-596 (1973). Wescreened 186and 150 wheat plarntsgrownfromseeds cotlectd ronrexposedsodcontrol plants,respectivey(funtherdelatssa0e asitaslefromthe authors),Assumng selective neutrality,the equilibriumfrequencyofheterozygous variants,H,,was approximated as H, 4NuJl(l1+4N,u,). whereN,and V,

6. Smith. A. M.0.1.Aircraft 12,501-530 (1975).

are effectivepopultion sizeand spontaneous mutatson plants,thenu, H,14,Homozygosit IlN. 1 for sel-t-arlifzed rate, respectively'. in theexposed

7. Norheg, R. A. in The Beginings of Birds (eds Hecht, M. K.,

group,f, waoapproximated asf, ((102N,)(1 (1/2N.))] (1 u,)', wherefn, u orethehornozygosity asd ofthe previousgenerationandrutation rate Ostrom, J.H., Vioh 1,G. & Wellnhofer, P.) (Prot. Int.

in the exposedpopulation, respectivey'. Iff, , 1 H,,then u, (H, H/2)1/2.

Anchaeaptery.Conf. Eicohs*, 1984, 19851.

Frsquencywas estimatedas the number of sairiasper mirossatllite focus, tProhabilllyofdifferencetromthecontrolgroup(Fisher'sexacttest,two-tailed;statistically significant valuesare in bold).

tPbPaoilitiyofWilcoxon test (statistically significantvaluesare in bold).

Gertl)rl5lI ENA tained wheat Seed contamination would microsatellite loci included in this study is also have affected the frequency of all three about 100 base pairs. Attributing a sixfold Wheat mutation rate types of variant, including nulls and other increase in the mutation rate to direct after Chernobyl homozygous variants. Cross-pollination can also be excluded as wheat is an obliga-radiation-induced DNA damage at the microsatellite loci would mean that the

'10ahe accident at the Chernobyl nuclear tory self-pollinator, preventing the migra- expected damage to the whole wheat power plant in 1986 has generated tion of pollen between neighbouring genome was (increase of mutation rate) concern over the genetic consequences populations. We conclude, therefore, that (genome size)/(size of locus) 80,000 dam-of chronic exposure to radiation. Here we the increased diversity in the heterozygous aging events - much higher than any describe a ne-v approach to monitoring variants in the offspring is probably due to a experimentally derived measurements of germline mutation in plants and find evi- radiation-induced increase in microsatellite the initial yield of radiation-induced dam-

'dence for a remarkably strong induction of mutation in the exposed plants. age to a eukaryotic cell'. The increase in germline mutation in wheat upon chronic Assuming -that the control population microsatellite mutation rate in plants may exposure to ionizing radiation produced by is in equilibrium (Table 1), we estimate therefore be better explained by a non-the Chernobyl accident. that the spontaneous mutation rate is targeted effect of ionizing radiation else-We compared wheat plants descended 1.03 10 ' per locus (95% confidence where in the cell, as described for mam-from two genetically identical populations, interval, 0.44 10 '-2.03 10 3), whereas malian minisatellite loci7 ,'.

derived from the same homogeneous mutation rate in the exposed group was Our findings raise the important issue of parental line. One population was grown 6.63 10 ' (95% confidence interval, the genetic hazard of chronic radiation for one generation (10 months) in a heavily 4.28 10 '-9.70 10 3). Thus we attribute exposure to the germ line, showing that the contaminated plot (900 Ci km ') near the the more than threefold increase in hetero- apparent rate of induced microsatellite Chernobyl nuclear power plant', the other zygosity in the exposed group to a more germline mutation is much higher than was sown in a clean ( 1 Ci km 2) control than sixfold increase in the mutation rate existing estimates of absorbed doses of area 30 km avway in soil with comparable over the single generation of exposure to exposure would predict. Further study is agrochemical characteristics. ionizing radiation. needed to analyse the genetic effects of Using the polymerase chain reaction, we We estimate that the wheat plants have chronic radiation exposure.

profiled offspring plants for 13 single-copy been exposed to relatively low doses of Olga Kovalchuk*, Yuri E. Dubrovat, monomorphic rnicrosatellite loci'. Evidence chronic irradiation of about 0.3 Gy, with Andrey Arkhipovt: Barbara Hohin*,

for alterations (variants) was obtained for external and internal components of 0.2 Igor Kovalchuk*

all 13 loci, including gains and losses of and 0.1 Gy, respectively3 . Theoretically, this *FriedrichMiescher Institute, Novartis Research repeats, as wrell as complete loss of .*' low-level exposure should not cause such a Foundation,PO Box 2543, CH-4002 Basel, microsatellite bands (nulls) (Table 1). large increase in the mutation rate, suggest- Switzerland Offspring derived from exposed plants ing that chronic exposure to ionizing radia- e-mail: Olga.Kovalchuk@fmi.ch showed no increase in the frequency of tion has effects that are as yet unknown. tDepartment of Genetics, University of Leicester; homozygous variants. and a threefold Other studies have shown that chronic Leicester LEI 7RH, UK increase in the frequency of heterozygous internal exposure is far more efficient at *Chernobyl Scientific and Technical Center of structural variants, attributed to all loci inducing somatic recombination than acute InternationalResearch, Shkolnaya Str. 6, within this group of plants. external exposure1 '. 255620 Chernobyl, Ukraine Differences between the two initially The estimated increase in mutation rate I. Kovalchuk, .. Kovalchuk, 0.. Arkhipov, A. & Hohn, B. Nature identical populations, presumably arising in the offspring of exposed plants is too Biotechnol. 16, 1054-1057 01998),

over one generation, may result from seed high to be due to direct targeting of 2. Roder, M. S. et al. Cenetics 149, 2007-2023 (1998).

3. Moiseev, A. & lvanov, V. Directoryfor Doeirnmery and Radiation contamination, migration or mutation. microsatellite loci by ionizing radiation. Hygiene lAtomizdai, Moscow, 1991).

Seed contamination is unlikely, however, The wheat genome contains 16 109 base 4. Kovalchuk, 0. e al. Moatm Res. 49, 47-56 (2000.

because neither plot had previously con- pairs', and the mean size of the 13 5. Shields, R. Nature 365, 297-298 (1993).

NATURE IVOL 40715 OCTOBER 2000 1www.natwe.com . © 2000 Macmillan Magazines Ltd 583

r.rho~'6 *6 ~4fj~/.~/~ -

6. Frankenber 6 -Schwager, M. Radio c Environ. Biophys,. 29, inn 273-292 (1990).

+ Proteles UJ.ursinu01

7. Sadamoto, S. et al. ,*nt.1. Radiat. Biol. 65, 549-557 tricuspis (1994). 90-

8. Dubrova, Y.E.,Plumnab,M., Brown. I. &Jeffreys.A. 1.

Int J. Radial. Bial. 74, 689-696 (1998). IM. lavanicus

9. Crow, J.F.&Kimura, M. An Introduction to Population Genetics Orycteropus Theory (Harper, New York, 1970).

70-E 60-50- Myrmecophaga Energy constraints on X Dasypodidae o Myrmecophagidae carnivore diet 40-

• Manidae

• , Orycteropodidae Pfiodontes

• he energy expenditure of mammals 30- + Carnivora M. crassicaudata R' reflects their habits and environments',

2 subject to limitations associated with c'C1~

body size. Carbone et al.' combined scaling 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 relationships to argue that large species of Logo body mass (g) the mammalian order Carnivora (weighing more than 21.5 kg) do not specialize on Figure 1 Basal rate of metabolism, expressed as a percentage ofthe basal rate expected from an all-mammal curve7 , in various mam-invertebrate prey. However, many tropical malsi-` that specialize on soil invertebrates, as a function of body mass. Species that belong to the same family are connected.

mammals that feed exclusively on ants and termites are much heavier than this, often is used, a 15.9-kg Manis crassicaudatahas lection, which is why the largest species are weighing up to 60-70 kg; they survive by the basal rate of a 3.4-kg standard mammal, tropical and feed on ants and termites: only progressively reducing their metabolic rate a 30.6-kg Myrmecophaga has that of a 10.9- these prey occur in sufficiently large to below that ex-pected from their body size. kg standard mammal, a 45.2-kg Priodontes colonies to make prey acquisition' energeti-I believe that this response indicates that it has that of a 13.4-kg standard mammal, a cally feasible, and such large colonies occur is not body size that limits the determina- 48-kg Orycteropus has that of a 36.2-kg only in the lowland tropics. In the absence tion of diet, but rather the maximal rate of standard mammal, and a 67.0-kg U. ursinus of colonial ants and termites, terrestrial energy expenditure. has that of a 56.5-kg standard mammal. invertebrate-eaters might attain a maximal The size limit for a predator exclusively These calculations indicate that the ,mass of 10 kg (ref. 5). The absence of an dependent on invertebrate prey is not maximum body mass in a standard mam- ant/termite specialization in large carni-absolute. For example, the sloth bear (Ursus mal compatible with an ant/termite-eating vores may occur because this niche was ursinus), a carnivore that can wveigh -as habit is 11-13 kg&with the exception of the occupied by other mammals before the much as 145 kg and feeds extensively (but aardvark and sloth bear. This calculation evolution or arrival of carnivores, the only not exclusively 3 ) on termites, was consid- may account for the comparatively high opportunity available being at intermediate ered by Carbone et al. to be an outlier - basal rate in Proteles (Fig. 1), which weighs masses, which was exploited in Africa by but outliers should not be ignored as they less than 10 kg - at that mass, an adjust- the aardwolf and the bat-eared fox (Otocy-may tell us that our theories are incomplete. ment of basal rate may not be required. on megalotis).

Their analysis' fails to recognize that all scal- What seems to be limited is the total rate of Although it might be argued that this ing relationships contain biologically rele- energy expenditure, not body mass: a limit- analysis fails to take phylogenetic history vant variation, and inherent in this residual ing rate may be encountered in various into consideration, it has been pointed out0 scatter are adjustments that permit a large masses at the expense of conforming to a that 'corrections' for proposed phylogeny mass in carnivores and other terrestrial standard curve and having effective erroneously assume the priority of phylo-mammals that consume invertebrate prey. endothermic temperature regulation. geny as a factor influencing phenotypic Large mamrmals (over 20 kg) that spe- Two of the species shown in Fig. 1 characters, thus ignoring the complex cialize in eating tropical ants and termites exceed the 11-13-kg limit to the 'adjusted' interactions among determinative factors.

include the aardvark (Orycteropus afer) and mass. The large mass and comparatively The model of Carbone et al.' is ultimately some pangolins (Manis temmincki and M. high basal rate of the sloth bear correlate called into question because it ignores gigantea), tamanduas (Myrmecophaga tri- with a diet that is about 50% fruit3 , the residual variation and therefore the bio-dactyla) and armadillos (Priodontes maxi- although it is not clear whether addition of logical flexibility inherent in all scaling ma). These48 and the sloth bear' generally fruit to the diet permits a higher expendi- functions.

have lower standard rates of energy expen- ture or size. The most distinctive large ter- Brian K. McNab diture than other mammals. As ant and ter- restrial specialist insectivore is the aardvark, Departmentof Zoology, Universityof Florida, mite predators increase in size, their basal which conforms neither to the original Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA rate of metabolism decreases (Fig. 1), a analysis2 , nor to the evasion described here. e-mail: mcnab@zoo.uftedu trend that is particularly evident when How it can have its comparatively high 1. McNab; B. K.Funct. EcoL6, 672-679 (1992).

species in a family are compared,(to correct basal rate and a large body mass, and eat 2. Carbone, C., Mace, G. M., Roberts, S.C. &Macdonald, D.W.

for any putative effect of phylogeny or eco- Nature402, 286-288 (1999).

only ants and termites, is unknown. Under 3. Laurie, A. &Sidenst-icker. 1,1.Zool. Land. 182, 187-204 logical/behavioural uniformity). the assumption that a limiting energy (1977).

A reduction in metabolic rate reduces expenditure exists, some other evasion 4. McNab, B. K.). Mammal. 61, 606-627 (1980).

the effective body size, which can be esti- may apply. 5. McNab, B. K.J, Zool. Lond. 203, 485-510 (1984).

B. K.I. Mammao.73,168-172 (1992).

mated from the total basal rate of the largest A limit to the exclusive use of inverte- 6.7. McNab, McNab, B. K.Q. Rev.BioL63,25-54 (1988).

committed ant/termite eaters. If an all- brates by terrestrial mammals, if one exists, 8. Westoby, M., Leishraan, M. R. &Lord, 1.M. 1.Eco.83, 531-534 mammal standard' for basal metabolic rate may be associated with the cost of prey col- (1995).

584 584 2000 Macmillan Magazines Ltd NATURE IVOL 40715 ocrOBER 20001 www.nature.coin

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'Reaictr the ffia Hanford Nuclear in. Washington.

meltdown, spewing 7%

State

.,Scienitists pickedthe Hanford plant for good reason. It is the u.s;'s version of the Chemofibyl Atomic Eneigyplanti hzelnuts, andWest German deer have set off Geigprcunters.

The Cherobby, experienceiprovides ,a of its radioactive core into the atmo- that melted, down in Russia .twLoyears better understandiiigýofhowfa'lrmlan d-sl*ere. Winds headed* east across the ago this motith.*The Hanford pla*t) ýd interacts with faliout.The accident 7 as, ,

U.S.

IprimeWOuld bury some of this country, s ,been leaking ry*s st year, in light in 'effeci, 6ofered icietisis a ieah-world farmiajid in failoutýthe kind '6`s~eyfj'pob1-in stli ht d b ~he laboratory"for cor aftig"" dioactivity-that icks aroiund for decades. Cheirnobyl iccidentiihe Hai(fd:plaii . 'in our soils. " .

'Notiikel'y y*owsay? Maybe not. But was sh*ut down..

the "!Bulletin of the'Atomic'Scientists," But fuciear plants around theworld in Iate-Aprii 1986, wMndsicarrier-at one -time I coniidered it possible are aging,"a fact-*at's not 1o*stIpeople 6 di6actii'iarticles d0I ga s thou6sa ii enou** .'tpcogme up wth thiS scenario: who deal in food-whether they raise it 'of !mi*es f'froi the Chernobyl Ato.mic,

-Truck fm*fr iin central Idaho are e or tradit".. Enr6 ~Pant. Rain anid snow cerd told to LoIw Iider leafy'vegetable croPs In mid-Febry, rumors of another the' air but loaded vegetation and goiis'.

s*sch as'spinach and lettuce [because ra- nuclear accident in Russia sent domes- with'ifodine-I 31, ce!ium-i134,', c'e:siurim-.

diation sticks to vegetation]; Minnesota tic markets iint"o'A fury. AlthLough the 137 ýia id, to a lesser degree, 'stront iumt dairyfarmers are told to keep all their "nuclear" accident actually tunedo&ut 90. The fallout forced the SovietS tiie iivesiock in barnsI[to limit exposure to be a chemical spill, it's an exampleof moveand ury.650,000 cubic yArds of and,.prevent grazing on contaminated how nuclear problems:have become an contaminated soil-about 400 -acres forage]; in Madison, Wis., dairy Sales everday concern." scraped' oie 1' deep.

fall 90%/in response. o rumors of radio- Today&, the 18-niile zone suirmundi~ig active iodine in milk . ..Throughout, gEuwope, frarmers are the ýpli-aný'it eagric~iur'I7 iip~'~t' Depending 0ii'the tie* 9of year, pre- right now livign-and farming-with a Ukirime remfins highly enimated cipitation* patteirns' aIndi&soil , types in- situation exactly like the one outlined in parts;,, yjthe Soviets, althugh safe volved, Soufth Dakoia's sheep" could abov e. enbugli toallow the return of some of`

.turn upiadiodactive years later, having Although the Chernobyl reactor itself th6 '115,000 evacueesFarmig. thieei is grazed on, :foige that his confused has since~been iniarcerited inrcoIicrete, cesiui-37 ýaid stfrntiUm-90 with ý'o- thedaag frihitpersists Some ofte But. that's just a small ýpart of, the tassium an. calcium. T Wyomhing's beef fallo1u.-t'Seffects' i g-i`cnlturafeireas-ai Chernobyl problem. Damage to crops catItle','havinig ccniuii lated cesium ove %r livestock and farmland ranges far from hundreds of 0.acres, could measure wilesmin-otu.*rate grazing areas in. itheisite. Radioactivity from the acci-

"w ll-do'ne" oii 'AGeiger counter. Anid Lpland ,ýoiiain to contaminate thou- 'denit is sti*l playing havoc.with farmers in the Northeasi, with its ntnent-po0or, sands of refindeer, at an estima~ted cost:_ 'livelihoods.

rock-bottoefidiakes, ceAain fish might o f't182 'm11 mi in. Take Lapland, for instance.A forest7 become the hotiestfod around. e ]in Sw~eden, radioactive millc fsh. a'nd ed.wilderniess extending acr oss no Irth-Over the long-rn, crops, like corn wild mushros'r stl a mprobleM.

and wheat W6uld be in relatively good oNorthern- Englaiid, Wales and- Ire-shape because their leavesn*not the land T~i~~t"'`ii~idsep grain itself-would hold most of the ra-dioactive ýparticles tive meat.fro De'-mar* h.

' in Veneiuelan ports. Turkey ha*:if*-.t 22 FA~RMJOURNAL/PRIL 198

Europe in Chernobyl's after glow

. - . .. .. .. 7 = , "* . : ' .

(that is, its radioactivity will be half as active in 30 yeiis as today)2 Reindeer herded land 'eaten by the Lapps graze on the lichen. Swedish au-thorities have detected up to 100 times more'radioactive cesium in those rein-de Ir than permissible. Tens of thou=

sfands mink of reindeer have had to be fed. to instead of sold for. human con-sumption. To lessen the economic blow, the Swedish government buys the contaminated meat at an' estimated

$i82 million.

The contamination elsewhere in Swe-den is abating. Yet. some farms are today producing radioactive milk' fish in Sweden's__nutrieii-poor,. grane*t-bottomepdlakeS are showing higher and

- higher concentratio.n *oifi adioactive ce-sium; and wild mushrooms-very pop-

..iar in Swedlen-remain off limits, says Ake Bruce, nutrition expert at Sweden's National Food Administration.

It takes several years for cesium to migrate from.n the environment to food arid then to humans. In most cases, con-centrations dimrriish in oihers, radio-activiiy cancincrease. Hoiv long before it goes away? S9omeimes very long.

- In ~'~n~o~rerngland, sheep from_635 faimrns'.suffe'r'from radiation levels ex-ceeding. governmentsi'afety limits, ac-

-O`ding O thet oto.niky Landowner's ASS`o-iatio."n..

The:* 6robiem is 'that the soil where

'thesd Sheep graze has failed to trap the cesimi.i Two years ago,' says Frances SOURCE: NUCLEAR~ ENERGY AGENC Y/OIECD.

Uivns, Te6estial rfiidibchemist at the Institute of THIS MAP SHOWS THE AVERAGE amount of cesium -"137,and -134 in 1,00 becquerwei,-

-Eco1ogy in Britain, "We thoughtthe cesium would lock up in the per sq uaire m@eter, as measured ori iuroean soil frimMay.198i6 to Apri'1987. Cesium concentrations are highlighteid. Sinhce the data were gathered, some of the cesiurn ill soil in"thiee months. We're finding that have waihed away or have been trapped in thb soil.Bu3t plants andainimalsia-re still" the relatively acidic soils high in organic picking up the long-liyed .radioactive particles, evei in :sme l*oifallout area.

.matter can't do thiat..,. -

years before ~the cesium -locks up in soils'with little clay And minier~als tn beans, requirmng more potassium*than.

',nets and thin;, -nastyi sois." Mean- drin, sandy Soils) or-mo~stly organicrmA~tl grasses like rye, are likel to*take 'imre.'

'iilil~hu~4edsofihiis'is ofseep-s ter suich'fas'peat' and tropical soils), cc- cesiuinm upthrougha their tots.:

ar& ~ rroiid'6 77ii1 the. si um +iassviable to' plants. ', in the sh&ri-`un, 'accordifinto' George affected farmuers may have'to wait thre&o6ii the migrationciof cesiumi into Ham, Knsaso Sate agronomist, l..ice i dcadesý before

,mals'on the open t ey can Sell their.

market: '- ani the food bipply~ideep ike' USSR ploijrfigaiidAd limehas had to hundreds would beiapa best resis ttedby liceeid te tssue-d arnagihg -

radiýinmiclide".

., .of.thousands of Acres. Additional m sorghum pOtatoes 'and 'sugar X Scientists have discovered that,, betsr moderate'ly resistant:.-Weat, sures, sas Harold Detn ~aNu~clL" beesr modrtl ýitn ha generally. speaking, the stingiest soils Reguilai* ory nhsiin (NKJ) . didrec-` oats and barl**y- re ver.,.ensi -ve.-

'Under the nuclear cloud's ath are those tor, includetreatinghighy cntamifiat- Processing removes much of the con-most Iikely*t 0offer long-erm harvests ed areas 'witicalciuim to fix rardionu tamination.Potatoes" lose raaionu-;,

ofcsim 17,That's because' crops i chide's in the soil.- "Then the 'areas miight. clides when made into starch-Lin _Jýi'ik grown on poor soils will ,tak* whateverI be nutiensownr with crops w c uchlas liuiiinesth~t e.lTescrops they ma... are filftred! oudii- ring'ciehes,.

nunnstey can get.Plantis 6i iche abs.ý i~ aidioiikin . ~ cL ik~ini'.' -Other good ci lps ae'lk~r solso will usually choose standard ele, wouldthe iibe hiriested buried'! .cotton, because they aren't 'edible. "'sit ments before'chernically similar radio- Generallyics i-37 and

'.iLreside "hapjei ;e,ryp6ioatoes and fliare cus-1 '.L active ones Cr , so §j' ist iShail0

aiuderThise near the Soils'-ii f5Un6Ie Ccotesd crois Lplowed hke tomary. crops in, the nobyl area,7,says LSol1 Sof thCer Denton. -

"

..versityof'Minnesota,'exlains

'behaves like potassim inthatcesi- soil. In potatoes or sugarbeets are more likely,

'to be Iong-erm: problems than deep-" Fighting fallout l as proved diriip'*

bas*icofiJs,'cesium lS"trappe dby'clay rooted 6nes ike grains,'-ays Gary PAuill- tive; cost 6"iractical anfull o patce.Likewise, say w~edish'h sci'n- o sen, ansas' tat& agrono his t' , y f knnws .iit~issay experinelik experts: 0O f best lb' i' tists; cultivated, 'fertilized 'soils rich, in contamiiiaion depen ds on the stage'of Russia,.,ui ..pe. nie;' like itsifll-minerals 'bind cesi u ions. But m'po gwth and even .Variety; out, make take'. yars to, siiface.

FAMJOURNAL/APRIL 1988 /~A

fit MetropolitanEdison Companiy::ýý.

1 1W 6 Post Office Box 480 Middletown, Pennsylvania 1705?

P31I /~'I'f~t/1k'8Writer's Direct Dial Numblter

________________________________

tl*rT_ember I ,458 12, 1980 TI 'Program Office Attn: Mr. Bernard J. Snyder, 1U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Washington, D.C. 20555

- Three Mile Island Nuclear Station, Unit 2 (TAI-2)

. iOperating License No. DPR-73 Docket No., 50-320 Request for Additional Information Regarding the 1979 Annual Report of Aquatic Ecological Studies at TMI

. Enclosed please find the information as requested in your letter of August 5, '.

.1980, to Hr. R. C. Arnold.

',.:. -.. Table I of the enclosure is the delineation of data for the four creel survey'-,

areas as requested in item 1 of the attachment to your letter.

.. :.. Tble 2 through-7 are tabulations of the raw data for Ichthyoplanktonin the;-.'

.format requested in item 2 of. the attachment to your letter. Again, it is ..

stressed here that these tabulations are'of raw data. At present, attempts....'.

are ongoing to better quantify and categorize the dat~a s-o halndling damage ad:'\

physical damage can be more uniformly separated. Presently, the occurrence.:,

or percentage incidence of deformities of fish larvae is unknown, as are fluctuations in such occurrences.. Only -after -two or three years of comp)arable ." .,i data would it be possible to.draw. cany

.conclusions. For these reasons, the.. qZ use' of the above Ichthyoplankton data for publi .ation and widespread distri

. bution is not recommended.

In response to your last .request for delailed descriptions of.deformities,  :

based on preliminary data, malformations.included the following:.. .......... *

. ,.- Eyes unsymmetrically"aligned on tee ..head sometimes ac unug Eye'sme ly accicaompanied -by. Y'u'g head formations (a bulge or depression where normally the contourVwoi4d o ' ,*.-,.' ,,.

......

• M'!* ....................

.:* ' " ,.

y. e t , ' .. . . . ""

• ,"4M...:,

• e:e-.a

.p.

dird.. ' .,, .3. *:****

. .. I., ýý-'i*ý.:ýno otch t -c b k ' " or . .kd.. ,.

. " . . " " . . . II.':

..  : , . .: .  : ,. .. . .1 II NQ'N 01,.

5, d

ý'411! ~. '**'f*'.* . *. ~-------. -

.5' 5 55 Bernard J Snyder -2 "

.. ~5' ~.

Other types of deformities found which probably restlte4 " " ° " ": ig :*

included: , A ,

1. Missing or partial: eyes, with. the eye. mocket 1 i%4'.bOt healed"- over.

without eye. - " . *. . .* . t. . .! ' * * ... . :"'" . ." ' " . . .' ' ... . .... " *i :.". '*

5 -

i'

2. Missing and broken fins. ,

I "."a

~ t5 - 3. Eyes popped out... .  :,". . . *.

These types of injuries occur during the collection and sample processrng oauid*t#e':

not counted in the above tables. ............. ................. ."-..........'A"9-,.

'5'..

55,

.If you require additional information concerning this data, please let us know.

Sincerely, G. K. Hovey

'5 Director, T1'1-2 GKH:SDC:dad cc; John T. Collins Enclosures a,'

, * . ,

55 '-i*'

"i '*i"

Si* '. .

1-*

F

!JY 1~.*

..S..

• ~~>3*~ ~r- 18

.2 1

1 I

2 1

3

' ... * . i,? . .' S * &. .'- " * ' -

131(2) 1629(31). 33303) id7 .67.

t I 10'

.19 2 6' .4j..

".5 22

- . 3 3 4.

-7(1) 130(4):1 220(5) 86(4) 56 Lý41 138 62(6) 46(3) 296(6)

"7 " . ).38(l) 5()1 10 -. 5.'.

101) ' -.( 2(1)

, _% *,i , i*" - i TOTAL. 474iP.E.........AZ LLR1..............................3

. i~

(0691.

. . ..

v . W c

________o __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___1~r~~b Was)1 z 91~ ~ Z t

• I ~~ ___

t.--

• panul1 Uua) E

~: - .~ S(

.... ,. ty O.5' creel u re" AM7M Ihe Iusqdcmmnn~aa liver.-near TI4N,179ljMt'

'uvyh~ain aekih. nt

-~*. .~ aw*- mav j y Ja Vb H? pt Na. Jun Jul Au Sp ct Nov .Dec. A OTL

-1WLFt -,

-ii.. ~

-..k..ARA () (- (- .4(2 066)15()127(6) 82(9) .59.(5 30(2). 33(-) .l~; 620(34) '

- 41

• C) C) .- 20(-) .66(~3) :75 (3) t6 i6 () ( 7(6' f

- ~'i-~----*j(), 7()64~) .~().228) 14()132(3) 120(6) 81(10) 30(S) 29( I) 3 0

- TQT 16( AU"§q)0-JU

..............

• tte)does notý ntinj1dae266 anglers for7() which use of catch was unknown.7 Anglers interviewed mr 00tM0 hnoc 9()771Q nasre aevr se fo~~~of',btal d&ta on the first interview only. Subsequent LnLerViews ILsto d use of catch to unknown.

m ~ 4 ts-

-~!I1~q~qinzr-7.

ý7I Nwera of 4chtli~Y1lsnlct-OR,4~1M. a' a~ t~j ()5ipesby push hit it14 staitions in Yo-rkhen1n

" e,I iaanhnesdttdfrsj iKyr 4.i~e

~~~t~~~~'F od'1myi79*.

.

In

.~

.4--

4bk.,.

Mt.Lt'..'

_ _ i z.

Zhilypa *-tbt .. fa!C

. 2 1 1 - - - *,7 k 'i '.

Percmin loiettgt Stir~optedlon v. 1e. .

£MAL1 OA ML fL -FA -j 1-~ 7, U -F4-'W R Table 2 cont~i ud4

- 5()- 14 7(1 14 3 1 * () 10 )

2() 1 o~10.0 - 2 6(1)'. 3 - 1 _ (2 __ 228

- - £. k""'I m T(YPre~~mr'. s ,,

MzOstdOijv.virem

!ý6

IC . .... . . . . . . . ...

Table 4-flU.bet o010f Ichthyoplankton taknltiv UI (D) minJ A,19 t (N) sonwlei by push net it 14 *tattens t&ýYerk Ilaven Pondi

- - * *r + i ,, " lJ .r*

cypinls.1 3- -. , * .

S:,vr~rtnj S.ý'Sptc!' 2' ".6 27 150(3) 2 12 4.

-j -Csn'i 82(1) 2 3 26(l)

Canm(.'d' Rnlgri.43 114 12(l) 116(l) 54 1 333(0) 2

'~sI.Lrr.,~t - 9 42 5

1h-crnit~~. #1.oI!.svL 3 S'. -. ,

L '.-. b,*".* el, .ir * ' " , "**"* . 4 1...16 ... .. - , +:* 66(3) . .

"-6-,i; . + . * - * +. ,. _.. I '-"* , ++..- *--  : . ..

I1

",o .i . ... .4 -~4 1 12(1) 2 4 - - l -)' 1." ) 4.".. '

310 10 ..,..-

-..-

Table 1. continued. +

-D~~~ ',.ij ii() ~ 3~ 9 ~ _ý

. ,(,2

. . 7 di475

• l.*. ii,. .. 2 i , 45 - * . . : *-. .f.p Ir..- +

4-4F

-__ . . ........

_ , L--_ m.. . XHW....... __ X I lu * - AA_.

. .. . .. .... C y..h- l - .. " -4*" ".'" - " "S

~ ~,.1n .. 12 . 2 62(14) 7 119 11 . 215(17). .9 393 (15) 90(l) 2082(82) lf , 217 83 j

?'.r,,:,(l.',:a r,, .;1-'h..13.. -- " -" -: ".- "2 "- }+ ' ."+ 2' " .

YO . . .or. .. n*. I - - .,- - I- ...  !. "

.. hu,!, .... 1 73(16) - 21(1) - 412) (6) 6. 5(7) 7121 .-1 6() 16 522(6) 538(65)

J*.

• t i l , .., * , :. .. " * .. . - .' -+ - -- -- - 1 . ".  ; ' I*

edit'..-.,_', -. 2.- . -. .- iI - .....

~ar~'.icv~rii3 6(8) 32)260(A) i 56(2 141(l) 25 (1) 1604(30)- 4 :1629 (31

10 lti;'n imita Ljmu-

1. l

'...--. 1-: '! .**.*

?crvS t otm eru kLr

1 16 stAtions ln'Y rk Riaven Pond, 22 Nay 9 79. Mmsbec. m4 Hur~ber of Ichtlhyoplinlct~i takiote n daiy (0*) imd- giht (14): =mq'es by push n.et, a.

tchthyopjankto't. -

_ D_ _ N 4 )1 Cyprinidae 21

___ 3(37I' 7 1901 * - 6() 62(1) 1 13 (5) 241 f1

_ _ _- . L,: 1 2;'0 *':t;

.- s mq~hirqIli;-j' Mt1cro ktqj'A0 dow9~f~ t A~ 23

~~~~~~~ k!Ul~.672) ~

z TOTAL D 9 3 166(5) 45 5(0) 57(4) 6 79(6) 97(g) 64 81(2) 7

~&LTIL..169M3 4 J201) 83)97L2.1 96(t)

IiTelil 5 ot t d.ýw 23 42() 7(1 I( 46)(7 2 1 5 t Zie,~.~~LJ j91 29 tit , 4(1) 2i 652(31) 2 gao

~E Zf8~

1

--

,1()

- 373i~. ~1- -4 t 2.

15(l).

I(t) 348(2) 14 8

-V!Aut -#1/4 *. I*n ~ -n.J p TOTA90(3- 3 -, (2) .48(6) 1 16(1) 6(1 10 7(1 14(9) 6(6 1a9(4)-2 Iwn5 r e of........

xdLei .53,2 to ~

.3

~\'~-Ar~j~

ill Ichthyoplsnkton.

oC ~em dibypli~ta W

a cy opan ngh 0) azpl. y us n týa14. sitations in York fHaven Pond, 29-30 M4ay1979. NMbers3 in"

-t NIR P....k 2.P-.

F i1 - I Cyprinidae xa-rns¶t!Dmi- 1 ý3

.1~ 3 . - . 2 -

no soii Ihu

• - -

. A.l.p-n euc

~2I~ai~.1~jitPu',!hflt~htiV~ ~ .- A~ta~ulh ~N 2I

- 2' 2~2'1

-t 1 . 10(t) 12 15 1 1. s0 i '

18-feo 242 3 I 2 2

1 - '

fJo~.~ftJ! 23~ 37(t) 16 3t1 ~21 48 ;5(1) 4 D N 33 58(2) 9 5 1

'TOYAL 0 16 q (2__) . - .Z 6fL Table 6 contlnued.

IQ0 3 P11-Li'. I& IAI THL-16A1 .jgh.. r .. uwn

-~ PJOfl ]1 . -

12 . IQ 1

Cprifnidae nIn l rl--7 z -

jht!nL;Arh-vs At-jAiul"S.12l - .f lp nara - -rat.1 5 1() 186 6 .

1 20 1 38 41-71 46 .

2 1 26 2 -

2atirC~l

.: 1 l~t nr .m Ma r o i ~ ' '

7 8 4 10 ii(t). 131(5),.i.

.en21. 14 'J TOrAV: 0 14i 23 I ,. - A

.

......

-~ ~... ~

12,

"'EV"w" hiKS1N(-x1 THE" BURK"T'r[Ir OF THE EARTH The Health Menace of Nuclear Power Miles H. Robinson, M.D.

With a Foreword by John W. Gofman, M.D., Ph. D.

Emeritus Professor of Medical Physics University of California at Berkeley Viý Citizens for Health Information, Inc.

Published by Citizens For Health Information, Inc.

3793 Hope Terrace Santa Barbara, CA 93110 CFHI is a non-profit, educational, charitable, and tax-exempt organization. This

• essay is published as a public service and the author receives no remuneration from it.

Single copies $1, 10 or more 50t each, post paid.

Copyright @ 1979 by Citizens For Health Information, Inc.

All rights reserved.

First Printing - June 1979 Revised- November 1979

Preface The preservation of life and health is the routine obligation of physicians, but until recently the poisonous effects of nuclear contamination seemed more than I could grasp or cope with. It was not'enough to know that humanity was threatened with unprecedented cancer and mutations from radioactive chemicals slowly but steadily invading the environment; and that engineering mistakes, earthquakes, political instability, or nuclear war could increase the contamination to catastrophic dimensions.

For peace of mind, I depended on, the hope that science would find a way to handle nuclear poisons, and on a feeling of deep and helpless resignation that the economic and political forces involved in nuclear energy were so great that there 41 was nothing I could do.

Then, on the 25th of last December, a comprehensive and forthright article appeared in Business Week, on the economic frailities of nuclear power, and

,..1 especially the failure over thirty years to solve the problem of nuclear waste. A few Weeks later, an article appeared in Science on the government's repudiation of its Rasmussen report, which had claimed that the chance of a major nuclear accident was about the same as a meteor hitting the earth.

In the midst of this news, (all before the accident at Three Mile Island), I heard F a woman physician from Australia, Helen Caldicott, eloquently describe to a full house in Santa Barbara the health hazards of nuclear energy and the remarkable story of what she had done almost single-handedly on television to stop the French atomic bomb tests which were contaminating Australia. She is now at the Boston Childrens' Hospital, and a central figure in an organization, Physicians For Social Responsibility*, formed to oppose nuclear power and sponsored by many eminent heads of medical school departments in Boston and other cities on the East Coast.

To those who see and hear her, Dr. Caldicott seems like a modern Joan of Arc, clear in speech, passionate in belief, solid in science, and determined to cut through the mystery and incompetence which have surrounded nuclear energy.

She has written a book, Nuclear Madness - What You Can Dot, dedicated to her husband who is Assistant Professor of. Radiology at Harvard Medical School and their three children. . , j. <, 5 . o

-* Pioneers like Dr. Gofman and Dr. Caldicott show lýow much -tan be° /

I accomplished by one determined individual. The accident at Three Mile Island now calls us all to put our shoulders to the wheel.

• P. 0. Box 295, Cambridge, MA 92238 Ik tAutumn Press, $3.95, 25 Dwight Street, Brookline, MA 02146

REVERSING THE BIRTH OF THE EARTH The Health Menace of Nuclear Power by Miles H. Robinson, M.D.*

It is time that the public was told how permanent is the effect on human health of the contamination of the land, water, and air by the man-made radioactive elements (nuclides) produced by nuclear power plants.

The remarkable photographs recently sent back by our space probe. to Jupiter provide a priceless insight into our nuclear predicament. The pizza-like face of the satellite, lo, wracked by volcanoes, and bathed in radioactivity from nearby Jupiter, remind us of how our earth was born. Life on earth could not evolve until its original radioactivity had decayed over millions of years to a biologically tolerable level.t By mining uranium and splitting the. atom, we are reversing the birth of the earth, and recreating the primordial environment of hostile radioactivity .in which life as we have known it cannot exist. In this reversal of evolution, human life will become ever shorter and more miserable from cancer and.mutations, before it phases out entirely. Then eons will be required before human life can reappear, waiting for slow radioactive decay to detoxify the long-lived nuclear contents of the Pandora's box which we have so rashly opened.

We have it in our power to stop this accelerating process of human extinction, and at least limit the damage which has already been done.

It is one thing to foul our nest with ordinary garbage, some of which we have had enough sense to outlaw, like PCB's; or which we can chemically convert, like discarded war gases. But nothing known or contemplated in our science will hurry up the incredibly slow rate with' which the most dangerous nuclides decay. We have brought the cold, unfeeling pace of the stars into our frail and precious lives.

What arrogance! On a stellar scale of magnitude, will be our punishment.

We all know from personal experience, that the hardest thing in the world for a man to admit is that he has made a serious mistake. Nuclear engineers, politicians, and statesmen are no exception. And this applies equally to the medical profession, which has been negligent about the cancerous effects of low-level radiation from X-rays, and almost as uninformed as the rest of the country about the danger of long-lived man-made nuclides. .

• Formerly Instructor in Physiology at Vanderbilt Medical School, Instructor in Pharmacology at University of Pennsylvania Medica School, and Medical Consultant on the Staffs of U.S. Senators Paul Douglas of Illinois and Edward Long of Missouri.

• tA small residue of this radioactivity still resides in the earth, producing heat which isstored thousands of feet beneath the insulating blanket of the earth's crust. (Science News, May 12, 1979, p. 312). "By an enormous factor, products of man-made nuclear fissions are more intensely radioactive, more plentiful, and more concentrated than are the naturally occurring radioactive materials that evolution has reluctantly accommodated (although life did not evolve at all until most of those materials had been safely locked away)." (Jean Jacques Cousteau, Conference on Nuclear Energy and World Order, United Nations, N. Y.,

May 13, 1976).

There are always individual differences in susceptibility to low levels of radiation, but it is now well established that any increment of exposure to radiation, including that from the long-lived nuclides, rigorously increases the incidence of cancer and mutations in the population as a whole.t Note that once a cancer occurs, it is impossible to say which of several possible cancer-provoking agents caused that particular case. This enables the nuclear industry, like the cigarette companies, to claim that their product did not cause a given case.

We all must face the fact that nuclear energy has become a medical problem.

We dare not leave it to the engineers. The handwriting is on the wall at Harrisburg.

The common man, the voter, now that he sees the nuclear threat in his own backyard, should rise up and use his superior collective strength to take the first step and phase out this tangible menace. This action may be the only way to bring the world to its senses, driving home the imperative need to outlaw nuclear warfare. The Achilles' heel of the nuclear bomb is the nuclear power plant ticking away next door. They are bloody brothers under the skin. The "peaceful atom" does not deserve the name.

The controversy over nuclear power tends to arouse strong emotions, partly because of the unprecedented danger to present and future human life, but also because it involves another fundamental question of survival: what standard of living and life-style are really desirable and suitable today?

, The answer that comes easiest to "stubborn, unruly" mankind*, is.to pursue an unbalanced, cancerous growth of society, with increasing deception, crime, and warfare, sustained overall- by an extravagant expenditure Of energy from man-made machinery.

A more intelligent program is to obey the ancient laws of restraint, simplicity, and physical activity, which have always been necessary for durable human health and satisfaction. The pendulum of the industrial revolution has swung too far, carrying us away from "small is beautiful", and over the atomic pit. In stark terms Nature tells us now to swing back or die.

No Retreat To The "Cave" Eliminating nuclear power plants and their intolerable pollution from plutonium and other long-lived nuclides does not mean our culture would be moving back toward the caves of prehistoric man. The following excerpt from a recent paper by Gofman 4s cuts through this favorite fog of nuclear advocates:

t Established in many scientific papers by l.W. Gofman and A.R. Tamplin in 1969-1970 (See references in "Irrevy"-An Irreverent, Illustrated View of Nuclear Power, I.W. Gofman, published by the Committee for Nuclear Responsibility, Main P.O.B. 11207, San Francisco, CA 94101, $3.95. Confirmed by the Advisory Committee of the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations, The Effects on Populations of Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. 20418.

1972.

like their ancestors, a stubborn and unruly generation ... (Psalms 78:8). '... a rebellious people, lying children, children that will not hear the law . .. " (Isaiah 30:9). See also Exod. 32:9; Deut. 9:13; 31:27.

15 1.W. Gofman, "Nuclear Power: The Need For A Fog-Cutter," National Forum, published by the Honor Society of Phi Kappa Phi, Summer 1979, pp. 35-36.

""All authorities-even those in the Department of Energy-agree that

/ ,, 45% of U.S. energy use is sheer waste. This has nothing to do with our values, for instance; with our allegedly "materialistic" life-styles. The 45% waste is simply a measure of the inefficiency with which we use energy to satisfy our values.

No expert denies that the cheapest, largest source of energy available to us in the early future is 'energy efficiency.' Efficiency alone would permit us almost to double our effective energy supply. This is not idle speculation. In several Western European countries, our standard of living is achieved with about half the per capita consumption of energy.

Carefully researched studies by the American Institute of Architects four years back46 conclude that simple energy-efficiency alterations in new building construction, plus some retrofitting of existing buildings, could save enough energy to substitute for the energy which would be generated by some 430 giant 1000-megawatt nuclear plants. Today, the U.S. has the equivalent of 50 such plants operable (sometimes).

- There is an additio.nal, huge source oif energy which we. are presently throwing away, an energy source which we once used until the electric utilities managed to destroy it in order to increase their own business. That source is called cogeneration of power.

Innumerable industries generate vast quantities of steam for their indus-

'Y* trial processes. If turbines were installed in many of those industries, they not

, only would generate their own electricity, but they could also feed large quantities of surplus power into the electric power grid. The ultimate result would be the production of power equivalent to some 200 giant 1000-megawatt nuclear plants, according to the studies of Dr. Robert Williams at

\ Princeton University.

Both of these applications of energy efficiency-in our buildings and in cogeneration-would be more reliable than nuclear power, conserve scarce capital resources, increase the number of jobs created per capital-dollar invested, and raise our standard of living through reduced energy costs.

Payjgfor energy which we throw away is just lowering our standLadofJijvn g.

It makes no economic sense at all to invest in expensive nuclear power plants just to attain the privilege of throwing their energy away. Elimination of nuclear power would be a boon to every important aspect of our economy, not a threat.

With thefequivalent of 630 giant nuclear power plants7 available.tLuo-us th r6, it is ob16ius there is no energy criT' requiring nuclear power. The 'need' for nuclear power plants, which still supplyonI 312% of the counjt.'s total energy, is a hoax. Another hoax is the 5a leged need t-ocose between **-leaauls or '.dyrtycoal.' The choice is properly presented as 'filthy nukes' vs. 'clean energy efficiency,' with clean solar power coming along well in spite of pitifully feeble government support."

41 Energy and the Built Environment and A Nation of Energy Efficient Buildings by 1990, American Inst.

of Architects, 1735 New York Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006.

The Short-lived Nuclides The authorities have provided considerable information about the short-lived radiation escaping from the damaged reactor at Three Mile Island near Harrisburg.

This largely involved carcinogenic iodine-131 with its half-life of about 8 days.1 Pregnant women and young children were advised to leave the vicinity. 240,000 vials of ordinary potassium iodide were rushed to Harrisburg, in accordance with a g.

plan, eventually not implemented, to saturate the thyroid glands of everyone in the1 vicinity with this potassium iodide before the iodine-131 could invade their glands. F The publicityaboouteveen, ._h.w..ev er, hasbepen m i The impression has been fostered that the soil in the vicinity was not significantly contaminated, since various samples of milk have tested clean. it is seldom mentioned that farmers were told to keep their cows off milk has, in fact, been Fourn-ato contain iodine-131. 2 Transcripts of the meetings of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission reveal that Harold Denton, head of the3 agency's reactor division, stated: "Why is the FDA finding it and we're not?"

Dr. Chauncey Kepford, a radiation chemist from State College, Pa., at a hearing held June 2, 1979, by the House Subcommittee on 'Natural Resources and Environment, testified that "There were so few radiation detectors out in the field the S"ain fs w days after the accident that it is rea[ly* impos-e tat ect tI~di~~a~diemis _ _~fthavgý-hd-'. T e ore I look at the data [compiled by the utility company], the more I think most of the radiation exposure was missed."4 _cco.din_ to NRC's Albert Gibson t L

• ,_c-b Ln r-d .nZeosap~d~ed_, au.es~b.mpn instruments in the vent stack were not designed fors.ugbhigh1 levels and went off scale du7i--th eacia en The whole thrust of the pronouncements by government and utility.

spokesmen has been that the hazards of the "incident" at Three Mile Island are

• ,, temporary in keeping with the 8 day half-life of iodine-131, and similar to the risks of ordinary medical X-rays.

The Long-lived Nuclides Almost no publicity has been given to the long-lived nuclides which, along with the iodine-131, have also escaped from the nuclear reactor vessel into the domed containment and neighboring pump-house buildings. These are far more tThe numbers appended to the element identify it. Half-life is the time for half of a given quantity of the radioactive element to disappear" after which half of the remainder will again disappear during a repeat of the same span of time, and so on. As a rule of-thumb to calculate almost total disappearance, multiply the half-life by 20. Thus, practically all the iodine-131 will be gone in'160 days.

1Washington Post, April 9, 1979, p. A-14.

2 Los Angeles Times, April 4, 1979, p. 1-12.

3 Washington. Post, April 26, 1979, p. A-7.

4 Santa Barbara News-Press, June 3, 1979, p. A-3.

4 Los Angeles Times, June 23, 1979.

dangerous, because they keep emitting carcinogenic radiation(for generations, centuries and millenia. Strontium-90 has a half-life of 28 ye.ars; cesium-137, 30 years; americium, 460 years; and plutonium, 24,400 yearYs. (For essentiality total decay, plutonium requires about 500,000 years, compared to 160 days for iodine-131.). ' c .. , .' . - / " - ,z*

Particles of these elements are like miniature X-ray machines which are never turned off,ý i.Ly-i-diating for almost incomprehensible peri.ods of time whatever living tissue they touch..

How much of these long-lived nuclides have already escaped, or will yet escape, into the environment at Three Mile Island? We will come to this question, but first let us review briefly the nature and effects of these elements. They are the reason for the faint mention in the press that a large section of Pennsylvania could have been rendered uninhabitable indefinitely, if a full meltdown had occurred at Three Mile Island. (See pp. 12-13).

All nuclear plants, as well- as explosions of nuclear bombs (regardless of whether the bombs are detonated in the air or under ground), produce the long-lived nuclides - subtle, invisible, and incredibly persistent radioactive poisons. Yet the nuclear industry and the government have consistently deprecated and misled the public about the resultant long-lived contamination of the environment.

This is partly because the industry is trapped in a shortsighted multibillion dollar- investment- very -costly-to write off;-partly-because -so many other scientific triumphs have led our civilization to the arrogant belief that it could lick any chemical/physical problem (just as penicillin, convinced doctors that drugs could solve most health problems); and, perhaps most important of all, partly because the-government has been mesmerized by the imminent hazards.of nuclear warfare to the point where the hazards of nuclear power plants and their pollution seem almost trivial by comparison.

Carefully kept quiet has been one of .the most fortunate aspects of the Harrisburg accident. Since the plant had been in operation only three months its WAr core had produced only a fraction of the long-lived radioactive nuclideswhiE ...

would have been present after a year of operation. A meltdown could then release into the environment as much long-lived nuclides as the expl!osion of 1,000 Hiroshima-type bombs.S The threat of contamination ofthe Susquehanna river (pp.

7-8) would also be more serious, even without a meltdown.

The greatest danger is from plutonium, not only because of its half-life of 24,400 years, but also because it is one of the most carcinogenic substance known, and is handled in quantities of pounds and tons. Unlike X-rays, the alpha radiation from plutonium travels only a microscopic distance; but once in the body, only a millionth of a gram is needed to produce cancer in an adjacent cell. In other words, one pound of plutonium is enough to give cancer to 500 million persons, if evenly distributed among them.6 5 J.J. Berger, Nuclear Power - The Unviable Option, Dell, 1977, p. 36.

6 J.W. Gofman, "lrrevy"-An Irreverent, Illustrated View of- Nuclear Power, $3.95; Committee for Nuclear Responsibility, Main P.O. Box 11207, San Francisco, CA. 94101, 1979, pp. 39, 105.

Plutonium is used in reactors in the form of its dioxide, which can circulate as a dust, contaminate the water supply, and enter the food chain. It is biologically concentrated, as by oysters filtering enormous quantities of water through their digestive systems, big fish eating little fish,.and so on.

Not only are these man-made nuclides highly carcinogenic. They also inevitably produce mutations of the human and other species, by action on the sensitive genes in the ovaries and testes. They are like *thalidomide forever. The very ashes of a person who dies from these monstrous elements are equally harmful for some other living person.

Land heavily contaminated by these substances in the meltdown of a nuclear reactor, would be uninhabitable for centuries. No food raised on it would be safe, and the ground water draining from it would eventually contaminate rivers, bays, and oceans.

There are already 2,200 pounds of plutonium in about 10,000 tons of nuclear waste stored in the United States alone, containing long-lived nuclides which must be kept out of the environment practically forever. By 1984, it is estimated that worldwide prod.uction of p-lutonium will be 33 tons .per. year, if a fully developed nuclear economy were allowed to proceed.

Cancer From Plutonium In The Denver Area A month ago, in an address to the Sixth International Congress of Radiation Research in Tokyo*, Carl J. Johnson, M.D., Ph.D., Director of the Jefferson County Health Department, described a startling increase in cancer associated with windblown plutonium escaping from a nuclear plant near Denver.

The population was studied for 3 years, and there was a total of 501 excess cases of cancer downwind from the plant, compared to the incidence in nearby unexposed areas. (Table 1).

Table I Increase In Cancer Distance downwind Plutonium contamination Percentage Increase from Rocky Flats plant of soil in millicuries In cancer per square kilometer Men Women Area I: up to 21 0.8 - 50 24% 10%

kildmeters Area I1: 21 - 29 0.2 - 0.8 15% 5%

kilometers Area II1: 29 - 35 0.1 - 0.2 8% 4%

kilometers, Certain kinds of cancer were increased by the-following percentages: lung cancer in men, 41%; leukemia in men, 40%; lymphoma and myeloma, 40% in men, 30% in women; testis, about 100%; ovary, 24%0. Higher than expected incidences

• Sixth International Congress of Radiation Research, Tokyo, Japan, May 13-19, 1979. Dr. Johnson's paper will soon appear in a scientific journal. A copy of his abstract of it will be sent free of charge by Citizens For Health Information, on receipt of a self-addressed, stamped envelope.

Were also found for the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, thyroid, and brain.

After reviewing these statistics of Dr. Johnson, the National Institutes of Health has recently given him a grant of $101,000 for. further studies.

Nuclear Advocates Ignore Biological Hazards The government and power companies admit that nuclides have frequently escaped from nuclear plants; but by ignoring the true extent, toxicity, and permanence of the leakage, they can claim that the benefits outweigh the risks. In effect, they are really relying on a perpetual dilution of the long-lived nuclides in the land, oceans, and air. This dilution cannot be reversed, and simply means a lower cancer dose (for the time being) for more people.

John W. Gofman, M.D., Ph.D., points out that the injury to human beings begins the moment a nuclear plant starts operation. He is Emeritus Professor of Medical Physics at the University of California at Berkeley, formerly Associate Director of the Lawrence Livermore (Radiation) Laboratory there from 1963 to 1969, and the discoverer of the fissionability of uranium-233 with slow and fast neutrons.

This discovery makes uranium-233 available for use in nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons. Gofman calculates that even with 99.99 percent containment of leakage, by the year 2000, 160 p unds of plutonium will have escaped into the environment. This amount contains enough doses to give cancer to 15 times the present population of the earth. (Vide supra),.

The nuclear engineers who have been playing 38 with this deadly stuff have proved their incompetence in the Harrisburg "incident", and in hundreds of less serious accidents. These men have been so wrapped up in the challenge of their

,work, in the financial and other rewards at the seat of power, and no more immune than the rest of us from the thrill of gambling in the face of danger, that they obviously have no real appreciation of the terrible hazard to human health and survival of the human species inherent in what they do.

These men are not biologists. They do not realize how fragile life is. They have never had the medical and surgical experience of opening up a.living human body and seeing a tangled mass of wide-spread cancer, for which absolutely nothing can be done to save that person's life. They are insulated from this kind of reality, constantly faced by doctors and other biologists.

The nuclear engineers have been fascinated with the Frankenstein they have created. They have no qualms about standing with their families next to the nuclear genie, while it undergoes a convulsion, as Mr. Schlesinger did in Alaska and Mr.

Carter did at Harrisburg. Their interest is narrowly professional, which enhances efficiency and peace of mind. Deep contemplation of the dreadful biological possibilities would strike at the very heart, pride, confidence, and power of the apostles of high technology.

38MIT professor Henry Kendall, during the acute phase of the accident at Three Mile Island, said, "They are way out in an unknown land with a reactor whose instruments and controls were never designed to cope with this situation. They are like children playing in the woods." (Newsweek, April 9, 1979, p.

24.)

They have the effrontery to call a nuclear plant "clean" in comparison with fossil fueled plants, deprecating the deadly radioactive waste which they agree should be kept out of the environment forever. Yet great quantities of it will escape in catastrophic accidents, far worse than Harrisburg, which are bound to occur sooner or later. The waste is also constantly leaking from mine tailings, the power 7

plants, and their dumps, a problem no nearer solution than it was 30 years ago.

Tl~e fact that the earth is already moderately contaminated with the fall-out from nuclear bombs has bred contempt for the very idea of contamination.

Abundant power today is considered more important than the end of life on our planet tomorrow. There is a great temptation to drift intothe philosophy of "Eat, drink and be merry, for tomorrow we die."

As physicians, we also accept death; but we do not invite it in return for a material benefit. In effect, that is what the nuclear proponents do on the greatest scale ever attempted. What nuclear expert, heavily dependent on the exotic specialty of nuclear power for his livelihood, can take an unbiased, scientific view of the biological dangers? To him and his associates,.>nuclear energy is inevitable.

Once this inevitability is granted, any associated horror finds a place of spurious respectability in their coid calculations.

Chesapeake Bay in Danger Returning to the subject of nuclides escaping from the plant at Three Mile i, Island, why did so much of the short-lived iodine-131 come out? This was simply because iodine turns into a gas when heated, and came out with the other radioactive gases in the puffs of steam both accidentally and intentionally vented when too much pressure from steam/water leaks accumulated in the domed reactor building and neighboring pump-house building. Note that the normal operating steam pressure in the reactor is 2,250 lbs/square inch.

The long-lived nuclides, however, such as plutonium and the others mentioned earlier, are non-volatile and, therefore, can only escape in water from the plant. We have not been told how much water in droplet form was in the' escaping puffs of steam, but probably a great deal was flying around in the building since cesium-137 (and, therefore, the other non-volatile nuclides as well) was plastered all over the inside of the containment building when the core overheated and the relief water/steam valves were forced open:

"sources said radioactive debris is everywhere in the containment. It's on the walls, in the dome, on pumps,.valves and pipes. Most of it is radioactive iodine, which has a short half-life of eight days. Some is cesium-137, whose 29-year half-life means it will be dangerously radioactive for at least that long."B Regardless of how much of the long-lived nuclides got out in the watery puffs and plumes of steam early in the accident, there is now a new and urgent problem:

what to do about the large volume of water heavily contaminated with these 7 Business Week, December 25, 1978, pp. 60-63.

B Washington Post, May 5, 1979, p. A-5.

nuclides, which is steadily leaking on to the floor.of the containment building. At first, it amounted to about 200,000 gallons9 , and was about 2 feet deep. On May 1st, NRC's Carl Berlinger stated that there were 425,000 gallons, 5 feet deep, and that it was due to "continuing leaks."10 "By May 18th, there were 600,000 gallons, and by July 29th it was 8 feet deep."43 The leakage is uncontrollable, because it comes from leaks in the closed loop of piping cooling the shut-down reactor core, requiring a constant addition of new water from the river, lest the reactor core again heat up and threaten to melt down.

For at. least a year it will not be possible to locate and repair these leaks, because they are in the containment building where the long-lived radioactivity is so great

- 30 times the level that the Pentagon considers certain death on the battlefield"l

- that it is estimated a year must elapse-before even a robot device can be sent 12 into the building for an inspection.

IAWhat can be done about this inexorable accumulation of highly contaminated water, which is rising in the containment building at the implacable rate of 1/2 inch per day? In this urgent dilemma, the NRC at first announced that it would "treat" this water to bring its radioactivity down to NRC standards, and then discharge it 3

into the Susquehanna river.'

But given the past performance of the nuclear industry and the government, and their substantial unconcern about the terrible threat to life of long-lived nuclides in the environment, what assurance do we have that the NRC's decontamination standards are safe? Or that the standards will be adhered to, in the face of the undoubtedly heavy expense of achieving them? Will the Chesapeake Bay be permanently contaminated? At stake is the health of everyone down-river, now and in the future.

In the latest development, the representatives of 110,000 people who get their drinking water from the river below Three Mile Island have expressed their lack of faith in the NRC by filing two lawsuits to block the discharge of the water in question. The NRC has responded by plans to examine the risks more thoroughly and to consider alternatives, such as storing the water in tanks and evaporating it to concentrate the nuclides. Meanwhile, the NRC will allow the discharge of only "routine low-level" radioactive water from the undamaged twin reactor and certain auxiliary equipment, which were accidentally contaminated in the March 28 accident."4 This response suggests that NRC would, indeed, have dumped water into the river which was not routine with. respect to radioactivity. The actual content of long-lived nuclides in any of these discharges is .evidently not a subject which NRC considers suitable to be published in the news media.

9 Science News, April 7, 1979, p. 228.

1o Washington Post, May 1, 1979, p. A-2. 12 Washington Post, May 5, 1979, p. A-5.

43 New York Times, July 29, 1979, p. 22. 13 Wall Street Journal, May 18, 1979.

11 Los Angeles Times, April 3, 1979, p. 1-1, 14 El Paso Times, May 28, 1979, p. 9-A.

Nuclear Brinkmanship A nuclear power plant is totally unlike a fossil-fueled plant; where all one has to do in an emergency is vent the pure steam and turn off the fire. The ferocious fire in a nuclear reactor is only partially abated after the control rods are inserted in their shutdown position in the core. The residual radioactivity can still generate enough heat to produce a meltdown anytime the flow of cooling water fails. A complete loss of cooling would cause even the shutdown core to heat up to more than 5,000 0 F., at the rate of 4000 F. every ten seconds.s5 The NRC now believes that the reactor core at Three Mile Island was completely without cooling water for as long as 50 minutes on the day of the accident, and that it was during those minutes that the reactor suffered most of its damage. According to Harold Denton, NRC director of reactor regulation, "The only thing cooling the fuel rods during that time was a very low flow rate of steam .

• . It's still too early to say how close we were to a meltdown but the core clearly 16 reached very high temperatures, having come uncovered. several times."

According to one top executive of Babcock & Wilcox, which built the Three Mile Island plant, "if the core is uncovered - as happened at Three Mile Island - 2

- the potential for a serious accident is so great that any other actions by operators

[than attention to cooling] become secondary."' 7 NRC representatives have reported that the nuclear core, which contained about 100 tons of uranium fuel, is now so badly damaged that it is like an inverted pyramid of debris and fragmented fuel with 93 percent of the flow path for cooling water blocked off.18 The rapidity and complexity of catastrophic events in a nuclear power plant can easily exceed human ability to control them. For example:

"The two night operators pushed and pulled as many as fifty buttons and levers in fifteen seconds and the reactor shut down ... But. it wasn't enough. Within minutes, there was a serious leak of radioactive steam -

and several more in the days following - spreading over an area up to 20 miles from the plant. ... tanks overflowed onto the floor of the auxiliary building - and radioactivity shot through a vent stack. These accumulating mishaps piled rapidly one atop the other in less than five minutes."3 9 "Operators at Three Mile Island did not notice for eight crucial seconds that the two main auxiliary feedwater system valves were closed, moments in which core temperature skyrocketed."'19 Anyone who has seen pictures of the large control room of a nuclear plant may well wonder how the two operators on duty can be expected to notice trouble showing up on their innumerable gauges in a mere eight seconds! Operator Craig s J.J. Berger, ref. supra, p. 35.

16. Washington Post, May 1, 1979, p. A-1.

17 Nucleonics Weel, Apri! 26, 1979.

18 Science News, May 5, 1979, p. 292.

39 Newsweek, April 9, 1979, pp. 24, 28, emphasis supplied.

19 Washington Post, April 18, 1979, p. A-9, emphasis added.

-i Faust testified that more than 200 alarms went off in the first seconds of the accident, and that "I like to [sic] have thrown away the alarms . . . they weren't 20 giving us any useful information."

The NRC has been puzzling over whether to have indicators on all of the reactor's 1000-plus valves to show whether they are open or closed, but consultant Carl Michelson of the TVA said the Commission "could create safety problems with such a high degree of complexity."21 Thus, with nuclear power, man is caught between the rock and the hard place

-between his inability to do the right thing in "eight seconds" and the complexity of his machine which cannot be further increased without further confusing him.

Increased complexity, of course, also increases the risk of mechanical failure.

The problem of a hydrogen bubble forming in the reactor vessel and then explodirng (a small hydrogen explosion actually occurred) had not been anticipated by the nuclear engineers. They had not designed the reactor to handle it and had no plans for dealing with it. According to Harold Denton,,NRC reactor operations chief, "It's a new twist . . . It is not a standard assumption."22 "One thing all the engineers agree on is that formation, of such a bubble had never been anticipated in the calculations of possible accident 23 scenarios."

"We saw failure modes the likes of which have never been analyzed ... No plant has ever been in this condition."24 "We were not prepared for what happened." 25 Yet, the production of hydrogen in a reactor and the great risk of an explosion has been known for years. Former Atomic Energy Commissioner, Theos Thompson, stated almost 10 years ago that "a lot of the gases which come out from this plant are really hydrogen and oxygen which are disassociated in the core of the reactor

- there is a possibility that unlessone is very careful you will induce an explosive hazard." 2 6 With regard to explosions in general, related to high operating pressures of nuclear plants, Prof. Robert L. Whitelaw, Project Engineer for the power plant of the nuclear ship, N.S. Savannah, stated that "there is still by common consent an unwritten agreement to treat as 'incredible' the most fearful of all nuclear accidents that can occur in any plant with a highly pressurized primary system. Such accident 2 7 is, of course, the explosive rupture of the primary vessel itself."

11 Santa Barbara News Press, May 31, 1979, p. A-5.

21 Ibid.

22 Los Angeles Times, April 2, 1979, 1-9.

23 Science News, April 7, 1979, p. 228; see also Time, April 9, 1979, p. 15.

24 Roger Mattson, NRC safety expert, Newsweek, April 23, 1979, p. 30.

25 Walter Creitz, president of Metropolitan Edison Co., Washington Post, April 23, 1979, p. A-3.

26 Testimony before Joint Congressional Committee on Atomic Energy, cited by I.W. Gofman & Arthur R. Tamplin, Poisoned Power, Rodale, Emmaus, Pa., 1971, pp. 152-153.

27 Ibid., p. 162, quoting IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, vol. AES-5, May 1969, emphasis added.

. - 12 -

The scenario of an unusually large amount of hydrogen being produced by overheated zirconium cladding of the fuel rods reacting with the cooling water, and then exploding and cracking open the containment building with massive release of long-lived nuclides, was thoroughly described in precise and authentic detail by J. ). Berger in 1977.28 The many statements by authorities that the hydrogen bubble at Three Mile Island came as a complete surprise served very successfully to ward off a charge of deliberate negligence, and to persuade the public that the hydrogen bubble was the only unexpected event the authorities had failed to foresee and prepare for. In other words, the public could now have faith that the worst is over:

"the nuclear-power industry views destruction of the reactor core at Three Mile Island as a one-in-a-lifetime 'opportunity' to glean actual data and experience on reactor accidents."2 9t X The re-establishment of public confidence, needed to protect the pocketbook and face of industry and government, is Well worth the coinfession, however contrived, of incompetent foresight and engineering. Where confession is deemed inadequate, the bull of minimization is seized by the horns:

"The Three Mile Island accident became a media show, a Roman Holiday.

It was less serious than the media made it out to be. The real flap was about nothing that had happened, is unlikely to happen, and would be less serious than imagined if it did happen."30 This posturing of the nuclear industry and its advocates, ranging from falsehood to bluster, fundamentally arises from, and is nourished by, a unique immunity from financial liability. The insurance industry has steadfastly refused, to insure anyone for more than $125 million against a nuclear accident. To get around this immovable obstruction, the Price-Anderson Act of 1957 set the maximum legal liability for a nuclear power plant accident at $560 million, of which the government picks up $435 million. In addition, homeowners' insurance policies specifically exclude damage from nuclear accidents and radiation.

These two umbrellas, without which every nuclear plant in the country would shut down tomorrow, were created in response to the 1957 Atomic Energy Commission's Brookhaven Report41 , which found that a major accident in a nuclear power plant would cause 3,400 deaths and $7 billion in property damage. In 1965, the AEC updated* the deaths to 45,000 people, the injuries to 100,000, the damage to $17 billion, and predicted that land-use restrictions because of long-lived 28 Nuclear Power - The Unviable Option, Dell, 1977, pp. 23-24.

29 Science News, May 5, '1979, p. 292, emphasis added.

tThis view ignores the partial meltdown which occured in 1966 at the Fermi breeder reactor near Detroit, during which officials considered evacuating Detroit.

30 Frank H. Spedding, former head of the Ames Laboratory of AEC, quoted in the Iowa Stater, Iowa State University, June 1979, pp. 1-2.

41. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Theoretical Possibilities and Consequences of Major accidents in Large Nuclear Power Plants (WASH-740), March 1957.

• Documents obtained by attorney Myron Cherry from Atomic Energy Commission under the Freedom of Information Act. See J.J. Berger, cit. supra. pp. 44-45.

nuclides might persist for five hundred years downwind of the accident throughout an area the size of Pennsylvania.

The nuclear power industry is thus able to trumpet extravagant assertions that the nuclear power plants are safe, while quietly aware that in a major catastrophe its insurance will not have to pay more than about 3 percent of the damage ($17 bil-lion/$560 million), if its bluff is called.

We are not likely to hear much truth about nuclear dangers from the nuclear industry or government, until Price-Anderson is repealed, a repeal which ought to be demanded by every informed citizen who cares about his children and the future.

The transcript of the deliberations of the five NRC Commissioners, as they tried to handle the Harrisburg accident, show a wandering, confused discussion, in which Mattson suggested burning out the cooling pumps (!) to cause a recognizable loss-of-cooling-water accident, so as-to "get into, a mode for which all these systems were designed and we could cope with."

What more needs to be said about the incompetence of nuclear engineering?

It is time to recognize that the responsibility'for the catastrophes at stake are not the kind of thing which we dare entrust to engineers. The fatal crash of an airliner with 500 people on board, or the 50,000 deaths on the highways each year, are not even faintly in the same ball park. Such one-time accidents do not leave a perpetual legacy of cancer and cumulative genetic degradation, edging up steadily to the extinction of all life on earth.

Radioactive and deformed toads, frogs, and lizards were found recently 90 miles north of New Orleans near the underground Tatum Salt Dome used in the 1960's for testing nuclear explosives. As a consequence, Gov. Cliff Finch of Mississippi on May 25 advised evacuation of homes in the vicinity. 32 Such mutated animals are the "canaries of the mines", warning us of our fate, as the long-lived nuclides inevitably seep into our water and food.

Familiarity Breeds Contempt What happened at Three Mile Island tells us that it is imperative to cork the nuclear Frankenstein back in the bottle as soon as possible. Quite aside from the hazard of nuclear power stations and the holocaust of nuclear war, the problem of ke'eping nuclear wastes already on hand out of the environment is almost beyond 33 the world's technical and political capability.

No one has yet come up with an acceptable plan for the safe disposal of this waste. Richard W. Reilly, Governor of South Carolina, recently announced that his state refuses to be the radioactive garbage dump of the nation: "South Carolina can no longer be the path of least resistance in seeking the national answer to nuclear waste disposal."34 Note the word, "seeking". This search has been going on 31 Washington Post, April 14, 1979, p. A-i, 6.

32 El Paso Times, May 26, 1979, p. A-9.

33 See the long and gloomy assessment in Business Week, December 25, 1978.

14 Washington Post, April 23, 1979, p. A-23.

unsuccessfully for 30 years. What is involved? At Three Mile Island, experts hope to decontaminate the reactor, washing down the walls and other surfaces, which will cost millions and take a long time. Then the nuclides in the wash water must be concentrated, and perilously shipped across the continent to Hanford, Washington, since South Carolina has rejected them.

The other course is to entomb the plant (after. it has cooled down sufficiently),

joining three other nuclear-age sarcophagi in Hallam, Nebraska; Piqua, Ohio; and Puerto Rico. According to a federal nuclear cleanup specialist, "It's a little like King Tut's tomb. You pour concrete over the whole thing, walk away and leave it sealed up for a thousand years." 35 And hope that unlike a lot of concrete, it does not crack and crumble after a few decades.

In the opinion of Rep. Morris Udall (D-Ariz), "Nuclear may be one of those 36 technologies that gets so complicated that they fall of' their own weight."

In any event, there are four profound reasons which keep most people complacent about nuclear power plants: (1) they are producing electricity; (2) the public utilities, in order to get back their investment of billions of dollars, bombard the public with false information about the safety and economy of the plants*; (3) our civilization has rather arrogantly come to believe that any chemical/physical problem can be solved; and (4) familiarity with the fear of sudden nuclear war has bred contempt for the contamination produced by the nuclear plants.

On the last point, even if the public were adequately informed, which it is not, about the creeping, invisible, and implacable pollution from nuclear plants and their wastes, where would it get the strength to worry about this, while constantly faced with the strong possibility of a nuclear war which will hopelessly contaminate the whole world in 20 minutes? With such insanity so rife, no wonder nuclear plants look sane to our leaders in business and government!

Like salamanders changing color against a dark background, our judgments reflect our eroded standards'of sanity and morality, the pro~duct of an overcrowded world, in which men and women refuse to curb their appetite for too many offspring and unnecessary machines. The Sacred Groves, the Baals, and Golden Calves we worship today - often to save us somehow from the ancient fault of excess - are the modern machines we have fabricated. And now we find that they, too, are fallible.

Nature does not permit gross imbalance in her world, and quite justly will destroy the perpetrators of that dangerous condition. She does not tolerate the familiarity which breeds contempt.

The Government's Position President Carter, in his campaign for election, took the position that he favored nuclear power only as a last resort, and led us to believe as a result of his Navy career that he was thoroughly familiar with nuclear hazards. Now we find, three weeks after the Harrisburg accident, that he wrote an unpublished letter to 35 Washington Post, April 11, 1979, p. A-24.

36 Washington Post, April 15, 1979, p. A-10.

• See footnote, p. 15

- 15 -

congressional leaders voicing strong support for expanding nuclear power, including its most dangerous variety, the plutonium breeder reactor:

"I want to emphasize that my opposition to the CRBR [Clinch River breeder reactor] does not imply opposition to breeder reactors in general or to nuclear power. Along with developing our renewable energy resources based on solar energy and fusion, :breeder reactors hold the promise of providing essentially inexhaustible supplies of electrical 37 energy."

Furthermore, solar research has been badly neglected, and Governor Rockefeller of West Virginia has stated that the Carter administration has not encouraged the coal industry. A study by the AEC in 1970 stated that a coal-fired boiler could replace the reactor in a nuclear plant, using the same turbines, electric generators, and condensers, for a cost of only 12 percent of the total investment in the nuclear plant.42 Even a cost several times as.great would leave most of the investment salvageable.

We constantly hear the argurment that nuclear energy is cleanJer than coal, based on the false assumptions that catastrophic nuclear accidents will not occur and that permanently radioactive wastes are not steadily and disastrously leaking into the environment.

We wonder if anything less than the loss of a large city from a nuclear accident will convince President Carter and his group that nuclear power should be phased out.

The arguments about the need to continue getting 13 percent* of our electric power from the atom, and about the loss of billions of dollars if nuclear power plants are abandoned, become totally inconsequential compared to the grim fate faced by humanity as carcinogenic and mutagenic nuclides inexorably accumulate in the environment.

What The United States Must Do As we chase the chimera of "inexhaustible electricity," our world of life is slipping out of our hands. Fast breeder reactors serving fast breeding populations or short-run higher standards of living will simply drown us in huclear pollution over the long run.

No other country but the United States, the most powerful and democratic in the world, can afford to take the initiative of closing down the nuclear power plants. And if we shun this burden, we do not deserve the leadership of the world, and Nature will see to it that we neither lead nor live on this precious green planet which we now despoil.

37 Washington Post, May 4, 1979, p. A-12.

• This oft-cited figure is grossly misleading. From it should be subtracted the vast amounts of energy required to prepare uranium (by "enrichment") for use in nuclear power plants. In the 1960's, this amounted to 5 percent of all the electricity used nationally. In-addition, the government enrichment plants pay no taxes, insurance, or profits to investors. (J.J. Berger, op. cit., pp. 146-147). Finally, no allowance is made for the billions of dollars which will have to be spent in the effort to keep atomic waste out of the environment.

42 U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Trends in the Cost of Light-Water Reactor Power Plants for Utilities (WASH-1150), May, 1970.

- 16 -

Addendum All the data on the Three Mile Island accident was carefully studied by the President's Commission for 6 months. Commissioner Peterson concluded, "There isn't any question that we will have future accidents as severe or more severe than Three Mile Island. The question is when exactly and where it will happen."10 Com'missioner Lewis has stated that "the results of compounded individual frailities can be so enormous, so terrifying, that it is hard for me to conceive of any trade-off that might be worth that risk ... The ultimate nuclear accident is projected to kill or sicken some 45,000 people immediately, to cause genetic damage to generations in the future and to make uninhabitable vast areas of land and water.""

With reference to the large increase in cancer downwind from the Rocky Flats nuclear plant near Denver (pp. 6-7), the latest government opinion is that the plutonium found on the soil was not due as first believed to a fire which occurred, but. to the escape of plutonium stored in leaky drums.1 Government monitoring in the vicinity has also shown that levels of resuspended plutonium in the air did not decline over five years 4, and the levels there are by far the highest of 48 sites around the world.8 Nuclear proponents argue that the planned releases of plutonium will be kept to not more than one part in a billion.2 6, This, of course, does not include frequent unplanned releases, not to mention accidents like the one at Three Mile Island.

Recent investigations show that the. government does not know how 4 tons of "special nuclear materials", consisting of plutonwum and uranium-235 used to make 3

atomic bombs, have disappeared from its inventory.

On the basis- of the containment record of the, nuclear industry to date, Gofman estimates that we would be fortunate to achieve a containment (even without a catastrophe such as Three Mile Island nearly became) of one part in ten thousand; and that in a fully developed Olutonium-energy economy, this would lead to 139,000 additional lung cancer fatalities per year in the U.S. alone. 6 A U.S. Atomic Energy Commission report has measured the average air concentrations of plutonium from U.S. weapons-testing. 7 Using this and estimations of lung depositions in humans, coupled with IL'ng cancer doses, Gofman has calculated that about 1 million lung cancer deaths over about 30 years will have occurred in the Northern Hemisphere as a result of this airborne plutonium.s The age-adjusted death rate per 100,000 population for primary cancer of the respira-tory system from 1946 to 1977 has increased 3.6 times in males and 6.4 times in females.9 J.W. Gofman, "Irrevy"--An Irreverent Illustrated View Of Nuclear Power, Committee For Nuclear Responsibility, P.O. Box 11207, San Francisco, Ca. 94101, pp. 41-42.

2 ibid., pp. 41, 66, 109, 162.

Ibid. pp. 106-107.

4 U.S. AEC Rocky Flats Plant Surveillance, monthly reports, Denver, Colorado Department of Health, 1970-1975.

S J.W. Gofman, J.A.M.A. 236: 284-286, 1976, p. 285.

6 Ibid., p. 286.

7 B.Gý Bennett, U.S. AEC Report HSAL-278, 1974, pp. 41-66.

8 U.S. Dept. of Environmental Energy, EML-363-Appendix, pp. C-138 to C-160, October 1, 1979.

9 U.S. Public Health Service publication #1677, 1968; and Dept. HEW publication #79-1120, May 11, 1979.

10 Los Angeles Times, October 30, 1979.

11 Newsweek, November 12, 1979.

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1!rch 1958) RADIATION SYNDROME n

• J 330 U. S. ARMED FORCES MEDICAL JOURNAL (Vol. IX, No. 3 60 per cent of the cases."5 The first wave of casualties had Ve&....the 20th day- after the bombing, general malaise, pharyngea pain, poor prognosis; the clinical course was fulminating; practically .and ascending unremittent fever appeared. Within a few ays, all of these patients died within 2 weeks postexposure from de_ :potechiae and ulcerative lesions of lips, mouth, and pharynx be-hydration with vascular collapse, or fatal bleeding, or septicemia: e manifest. Leukopenia and thrombocytopenia were most pro-T. ouneed w fbetween the 3d and 5th week postexposure. During this The second wave of radiation casualties entered medical care oeriod, representing clinically the critical phase of the illness, about 3 to 4 weeks after the attack. Since Iby that time the wors sve .. o d e e/nflli hAi l *L6ided and th e improvised clinical raciih1es hid fection caused the death of about 50 per cent of the patients. In been much improved, and since the Japanese medical personnel-ý. thet survivors, recovery was heralded between the 5th and 6th week had begun to understand the etiology of the unfamiliar disease by- cessation of the phlaryngitis followed by disappearance of I-clinical observations, laboratory examinations, and hospital record's ipetechiae and fever, and finally by healing of the ulcerative obtained on these patients, as compared to those on patients P

• L esions. This improvement was associated with an increase -in the first wave, were much more complete and reliable. Generally, Pt-circulating leukocytes and platelets, while red cell count and exposure had occurred in open air or in Japanese-type tlousing emoglobin content of the blood generally continued to decline, at a distance of 1,000 to .2,000 meters from the hypocenter; in the-, . 'reaching the minimum around the 6th and 8th week. Most patients occasional instances where the distance had been less than 1,000* & became completely asymptomatic at 3 months following the attack.

meters the individuals had been sheltered by heavy concrete buildE&. Ch ings. This second wave of casualties displayed the "typical he experience gained from acute radiation syndrome. A brief prodromal phase of 3 days,* radiotherapy and nuclear accidents leads to several important 1

duration was followed by a latent period lasting ' about 3 weeks t-:t, jQ conclusions.

el fulmiriating of wave Theformfirst of casualties the acute radiation syndrome represents obviously with direct During that time most of the patients continued to work; frequently ..... tag radiation to the gastrointestinaltohepithelium as the deter-damage rce e they participated in the strenuous duties of clearing the rubbishl r otr ieh

.~iiining- pathogenic factor. It then follows that these patients must of the city. In only a few instances was there a record of persistring 'iave hh.* been posed exposed totor air ds doses t nin .excess excess of Te send 50e r.'Teson of 500 weakness and easy fatigability.

attak, f th sclp he hirbcamApproximately looe; his 2 weeks after thesvpe ascnsidreki*ave .tpcl. of casualties evidently represents the- typical form m-of of the'

~ ~ eea ~ ~aase~~ ee attack, the hair of the scalp became loose; this was considered,'

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asltr lý aute ct radiation aito syndrome ydoewt with hematopoietie hmtpitcdpeso depression as ste the, an ominous sign.3 4 A few days later general malaise, fever, pu6i *etrmining pathogenic factor. These patients, therefore, must pura, and other typical complications compelled the patient'to*. 5ý- ud ve dos g o seek hospital admission. Hachiya," director of the Hiroshima e asumed tisbe to have been exposed to air doses ranging from 200 t HC00 r. These conclusions, compelling as far as the clinical Communications Hospital, describes in his diary the foll~owinig._-jihdsetmas case as characteristic: The 28-year-old female patiient had been ýsymptomatology is concerned, do not agree with dose estimates inside a solid building at 700 meters from the hypocenter. Shortlyi clculated from physical considerations. These calculations do after the bombing, she developed weakness, nausea, vomiting : yield doses higher than 500 r for the area described around the general malaise, and diarrhea. Two days later these complaints. 16::' ipocenter r]::for

. by a radius adistance -of 2,000 metersmeters, of 1,000 the they where but arrive clinical at only picture .de.-:

had vanished and physical strength .as well as appetite began. I ade return. Thereafter, she ate plenty and did light work, althougt , %l,i:nts at least 200 r. This obvious discrepancy between medical somne fatigue and malaise persisted. On the 19th day, while comb'., aId physical dose estimi:tes,hdas already attracted attention and ing, she noticed large amounts of loose hair. Recognizing tl{ s peeuaion about its caus )In the present report, precluding as a portentous sign, she asked for a physical examination on thel the.treatment of technical dosimetric problems, this interesting 22d day. Nothing abnormal was found with the exception of sevee 3 n cannot be analyzed. The physical factorýA,,o weakness, epilation of about two-thirds of the scalp area, and _`*_have been re-examined in a recent study of the bomb datk..4 marked leukopenia. She was admitted to the hospital wherelher.-I.'4. .

SUMMARY

OF DOSE-EFFECT RELATIONSHIP, condition deteriorated swiftly. In days postattack the sequencee- - -:':5 AND DEFINITION OF CLINICAL THRESHOLD of events was as follows: 25th, -petechiae and severe malaise*-,...... OR HOSPITALIZATION DOSE IN MAN 29th, anorexia, increase in size and number of petechiae, and.- nfe-d i fever of 101.5.0; 33d, weak pulse, and further enhancement animals the b3han survival time is plotted as a function of *dose, the graph petechia not proceed in a smooth curve but forms three distinct Survey of the entire JBC data revealed a rather uniform clinicaL sps. Furthermore, it can be shown that these steps reflect course for patients of the second wave. 2-4 ,2,3 33a, , 3 Aronnd.:.: three different pathogenic mechanisms. Death i. ,n,,iqa rl"

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• ~S Newsletter March 1999

./ *. ___Vews from the Pennsylvania Radiation Protection Program Thomas Gerusky, CHP As the emergency aspects of the accident wound down O n 28 March 1979, a date I will never forget, I was Director of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania's and the mundane problem of defueling and decontaminating TMI-2 became prominent, we continued to participate as representatives of the governor and the state. Initially, we Radiation Protection Program. I had been in charge of that set up with the N-RC numerous public meetings to discuss program since 1961. the need to vent the `Kr from the reactor containment.

A new administration under Governor Dick' Thornburgh We established additional environmental maonitoring pro-had just come on board and, like with every new administra- grams, reworked the emergency response plans, and served tion, some changes were destined to be made. The Secretary on the NRC's Citizen Advisory Board on the decontaina-.

of Environmental Resources had called me in and proposed tion. We testified in numerous federal and state hearings that the regulatory part of our program (x rays and radium) on the accident and our response to it.

be transferred to the Department of Health, since most of Our program gained respect in Pennsylvania. Legislation those activities involved the healing arts professions. I had was passed to provide us with additional funds, responsibility, fought successfully to keep the radiation protection program and staff. There was no more discussion on the proposal staff together when all of our activities were initially moved to split up the Radiation Protection Program.

to the new environmental department in the early seventies.

This time the arguments were falling on deaf ears.

Ray Urciuclo 7rhe morning of the accident, Jim

. Kopenhaver and I headed by car from our downtown Harrisburg state office toward TMI to check things out. Our mission was to circle the island on both sides of the river, taking meter readings along the way. We had basic instr-umenta-tion, GMs which only went up to 50 mR h"*, an alpha scintillator detector with an internal 1 R h' GM, and a survey meter with a 1," Nal crystal. Those kinds of things. No anti-Cs. No portable air sam-Tom Gerusky',

piers (not even a Hi Vol). I don't think we Then, I received a telephone call at approximately 7:00 really expected to actually find anything. We were young a.m. on the morning of 28 March informing me that an and had unquestioning faith in our technology.

accident had occurred at TMI-2, just a few miles south The instruments were turned on as we rode the elevator of Harrisburg. For the next 30 days, the radiation protection down from the fifth floor of the Fulton Bank building office was open 24 hours2.777778e-4 days <br />0.00667 hours <br />3.968254e-5 weeks <br />9.132e-6 months <br /> a day. Our whole staff responded alongside the capitol complex in downtown Harrisburg.

in a qualified and professional manner. We interacted with As we walked to the car, I noticed that the background the governor, giving him our advice on actions that needed was higher than it should be but dismissed it as a possible to be taken and continually updating him and his staff on environmental effect of going from a warm building to the current events. We interacted with the utility by establishing outside. As we started to follow the river toward Middle-an open telephone line between the reactor control room town and the Island, it began to dawn on us that the random and our office. We interacted with other state and federal chirping of the GM meter was no longer random. Readings agencies in an attempt to coordinate the response to the were slowly increasing as we went. We had actually been accident. We kept the Legislature informed. We interacted detecting the accident in Harrisburg at the 4R h- level.

with the public and the press in an attempt to keep everyone We circled the plant for the next couple of days until K fully informed of what was happening. And we attempted federal support engulfed us and made our contribution to interact with the health physics community in the area insignificant. The measurements had not been that and across the world. frightening, mostly in the l0ths of mR It, though there

March 1999 A HPS iVewstetter was a brief bubble of 5-14 mR h- that passed by the Maggie Reilly, CH Observation Center on the east side of the river. Conven-...

tional theory says that even though we were seeing the very t the time of the accident, I was.a heaIth physicist heavy gases of xenon and maybe krypton, the gases mix in the Bureau of Radiation Protection (BRP) in the at ambient temperature and do not sink. However, from Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources observation, detection was mostly confined to the riverbed --. DER). My job was to run the group, that har,-_dled emergency and valleys. As wecrossed the turnpike bridge to the north, p1anning, environmental monitoring, the Rad Lab,, and or the valleys on the west side, the readings would rise nuclear engineering (all nine of us). We 'were located in and then fall away. It seems mixing, or the lack of it, played downtown Harrisburg, about ten miles from the Island.

a greater role. "* The Bureau had a reputation for radiological "firsts" among Events fade into the past now, but three small events rstate tad programs.

stand out. A trailer village of support personnel and media Q "- Bill Dornsife, our duty officer for the month and sole grew up in the substation just south of the Observationr, /nuclear engineer, notified me at home at a few minutes Center. One morning as I walked from my car to attend.,, after 7:00 a.m. By the time I got to the office around 7:30, a meeting, it was misting rain. I raised my umbrella under Tom Gerusky was getting the word that the situation had the canopy of high voltage wires far above. Upon hearing escalated to a General Emergency. By 8:00 a.m., based a crackling sound coming from the wire ribs of the on operator dose projections and subsequent verification, umbrella, I quickly folded it back up and decided a little we called for and then canceled a recornrmendation to water never hurt anyone. Another day when the sky was evacuate downwind areas. What a way to start the day!

clear, we had stopped in the parking lot behind the My role in the accident was as liaison with Pennsylvania Observation Center to take a lunch break. While we were Emergency Management, Health and Agriculture; the rest there, the aerial monitoring helicopters all came down at of DER; USDOE, NRC, EPA, I-S/FDA; and non-essential the same time'in back of us about at the spot where the players. An unwritten role was to help kahunas avoid making training center now stands. It was impressive. The third dumb decisions.

memory involves, an end of a shift. I live 11 miles from There is at least one story behind each of the following, the plant. I could detect the releases all.the way home on observations:

Interstate 283 right up to my exit ramp a mile from the

• Reliable information and its communication to those apartment. The chirping GM finally quieted down just as who 'need it are all that matter in a crisis.

I got home. .. Post-accident dose assessment is the best motive for I only saw a small part of the action. Sometimes I was maintaining extensive, passive environmental monitoring answering, phones, fielding calls. One woman called and programs.

asked if it was safe for her child to be at college. It -turned ° Nothing beats a physical on-site presence for gathering out she was talking about a location north of Pittsburgh, reliable information.

over 200 miles away! Another morning, I spent babysit- 0 Negative data has the same dignity as positive data, a ting a local legislator. He insisted that someone be as- fact frequently forgotten.

signed to him in case he needed a translation of the , Some information/data will be bogus.

techno-babble. Politicians, news reporters, and the general a Some people will behave better.than your wildest dreams; population were all at a loss trying to understand most of some worse.

what was said. ' Basic physical requirements of the responders need atten-All in all, neither I nor my family suffered from the don: things like eating, sleeping, anda change of clothes.

event. My son was one year old at the time; he had been As one can imagine, I place events in my life as being subjected to a fetal bone x ray just before he was born before ot after the accident. The same is true for radon, because he was three weeks late in coming. Then he lived and graduate school, and so on.

through this. The result was he skipped kindergarten, The best recounting of the accident can be found in went on to be recognized in the national merit scholarship, Mitchell Rogovin's Three Mile Island-A Report to the and finished second in the Jeopardy Television College Co " "" In . " .Volume I(January.

Tournament' two years ago. My daughter was born a x*reads like a dime novel!

couple of years later and is just as intelligent, but she A bit of TMI trivia: the DOE project name for its response wears size 11 shoes. to the accident was "Ivoriy Purpose."

/J ;v-T, I 7U

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22 Helen Cadicott Nuclear Power Is Not the Answer ',1) 0Ua) 23 nuclear power plant, "One of the last things that we need to do to they consumed. DLvie Lee Ray, then-head of the AEC arrogantly this economy is to take money out of your pocket and fuel govern- claimed that the disposal of spent nuclear fuel would be "the great-ment."6 But, as we will see, the nuclear power industry's revival is est nonproblem in history" and would be accomplished by 1985.1 utterly dependent upon taking money out of the taxpayer's pocket. In fact, the year 2000 saw completion of only 103 reactors, no Before we examine the true economic realities of nuclear operating breeders, no operating reprocessing facilities, and no power it must be clearly stated to those investing millions of dollars high-level waste disposal sites whatsoever.

in this technology that they will lose all, should there be a cata- On the private financial side, the enormous expense of simply strophic nuclear meltdown in the United States or any other part constructing a nuclear reactor-double the capital cost of a con-of the world. Such an event would signal the end of nuclear power ventional coal plant-means that investors remain less than enthu-forever. A very experienced nuclear engineer, David Lochbaum, siastic. The government has offered various incentives to try to who wo f Union of Concerned Scientists is deeply con- engage private investnment in the nuclear power industry. But even

'ern-ed about the current lack o sa dards in U.S. reactors so, the rating agency Standard and Poor's recently concluded that "the industry's legacy of cost growth, technological problems, and is convinced there will be a nuclear catastroiph wi ear

. future. He said to me, "It's not if but when." It seems, therefore, cumbersome political and regulatory oversight, and the newer risks that it is a very risky business indeed to invest in nuclear power no brought about. by competition and terrorism may keep credit risk matter what the industr or the government is currently saying. too high for even federal legislation that provides loan guarantees Wcuv*si Nuclear power has been'nd to overcome.

ment subsidies at every level. The US. government spent a gargan- Caren Byrd, executive director of the global power and utilities tuan $111.5 billion on energy research and development between group at Morgan Stanley, is cautiously optimistic, saying that for the 1948 an , - 70 billion of this to t ear first time in many years Wall Street believes that new nuclear reac-7 industry alone. Over the same fifty years, $26 billion was allocated tors could become part of the nation's long-term energy future.

to oil, coal, and natural gas; $12 billion went to renewable energy She points out, however, that this forecast is largely dependent upon sources such as wind, hydro, geothermal, and solar power; and only govermnent support. She said that the Shoreham plant in New *

$8 billion went to energy efficiency technologies.' In other coun- York was closed down after construction in 1985 because of enor-=,

tries, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Develop- mous public opposition and that dozens of plants were cancelled in ment (OECD) governments spent $318 billion by the year 1992 the 1980s, while others were-plagued by long delays. "Tens of bil-specifically on nuclear energy R&D.9 lions went down the drain at that time," she said. "We can't take 1 2 With this level of government support, it is no wonder that the that risk, and the investment community~has long memories."

nuclear power industry was wildly optimistic about its future by In truth, the U.S. nuclear p-Ogram in the past has been marred 1972, the year in which the Atomic Energy Commission predicted by construction cost overruns, delays, cancellations, premature

.that the United States would have 1,000 nuclear power plants by plant closings, poor operational performance, and an inability to the year 2000, as well as reprocessing plants to recycle spent fuel find a permanent storage site for its long-lived toxic radioactive and breeder reactors that would produce as much nuclear fuel as waste. In one of the biggest cost overruns, the Seabrook reactor in

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0.7 §- ~5>C I Ida . ooss Deadat 94; A BCritIcHf SEms .Anals By KATIE HAFNER.

Ida R. Hoos, a prominent1critic of assessing: tehnologynsolely on.the Sbasis o mtematclm that:

4j4Q0W mA&?Y twI2$?

fai-r.e-totaFelaccount ofsoci:et- fac-tO4 ed on Apri 24 in:Bostn. She N-ds 94 and lived in Brookline, Mass.

The cause was coemplications of, a:

lingering case of pneumonia-, said Ju-dith'.Hoos Fox,,her daughter .

.-Dr.* Hoos, a sociologist,*wass widely.'

recognized 1as. anoutspoken- crftic of%

systems analysis came .to.i prominence after World -War 41.. The '

approach used mathematical models: ,

to perform cost-benefit analyses .and irisk *assessments on complex:.tech-:

nologiesalike radar systems and'mil-itary aircraft. Z4

.  :. ..7-Withkthe concept s.strengtheningin the' 1950s and '60s, when tihe usef .of computers to assess technology grew more popular, she wrote widely on a need to: balance it :.withother IdaR. Hoos considerations like :effects:.on the work forCe.

'A kind ofquantomania prevails in., *Vocational Services i-m-'.Boston, to the asses'sIent of -technologies;," ,Dr, help Jewish women who.wer*e'work-Hoos. .wroteirii, 1979Nin the. jurnal .better ing in the'city's garfment 'district-find Technological Forecasting.and:S0o- jobs.:

.cial Change:,,"What cannoftbe-count- In,- 1942-, she, married :Siney S.

ed:simply doesn't count; Hoos," an.economist. The couple~later sand-ýsowe 1,1 444-systematically ignore -large and im- movedz.'to Berkeley,:where Mri.ýHoos portant areas:of concern." taught ii the agriculturali economics Dr. Hoos urged national decision department at the University-of Cali-makers to take such assessments fornia. . . -

.Ida, Hoos *began to .pursue her "with a large measure of skepticism Ph.DIthere and became interested in the effects of automation and tech-nology on workers. She received her doctorate in 1959, and her~disserta-Often, this social tion was published in 1961. as "Auto-mation in the Office." Another book, scientistthought'the "Retraining the Work Force,". was published in 1967., .

king was-naked.' Dr. Hoos'eeiiained;afthe' Uiversi-ty of: California:as a-research sociolo-gist, first at its Institute of Industrial lest they lead us to regrettable, if not RelatiOns, then at the-Space Sciences disastrous, conclusions:" Laboratory. At the laboratory; where Harold A. Linstone, emeritus pro- she was the lone: social scientist, she fessor of systems science at -Port- expressed concern over the effect of land State University and longtime satellite surveillance on individual editor in chief of Technological Fore- privacy.

casting and Social Change, said Dr. She retired. from the university in Hoos was in many waysthe intellec- 1982. Over, the years, she also served tual conscience in the field of:tech- on committees at the National Sci-nology assessment.. ence Foundation, the National Acad-

"She basically pointed out that in a emy of Sciences, NASA and the De-lot of complex social and .technical partment of Energy. :

In addition to her daughter Judith, systems, a reliance on these systems of Boston, she is survived by another analysis approaches couldn't always do the'job;" Dr. Linstone said. "She *daughter, Phyllis :Danielsý* of -Gold-would not accept the superficial an- endale, Wash.; a brother, Philip Rus-sakoff of Skowhegan; three grand-swers or phony arguments." daughters; and three great-grand-Dr. Hoos also questioned the use-children.

fulness of systems analysis when Dr. Hoos. was largely unfazed by evaluating. public policy. Her 1972 being a woman in what was seen as a book,* "Systems Analysis in Public .man's'field.*, In an .unpublishedinim-Policy: -A Critique;" -cast a--critical oir; she wrote of serving *in-ei98Os eye on the prevailing methods *for on a high-level committee at the Con-evaluating education, waste manage- gressional Office of: Techniology As-ment and health care; sessment. The committee had a pre--

'"These technical-think-tank types ponderance of aerospace -industrial-were riding high," and .Dr. Hoos " ists. .

wasn't averse to pointing out that the "1i Was the only woman," she~wrote, king was naked," said Louis Feldner, "and thoroughly used to the Happy an engineer who worked with her on Hour salutation of 'Hey.fellas - oh, several technical committees over excuse me, Ida!"'.

the years. "And she was- respected On Jan. 1, 1984, Dr., Hoos was for it." . ' - " called by National Public Radio and Ida Simone Russakoff was born on asked for her thoughts on George Or-Oct. 9, 1912,. in Skowhegan,-Me., the well's predictions of universal sur-middle of seven children. Her par- veillance, now that the year had ac-ents were immigrants from Russia, tually arrived.

her father a jeweler. " "On, that subject," she -later re-She graduated from Radcliffe -- in called, *'i couldc. nly say that thanks 1933. While studying for her master's to the dramatic, developments in in-degree, which. she received from formation technology, we had al-Harvard in 1942, she founded Jewish ready been here a long time."

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Sir PAGE 2-4 Dr. Abrahamson asked whe'che Department will be wrapping up the Pregnancy Outcome Study. Dr. Tokuhata replied that he is trying to get,.it done quickly, perhaps needing another year to complete it.

THYROID/FETAL DOSE RADIATION presented by Dr. David Gur (University of Pittsburgh)

Dr. Gur began his .presentation by summarizing his involvement in the TMI studies over the last three years including the assignment of dose estimates to individuals in the 5-mile radius of TMI during the period of the accident and the assignment of dose estimates to pregnant females in the 10-mile radius. A comprehensive data base has been established for future evaluations. A 10-mile map of the area was digitized. The census data were processed and resulted in a roster of infor-mation for households and individuals. A time-dependent dose rate distribution for outdoors was developed by using relative intensity from direct measurements fitted to TLD measurements with hour by hour rotating sectors with averaging wind direction. Personal data from census file information was superimposed over this distribution to give a maximum dose for the individual. "Maximum" and "likely" doses have some differences which depend upon several things but especially on the variability between actual monitors around the plant. The results of the dose .Ž assignments are in agreement with other reports and, if anything, the assignments are somewhat conservative.

Several position -papers-have been submitted to the P-ennsyl-van-ia Department of Health relating inhalation exposures, indoor and outdoor exposure considerations, and assessing thyroid dose to the fetus. -

A handout was distributed with a sample of thyroid doses to'pregnant women and fetuses. This dose was based on inhalation alone. A shielding factor of 1.5 to 2 can be expected; therefore, the fetal dose should be lower. The~whole body dose to fetus and mother are the same. A listing was distributed which included numbers, distances, angles, and doses to the fetuses and mothers.

Dr. Morgan asked about the thyroid dose to the fetus being calculated from the estimation of inhalation of radioiodines by the mother. Dr. Gur responsed that in relation to the age of the fetus, the thyroid is not active prior to 12 weeks; at 12-16 weeks the exposure to the fetal thyroid is equal to the mother's exposure; and after 16 weeks of age, the fetal dose overshoots the mother's dose. Whole body doses are the same for the fetus and the mother. Thyroid doses are not the same.

Dr. Kramer stated that there are ventilation effects, but no attempt was made to determine a ventilation effect per household. He also felt that the evacuation might increase radiation inhalati'on. Dr. Gur replied that evacuation decreased inhalation because of the speed at which people were able to leave areas of potential exposure. Mrs. Bratz added that there is detailed information on evacuation in the pregnancy outcome file, and that doses were calculated only for women who were, pregnant during the TMI accident.

I r

PAGE 2-5 Dr,. Morgan asked if the calculations considered the release of '16 curies of

• 1-131. Dr. Gur said that a total of 15.5 curies of 1-131 were released by April 30 and that close to one-half of that was released in the first ten days.

Dr. Morgan asked if any consideration was being given to account for the millions of curies that should have been present. Dr. Gur replied that his calculations are based on actual measurements in the field. Dr. Morgan asked about a time distribution of the radiation and also whether calculations included 1-132, 1-133, 1-134, 1-135. Dr. Gur responded that they looked at possible contributions of other iodines. If other iodines were released in a puff, the total contribution would increase by a factor of .46. He continued that short lived radioiodines would not get to the fetus anyway. Dr. Gur said that iodine is a reliable indicator; the highest iodine level was found in goat milk at 90 picocuries per liter.

Dr. Gur also stated that there are certain minor differences in radiation dose estimates between the same persons in the 5-mile census and 10-mile pregnancy outcome files. He attributed this to the women telling their evacuation infor-mation in two different ways.

Dr. Gur then reviewed the summary tables with the Panel members.

Dr. Abrahamson asked if "fencepost data" (i.e., dose assignments to areas where no individuals resided) was available. Mr. Gerusky replied that the Department of Energy (DOE) has such data. Dr. Gur stated, that* there are several models of dose distribution not related to TLD measurements. The models using TLD's are similar to his own model. Mr. Gerusky added that some DOE data were derived from aircraft measurements.

Dr. Purdom questioned meteorological influences on the radiation distribution.

Dr. Gur said some of those influences were considered for the plume.

Dr. M.organ asked what the total per son-rem an-d the'maxi.mum.dose.was-..... Dr... Gur...

responded that the thyroid dose was 27 person-rems in the first few days. The highest maximum was 10 rem.

Dr. Gur said that evacuation did little to change the possible whole body gamma dose, but-thyroid dose would have been saved because of the timing of the releases.

There is a 2.5 ratio of "maximum possible" dose to "likely" dose. He felt that his "likely" dose is 40% conservative. His staff has reviewed 150 reports which have doses ranging from 2 times higher to 10 times lower than his own assignments.

There are also age-dependent correction factors for the ages, abilities, increased thyroid activity, and decreased inhalation rates in his model. In summary, for the 0-5 mile radius, there is a conservative estimate of an average of 10 mrem per person. For pregnant females, in the 0-10 mile radius, there is an estimate of an average of 3 mrem per pregnant female for whole body gamma dose. The whole body gamma dose to the fetus is the same value as for the mother but can be assumed to be lower than that due to shielding from the mother.

` ,u 71 l ti> ,v'I'

PAGE 1-4 PROBABILITY OF RADIATION CANCER CAUSATION presented by Mr. Robert Casey (Brookhaven National Laboratory)

Mr. Robert Casey of Brookhaven Laboratory spoke on the probability of causation as a method of deciding radiation health claims (specifically cancer). At pre-sent, deciding on radiation damage claims is rather arbitrary. He gave three examples of awards for radiation-induced cancer claims from the Veterans Admin-istration.

A. Exposed to 3,000 mrem gamma-radiation:

developed lymphoma.

Board decided radiation was a "probably factor"- /

ruled in favor of claimant.

B. Exposed to 0.4 rem gamma-radiation: 3 %60,11Pv'-

developed lymphoma.

Board decided there was "reasonable doubt"-

ruled in favor of claimant.

C. Exposed to 800 mrem gamma-radiation:

developed adenocarcinoma.

Board decided there was "reasonable doubt"-

awarded benefits.

Traditional tort law is usually difficult in these cases. Cancers are not identi-fiable as to cause. Courts sometimes have required "a reasonable degree of medical certainty" that a particular event (exposure) was a substantial factor in producing the disease. Common law says the plaintiff must prove "proximate cause" of injuries (a substantial factor in the disease, if not the only one). The burden of proof is on the plaintiff. The preponderance of evidence is to prove cause and effect. The possibility of causing the disease is inadequate. Questionable cases are to be resolved by court.

With cancer, there is no "proof"--no. evidence--that a specific cancer is caused by a specific incident of radiation exposure. In the past, they've looked to medical science for evidence, but only a few malignancies are such that the causa-tive agent can be identified with a high degree of probability.

"Excess incidence" is used to relate cancers to exposure. In experiments with large doses there are additional injuries produced and these are recognizable as radiation effects. These results can be extrapolated to low doses (linear assumption).

One way to use what is known to decide cases equitably is using probability of causation:

PAGE 1-5 Rr PC:

Rb + Rr where: Rr = increase due to dose Rb = baseline rate.

Baseline rates for that age and sex group (or even more specifics if applicable) can be. obtained from sources like SEER. Excess incidence due to dose can be obtained from sources such as the BEIR report--there is an assumption of linear-ity over dose ranges and time upper limits would be used. Some specific examples were given for a 25-year old male exposed to 10 rads who developed leukemia.

The risk = 2.5 x lO6 /.yr/rad.

The baseline = 36 x 106 /yr.

(10)(2.5 x 106)

PC = = 41%

(36 x 166) + (25 x 106)

Other risk factors (smoking, chemical exposure, etc.) could be included in the denominator if an appropriate baseline were used. Because of the linear assump-tion:

. . R -

Rr D= =C x RC D

where: D = dose R =risk RC = risk for unit dose Rr = increase due to dose.

Including other factors:

Rr PC :r Rr + Rb + Ro + Ra where: Rr = risk for that radiation dose Rb = baseline Ro = risk from other radiation exposure Ra = risk from other agents.

Doubling dose is when Rr = Rb, therefore:

Rr PC =50%

Rr + Rr These values will change somewhat as new BEIR values for dose and new baseline values become available but they aren't expected to change' too greatly. It would still be up to the courts or boards to decide what probability would be an appro-priate cut-off point. They could even institute sliding scales giving higher awards when the probability of causation from this particular exposure is very high and lower awards when it is lower, (therefore, less certain). On the Veterans' Admin-istration cases reported above, PC's can be computed:

PAGE 1-6 A. 3000 mrem 7% probability B. 0.4 rem 2% probability C. 800 mrem 2% probability Dr. Seltser pointed out difficulties in including other factors. The baseline rates would have to be di~fferent (rates excluding those factors). He also mentioned that instantaneous rates here are derived from lifetime rates. Dr. Morgan said this doesn't address the claims of those who, as exposed, are at risk but haven't developed cancer. He also asked how an annual rate is derived from a..

lifetime rate. Mr. Casey explained that since it's assumed to be linear, lifetime rate is divided by age. Dr. Jones pointed out thatthese factors obviously aren't linear but that's an assumption made and that's the best so far.

LONG TERM EFFECTS OF STRESS: PROPOSAL presented by Dr. Susan Streufert and Dr. Seigfried Streufert (Hershey Medical Center)

Dr. Susan Streufert and Dr. Seigfried Streufert outlined their proposal for the study of the long term physiological and task performance effects of. exposure to the TMI experience (see proposal). The proposal was submitted simultaneously to the Berger Committee and the TMI Panel for review.

The proposal covers a 10-year period, planning to study in depth about 180 adult residents, 120 of which would be residents of a ten-mile radius around TMI who

.-were. present at the ti*me.-of the TMI -a.cciden-t. The -rema-ining 60 woul-d be control.s, half from the 10 mile radius and half from 40 miles away.

The idea is to measure the cumulative effects of multiple stressors as measured

-by task performance. It is hypothesized that those persons who underwent the TMI experience have one extra major stress to cope with in their lives and that due to an "adaptive cost" their performance under other stressful situations might be different from the control persons.

The researchers feltthat a sample size of 30 in each cell was plenty high (in-finite power?) to yield meaningful results. Dr. Sheehe questioned what was so ideal about 30, as power is dependent on such things as normality, magnitude of difference being detected, multiplicity, as well as sample size. Dr. Seltser agreed.

Elements of the proposal were discussed. Dr. Morgan suggested that someone as-certain the prevalence of metalic taste in the mouth, nausea, and so on, which were apparently experienced by a number of persons at the time of the accident.

He also asked. whether the Streuferts could bring subjects in formeasurements every other year rather than every year to cut down on cost. Dr. Streufert said this could be done. Dr. Seltser asked if the stress tests were developed by the Streuferts and whether they were standardized. Dr. Streufert answered that some were and some were not.

PAGE 1-7 When asked how the samples were to be selected, the Streuferts said this would be a combination of using systematic location map, telephone directories arid also some previous study participants. Many Panel members werenot satisfied with the various aspects of the study methodology as presented by the researchers.

STRESS PROXY VARIABLES AND PREGNANCY OUTCOME:

PRELIMINARY presented by Ms. Jane Bratz and Dr. Joyce Kim (Division of Epidemiology Research, PA DOH)

In formulating the pregnancy outcome study, two basic questions were considered:

first, did pregnant women living within a 10-mile radius of the TMI plant, as a whole, experience any detectable stress effects; and, secondly, did any particular segment of the pregnant population show any measurable sign of adverse consequences..

Preliminary data with respect to three specific aspects of maternal stress-related behavior during and shortly after the TMI accident were presented; namely, increased smoking, increased drinking, and increased medication and how these stress proxy variables were related to six selected measures of adverse pregnancy outcome.

The data showed that neither fetal death nor neonatal death was correlated with maternal smoking, drinking, or medication in general. A significant correlation was found between smoking and immaturity, prematurity, and low Apgar score.

Maternal drHinking wa s aiso significant]y cbrrelat-ed with congenital anomalies and prematurity. These general observations have been reported elsewhere. However, the current important findings were related to increased medication during the TMI accident. Specifically, those mothers who increased medication during or shortly after the accident were significantly correlated to the increased risk of immaturity, prematurity, and low Apgar score.

Several Panel members asked questions during the presentation of this data. Most of the questions focused on how the variables were defined. These were explained (see Dr. Tokuhata's paper "Pregnancy Outcome Around TMI", 1981).

Dr. Muller asked if smoking information by trimester of pregnancy was available and was informed that it was available. Dr. Kramer felt that the data should also be analyzed for the measures of non-adverse pregnancy outcome.

The data also showed that increased smoking during the TMI accident was significantly correlated only with low Apgar score. Increased drinking during the TMI accident was significantly correlated only with congenital anomalies.

A further analysis indicated that both routine smoking and TMI related increased smoking were significantly correlated with low Apgar score, thus, the risk of low Apgar score cannot be attributed to the TMI accident. Likewise, the risk of congenital anomalies cannot be attributed to the TMI accident as both routine drinking and TMI-influenced drinking were significantly correlated to the incidence of congenital anomalies.

PAGE 1-8 Since the TMI-influenced medication was significantly correlated with maturity risks, the TMI cohort was divided into four subgroups according to stage of gestation at the time of the TMI accident. The data showed that immaturity and prematurity risks were significantly elevated within the third and zero trimester groups. (The zero trimester group represents women who became pregnant within 3 months after the accident.) Low Apgar score was significantly correlated only within the first trimester group.

At least three additional data analyses are scheduled. The results of these analyses (including multivariate analysis, group comparison, and internal control analysis) will clarify the relationships between increased medication due to anxiety and stress and pregnancy outcome.

Starting out the discussion period, Dr. Seltser requested and recorded the numbers for each adverse .pregnancy outcome.

Dr. Kramer then asked why a correlation coefficient was used for analysis, as opposed to numbers and rates. He also asked how the correlation coefficient was computed. It was explained that the entire cohort was used in all tables and that correlations were based on dichotomus variables. It was stated that this technique is widely used. Dr. Frederick reminded the Panel that this presentation was only a small piece of the pie. The researchers stated that correlation was only one of many other methods being used. Dr. Seltser-felt that presentations of the data should be in a format that is least apt to be misconstrued by the reviewers.

Dr. Sheehe stated that since "TMI-influenced" implies an influence caused only by TMI, a different word such as "TMI-related" (as suggested by Dr. Frederick) might be more appropriate..

y0(

Testimony of Eric J. Epstein, Chairman Three Mile Island Alert Inc.*

May 1, 2008 Re: NRC SEEKS PUBLIC INPUT ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT FOR THREE MILE ISLAND 1 LICENSE RENEWAL APPLICATION "This application does not involve the adjoining Three Mile Island 2 reactor, where a severe accident occurred in 1979. That unit has been out of service since the event. It has been defueled and decontaminated to the extent that the plant is in a safe, stable condition suitable for long-term monitoring."

(NRC Press Release)

The core melt accident occurred at TMI-2 in March-April 1979 was followed by a tax payer and ratepayer subsidized $1 billion de-fueling process. Post De-fueling Monitored Storage was approved in 1993. There is no significant dismantlement underway. GPU Nuclear retains ownership of TMI-2, and contracts to AmerGen for maintenance and surveillance activities. Both units are currently expected to be decommissioned together in 2014. Most of spent fuel was removed except for debris, defuel and contaminated parts in the primary systems. The fuel is currently in storage at the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory.

The Department of Energy has taken title and possession of the fuel.

The costs to defile TMI-2 do not include nuclear decontamination and decommissioning or restoring the site to "Greenfield".

• Mr. Epstein is the Chairman of Three Mile IslandAlert, Inc., tmia.com, a safe-energy organizationbased in Harrisburg,Pennsylvania andfounded in 1977.

TMIA monitors Peach Bottom, Susquehanna,and Three Mile Island nuclear generating stations.

1

Legacy Issues at TMI-2

1) How much fuel is left in the reactor vessel? What is the K-effecitve? (1)

2) What is the status of cork seam leakage at TMI-2? (2) Is there an underground plume? If so, has the plume migrated towards the River?

3) How many fires have occurred at this "safe and stable plant" since 199o?

(3)

4) How many non conforming conditions adverse to quality or safety have been identified at Unit-2. (ADAMS, ML073531346)

5) Does the plant have any economic value? (4) Does the NRC consider TMI-2 to be a "Brownfield" site?

6) Is this a historic site? It has a PHMC designation.

7) A historic district requires or site requires "architectural compatibility.:

Zoning ordinances usually preclude construction within certain areas of the historic district or site. Is this the reason TMI-I's is not decontaminated or decommissioned.

8) How many people work at TMI-2?

9) How would you characterize the relationship between FirstEnergy and Exelon?

1o) How would you characterize the most recent FirstEnergy tour of Three Mile Island?

11) How much was in the decommissioning fund at the time of the accident? How much is the fund now? (5)

12) How much will be needed to actual decommission the plant, i,e,. real 2008 dollars?

2

13) What is the targeted funding level for nuclear decommissioning?

14) Is there any reason TMI-2 can not be decommissioned or decontaminated while TMI-1 is operating? Please provide the safety and technical challenges that preclude immediate cleanup of TMI-2.

15) How many other licensees does holding a POL or materials license have been convicted of a felony? (6)

16) Please provide a study or empirical data that demonstrates it is safe to store high level radioactive waste on an island next to a river that empties into the Chesapeake Bay?

17) What assurances exist that TMI-2 will not became a HLRW site for

,spent fuel from other Exelon sites?

Three Mile Island Unit-1 "Three Mile Island 1 was not affected by the accident and has had a safe operating record for many years."(NRC Press Release)

18) How many people work at TMI-i? How many people worked at TMI-1 when AmerGen purchased the plant from GPU? How many people does the NRC project will be working at TMI-I in 20 years?

19) Is it unusual for a licensee to to go through four vice presidents for one nuclear reactor in eight years? What is the average industry term a Vice president serves at a reactor site?

20) Can you factor economics, staffing levels, or the tax base into a relicensing decision?

21) Can the NRC relicense a plant for less than 20 years? Has the NRC extended a license for more than 40 years, but less than 20 years? If so, please identify the plant and the extension conditions. (7)

22) Hasn't TMI's license already be extended by 6 years? (8) 3

23) TMI-1 continues to operate with the most damaged steam generating tubes in the country. From November 1981 to January 1982, GPU discovered it had damaged over 29,000 steam generator tubes at TMI-1.

(9)

Is there an operating plant with more plugged steam generating (SG) tubes? If so please identify the plant and the number of plugged tubes.

24) Is there an operating plant with more plugged SG tubes as an overall percentages? If so please identify the plant and the percentage of plugged tubes.

25) Is there an operating plant with more sleeved steam generating tubes?

If so please identify the plant and the number of sleeved tubes.

26) Is there an operating plant with more sleeved SG tubes as an overall percentage? If so please identify the plant and the percentage of sleeved tubes.

27) Exelon Nuclear has selected Washington Group International and Areva Inc. to replace two steam generators at Three Mile Island.

"The project will require workers to cut a hole through the 4-foot-thick concrete walls of the reactor containment building. The work will be done during the refueling and maintenance outage in the fall of 2009, said Ralph DeSantis, spokesman for AmerGen Energy, operator of TMI and a subsidiary of Exelon. Exelon has budgeted $280 million for the work."

(The Patriot News, October 28, 2006)

Is it realistic to believe that the NRC would not factor a $280 million investment in the license extension process?

28) "The major overhaul will put the nuclear power plant in better position to be re-licensed in 2014, the company said."

How is this not a down payment on relicensing?

4

29) Shouldn't the NRC extend the life of TMI to coincide with its inability to offload its fuel core? (io)

30) The National Academy of Sciences issued a report that had been requested by Congress in March 2005. The report questioned the safety and security of highly crowded spent fuel pools currently storing the nation's nuclear inventory The report concluded that the government does not fully understand the risks that a terrorist attack could pose to the pools and ought to expedite the removal of the fuel to dry cask storage casks that are more resilient to attack.

Since reracking has produced very dense spent fuel pools at TMI, shouldn't the utility also be applying for additional spent fuel storage capacity? When will TMI-1 loose off-load capacity?

31) Barnwell S.C. announced that it will close to generators on June 20, 2008.

The NRC staff concluded that there was no new and significant information and therefore there would be no impacts of low level waste storage and disposal associated with the renewal term. The GEIS stated that, "...The maximum additional on'site land that may be required for low-level waste storage during the term of a renewed license and associated impacts will be small."

TMI is located on Susquehanna River so any leaking contaminants from waste storage facilities will flowtowards and eventually into the Bay.

There are no monitoring wells lining the shoreline.

We deserve to know what the LLRW storage plans are before the application is decided; so that the re-licensing decision does not prejudge any LLRW storage decision.

Where will the LRW going to be stored? For how long? And will the location be above the flood plain?

5

32) The federal relicensing system used to ensure nuclear plants are safe to operate for an extended period beyond their original license of 40 years, has come under sharp criticism. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission's (NRC) Office of Inspector General (OIG), Audit of NRC's Renewal Program (OIG-o7-A--15) found key safety evaluations lacked critical documentation.

Essentially, DLR [the Division of Licensing Renewal] lacks a complete report quality assurance process to ensure documentation of the staffs aging management program review methodology and substantive support for staff conclusions.

(OIG-07-A-15, September, 2007, p.11.)

Currently, Pennsylvania has three nuclear stations involved in the relicensing process: Beaver Valley Nuclear Generating Station (Shippingport), the Susquehanna Steam Electric Station (Berwick), and the Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station (Londonderry Township).

What guarantees exist that the NRC will not perform a "cut and paste" job at TMI?

Essentially, DLR [the Division of Licensing Renewal] lacks a complete report quality assurance process to ensure documentation of the staffs aging management program review methodology and substantive support for staff conclusions.

(OIG-o7-A-15, September, 2007, p.il.)

33) Why not emulate the conditions in Sarbannes Oxley for corporate officers, and allow NRC staff to sign-off on the license extension subject to a bonus for good performance and a felony for material false statements?

34) How many NRC staff members are here this evening?

35) How many staff members will be here in 20 years?

6

36) The disposal of highly radioactive waste contained in nuclear reactors' used, or spent, fuel rods poses another serious problem. This waste must be isolated for at least tens of thousands of years, if not longer. It ultimately should be stored in a permanent, underground geologic repository, but the proposed site at Yucca Mountain in Nevada may never be licensed. The report recommends that the Department of Energy identify other potential sites. In the interim, the report concluded that the waste can be stored safely in dry casks for the next 50 years, but only if the casks are hardened against attack by surrounding them with earthen berms. Currently, casks are sited in the open on concrete slabs.

When will TMI build dry cask storage casks at TMI to store spent fuel?

37) Howmany DOE employees are in attendance?

38) What's the industry average for "inattentive" or "sleeping" workers compared to the number of incidents at TMI over the last two years?

39) The Ninth Circuit Court said the NRC violated the National Environmental Policy Act when it didn't include a terrorist attack in an environmental impact report for an application to create dry cask storage at the Diablo Canyon Power Plant?

What impact will Diablo Canyon spent fuel case have on the TMI license extension? (11)

40) What is the impact of an aging workforce on relicensing? What is the average age of the TMI workforce and how does it compare to the industry average?

41) Tritium and other leaks - examples and NRC policy on self-monitoring

- also exist at Three Mile Island. How has the NRC changed modified its relicensing process to evaluate tritium monitoring?

7

42) How does the NRC plan to deal with the following water related issues and structural challenges caused by:

Micro fouling versus macro foiling, micro biologically influenced corrosion, biofilm's disease causing bacteria such as Legionella and listeria, the difficulty in eliminating established biofilms, oxidizing versus non-oxidizing biocides, chlorine versus bleach, alkaline versus non-alkaline environments, possible decomposition into carcinogens, and the eastward migration of Asiatic clams, zebra mussels and the anticipated arrival quagga mussels?

3 9) "Whether the kills are legal or not, a former southern Lancaster County worker at the Peach Bottom nuclear plant said he was "sickened" by the large numbers of sport fish he saw sucked out of the Susquehanna.

"When the water comes in, fish would swim in through tunnels and swim into wire baskets," said the man who lives in southern Lancaster County and asked that his name not be used. "There were hundreds and hundreds of fish killed each day. Stripers and bass and walleye and gizzard shad and all kinds of fish. It took a forklift to carry them out. "Every species in the river comes in there when they turn those big intakes on." (Intelligencer Journal, January 15, 2005)

TMI has a similar system for disposing of the fish and other organisms that make it through the intake maze. "If they get that far, they're not going back," said Pete Ressler, a spokesman for TMI owner Exelon Nuclear. "They are dumped into a container and disposed of."

Will this system function in the same manner for an additional 20 years?

"The NRC has approved license renewal for 48 generating stations and 38 other license renewal applications are pending or have been announced."

(TMI Press Release)

40) How many companies applying for license extensions have been denied?

8

41) How many companies applying for license extensions are actually incorporated in the same state as the operating plant?

42) How many Company's applying for a license extension have been fined for stealing water?

43) Can TMI afford to shutdown or is the decommissioning fund underfunded? (12)

44) How much money does TMI have in its dedicated decommissioning fund? (13)

45) What is the targeted funding level for decommissioning TMI-I?

46) What is the funding level for decommissioning TMI-1 in real, 2008 dollars?

47) How much high level radioactive waste is currently stored at TMI?

48) How much additional HLRW will be stored if the plant if it is relincensed?

49) In January, the NRC's Inspector General issued a report highly critical of the NRC, noting the agency has known since 1994 that the Hemyc barrier fails fire tests in minutes - less than half the duration required by NRC regulations. Of the 16 plants the IG found to be in violation, six are owned by NC-based Progress Energy and Duke Energy. To compensate for the years of noncompliance - the NRC is allowing the plants to rely on "interim" measures that have been neither tested nor approved by the agency.

What interim fire protection measures have been deployed at TMI?

9

50) On September 12, 2007, Mr. Epstein filed a "Petition For Rulemaking Requiring Periodic Comprehensive NRC Review Of Emergency Planning Around U.S. Nuclear Power Plants During The License Renewal Process?"

Also pursuant to NRC Regulations Section (D) of §2.802, this petition requests the Commission immediately suspend all licensing proceedings throughout the United States until validation of "reasonable assurance of adequate protection of the population" has been re-established by the NRC for all US Licensees. (14)

What impact does this filing on the present proceeding?

10

ENDNOTES 1 CORK FILLED CONSTRUCTION JOINT within AUXILIARY BUILDING SEAL INJECTION VALVE ROOM

- October 22, 1993 (pm) In a phone conversation with Dave Beaulieu (NRC/TMI), Eric Epstein reported a safety allegation relating to the inability of the cork in an Auxiliary Building joint to contain the spread of radioactive contamination. Mr. Epstein also stated that the issue should have been included in the PDMS close out schedule. Mr. Beaulieu recorded Mr. Epstein's allegation and reported to NRC Region I.

In response to Mr. Epstein's concerns, Mr. Beaulieu stated: "...hasn't been written in Inspection reports.. .Contamination there and moving slowly.. .and not

[an] immediate safety concern... Radiation can deteriorate lining if it is high enough.. .Talked about making it a PDMS issue.. .It's a concern to me, to Lee

[Thonus/NRC] to everybody... [GPU is at the stage of] data collection process."

- October 24, 1993 (evening) Phoned Rich Janati, DER/BRP, and left a message on his home phone informing Mr., Janati of the safety allegation.

- October 25, 1993 (8:30 am) Mr. Janati returned Mr. Epstein's call: "Aware of this issue ...General Review Group brought it up twice [Mr. Miles]...They're aware of it...We do have a concern... Couple of options considering: 1) Remove whole thing.. .very costly. 2) Other option: find where the leaks are and stop the leaks. Come up with new materials [foam]...We're hoping they're doing it as soon as possible. Expressed our concern to NRC, but we don't have enforcement authority. Going to cost bucks... Removing is probably the last [option] because

[of] the cost and material disposal issues.

- October 25, 1993 (8:45 am) Ralph DeSantis, GPU Nuclear was informed of Mr. Epstein's concern. A letter was prepared and sent to GPU, their legal counsel, Mr. Epstein's counsel and the ASL&B. (See enclosure.)

- October 25, 1993 (8:50 am) Mr. Epstein contacted Dr. Michael Masnik, NRC/Bethesda and informed of previous discussions. Mr. Masnik explained:

"...part of the problem [GPU/NRC] weren't sure of the extent of the contamination.. .conflicting information.. .came to a head within the last couple of weeks. I have a better understanding. It is going to be a PDMS issue. No way they're going into PDMS with water [500 gallons] in crack. They owe us a letter."

11

- October 25, 1993 (1:oo pm) Michelle Evans, Senior Resident Inspector NRC/TMI, phoned Mr. Epstein to request that he withdrawal the allegation for the time being and proceed informally. Mr. Epstein agreed.

- October 26, 1993 (pm) Mr. Epstein recontacted Lee Thonus, NRC/TMI-2, and arranged to meet with him to discuss the cork seal problem.

- October 27, 1993 (8-9:30 am) Lee Thonus NRC/TMI-2 explained issues relating to cork seal problem: "Cork does not serve any structural purpose.. .Just keeps them [concrete slab flow] from separating... Prevent ground water from getting in.. .Radioactive water leaking in... [Cork] in tact on bottom.. .Captured

[in punch list on Auxiliary Building] and we won't break out separate item."

GPU now pursuing with a "higher level of interest." The water was pumped out but leaked backed in "gradually." The water contains Cesium-137 and "significantly" smaller amounts of Strontium. Tritium levels are "very, very small .oo9...more than a factor of two below AGW...1O-20 curies in cork seal..."

Approximately 6oo-1ooo gallons in seal cork boundary. Leaks occurring from roof, horizontal and vertical joints. Expecting letter from GPU on November 15, 1993. Radioactivity can not degrade plastic [liner] over 40 years: "Radiation contamination calculation was 3% of depletion..."

- Conversation with Lee Thonus of NRC (Third week, March, 1996): "We closed out cork seam. On tracking system... On autopilot... [GPU] has an adequate program to look at it... It hasn't evaporated... [Check cork seam] At least weekly..."

- July 23, 1996 Telephone message from Ralph DeSantis, GPU Nuclear:

There was extra water "about three months ago... primarily from winter snow and rain. At no time was there a problem with the processing [of] that amount of water. Levels well within system capacity for processing the water." The water levels have returned to normal.

12

2

SUMMARY

OF REMAINING FUEL at TMI-2 Video estimate of remaining fuel at TMI-2 (GPU) GPU concluded there was 85o kilograms of fuel remaining at TMI-2.

Defueling Completion Report (GPU) - GPU's video camera and visual inspection of the amount of fuel remaining in TMI-2: 608 kilograms; Criticality 94. According to Dr. Mike Masnik supervisor of the NRC effort at TMI-2, the NRC was intimately involvement in this project.

Safety Evaluation (NRC) - The NRC staff approves GPU's fuel estimate based on their own visual analyses.

Distenfeld Study (GPU) - As part of the fuel storage agreement with the Department of Energy (DOE), GPU predicted there was 1,322 kilograms of fuel remaining in TMI-2. GPU tried to determine how much fuel was left at, and around, the reactor vessel by subtracting the amount of fuel used when TMI-2 began operation from the amount of fuel remaining at TMI-2. The difference was supposed to be in DOE's possession. Clearly, Distenfeld's figures raised "concern" for GPU and the NRC and both entities recognized there was a "potential for more fuel." However, Dr. Masnik noted "Quite frankly we had some questions on Distenfeld's [criticality analyses study.] "

• When Dr. Michio Kaku asked Lee Tonus (NRC site staff) for a copy of Distenfeld's study he was told it was available in the Public Document Room.

Then Tonus admitted he didn't know where it was published.

In fact the document is so obscure and the only record of its contents is a conference proceeding of the Institute for Nuclear Material Management.

Phone conversations with NRC staff in early to mid April, 1993.

Rasmussen Study (GPU) - GPU commissioned Norman Rasmussen to critique Distenfeld's study; however, nowhere in Rasmussen's study is Distenfeld name's found. Rasmussen concluded there was 935 kilograms of fuel remaining at the bottom of TMI-2. According to Dr. Masnik, Rasmussen's study is the "best estimate." This study concedes that super-criticality could result with the removal of the neutron "poison" (borated water.) This scenario is unlikely but possible during an explosion, fire or crash.

13

Kaku's Study (TMI-Alert/TMI-Legal Fund): After evaluating the above mentioned studies, Dr. Kaku noted: "It appears that every few months, since 199o, a new estimate is made of the core debris, often with little relationship to the previous estimate...estimates range from 608.8 kg to 1322 kg...This is rather unsettling, because there is significantly more than enough uranium debris to give critical mass. The still unanswered questions are therefore:

precisely how much uranium is left in the core, and how much uranium can collect in the bottom of the reactor to initiate re-criticality."

3 August 5, 1992 - GPU "declared an event of potential public interest when the Unit-2 west cooling tower caught fire." The fire lasted for ten minutes.

"On July 2, [2003] area firefighters and the Pennsylvania State Police responded to the electrical fire that damaged the turbine building's switchgear room at TMI Unit 2. "Although a five-member AmerGen fire brigade also responded to the blaze, Akron, Ohio-based FirstEnergy is responsible for the operation of TMI Unit 2...

"The company will spend more than $1oo,ooo to replace the damaged 55-gallon drum-sized transformer, switchgear, wires and other equipment damaged in the smoky blaze, he said.

"For the next two months, while workers repair the equipment, TMI Unit 2 will use temporary lights, Wilkins said. "It's not unusual for a transformer to fail," Wilkins said. "It's not unheard of." (York Daily Record) 4 Unit 2 at TMI was pronounced worthless by First Energy in a lawsuit against Dauphin County." The deal means the plant will be exempt from property taxes after the assessment on the reactor and its contaminated site was readied from $16.2 million to zero.. .First Energy Spokesman Scott Shields said the company considers Unit 2 useless and has absolutely no plans for building on the land." (Nuclear Engineering International, April 1, 2005)

TMI-2's turbine(s), which is for sale, has value and use if accelerated stress corrosion or relicensing force TMI-1 to seek a replacement.

TMI-1 and TMI-2 were built with Westinghouse turbines, and 1500 and 18oo rpm pressure turbine discs. The NRC staff, and Westinghouse's Turbine Division determined on November 20, 1979 that cracking attributed to stress corrosion phenomena had been found in these turbines.

14

Resale value needs to be determined, but a high-quality used turbine at TMI-2 could have enormous resale value. The Cooper Nuclear power plant in Nebraska is replacing both turbines. Cooper is a 778-MWe, BWR that came on line at roughly the same time as TMI-1 (July, 1974). The price for replacing both turbines to accommodate a 2o-year relicensing extension is $35 million.

5 In July 199o, GPU submitted its funding plan for placing $229 million in escrow for radiological decommissioning.

February, 1997 - In their 1997 Annual Report, GPU reported that the cost to decommission TMI-2 doubled in four years. The original $200 million projection has been increased to $399 million for radioactive decommissioning. An additional $34 million will be needed for non-radiological decommissioning. The new funding "target" is $433 million; or a 11o% increase in just 48 months.

According to the NRC , as of September, 2004, $421 million resides in the TMI-2 Decommissioning Fund (2003 dollars.)

A recent withdrawal for an undisclosed amount was made on February 14, 2005 to dispose of TMI-2 filters stored at the INEGL in Idaho.

6 February 29, 1984 - A plea bargain between the Department of Justice and Met Ed settled the Unit 2 leak rate falsification case. Met Ed plead guilty to one count, and no contest to six counts of an 11 count indictment.

The Company also agreed to pay a $45,000 fine, and establish a $1 million dollar interest-bearing account to be used by the Pennsylvania Emergency Management Agency. The Settlement stipulated that the fines, emergency preparedness fund, and legal cost of the prosecution, would not be paid by GPU/Met Ed rate share holders. (See May 22, 1979, for initial complaint.)

7 "The California Public Utilities Commission approved a massive $680 million renovation that would extend the life of the San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station by at least 13 years.

"The commission on Thursday gave Southern California Edison the green light to replace four aging steam generators that power the two nuclear reactors at the seaside plant about 6o miles south of Los Angeles. (AP Wire: Regulators approve plan to extend life of SoCal nuclear plan, Fri, Dec. 16, 2005 )

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8 Three Mile Island began commercial operations in September 1974.

9 Status of damaged SG tubes at TMI. The limit on out-of -service tubes is 2,000 per generator out of 15,531 per generator.

A: 14,019 in service at the end of 2003.

B: 14,979 in service at the end of 2003.

The new standard will increase the plugging limit to 3,1o6.*

NRC reported plugging at Steam Generator A: 1,300 NRC reported plugging at Steam Generator B: 395 Sleeved in A: 248 (Examined)

Sleeved in B: 253 (Examined)

Update provided by Rich Barkely: #610-337-5o65 of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.

The old SGT limit is 2,000 per generator out of 15,531 per generator.

The new standard will increase the plugging limit to 3,1o6.

NRC reported plugging at Steam Generator:

A: 1,300 A: 1,512 (2003)

NRC reported plugging at Steam Generator B: 39 B: 552 (2003)

Sleeved in A: 248 Sleeved in B: 253 16

10 Exelon is in the process expanding of a spent-fuel storage capacity. The project will last from 2002-20o9 and re-rack "wet storage". AmerGen is increasing capacity through three phases:

Source: AmerGen and Exelon Meeting with EFMR on January23, 2003, at the Three Mile island Training Center, S 1-2: Peach Bottom-2 & -3 and Three Mile Island-1, Meeting & Action Items.

• Phase 1 - Complete;.

• Phase 2 - Completed in mid-2003. An additional 216 re-racked cells added were installed, or enough for three, refueling cycles, were installed.

• Phase 3 - To be completed by mid-2009, and would add another 432 re-racked cells extending storage capacity through 2018. (4)Because of the additional capacity, and Three Mile Island-1 core size, (177) the Company will not lose full core off -load capability until 2018. In other words, lack of waste storage space will not force TMI to close prior to its license expiration.

"The configuration of spent fuel pools is essentially the same for all nuclear power plants. The pools are rectangular in vertical and horizontal cross section.

The spent fuel assembles are stored in racks at the bottom of the pool. Insertion or removal of the fuel assemblies is accomplished vertically from above the storage racks. The 13.5 to 14.5 foot long -fuel rods must remain submerged during fuel removal or insertion into the racks; thus, for this reason alone, the spent fuel pool must be at least 27 feet deep. However, an additional eight to ten feet of water is required for shielding an irradiated fuel assembly just removed from the reactor.

The spent fuel pool depth must therefore be approximately 40 feet. The direct radiation at the the pool surface from the fuel stored at the bottom is very low because of the water depth of about 25 feet above the top of the irradiated fuel assemblies is equivalent to about lo to 11 feet of concrete shielding value."

(David Lochbaum, Union of Concerned Scientists, "Nuclear Waste Disposal Crisis", Spent Fuel Pools, p. 52., 1996.)

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11 WASHINGTON, Jan. 19, 2007 (UPI) -- The U.S. Supreme Court decision Tuesday not to hear an appeal by a California nuclear company means federal regulators will have to decide how to factor in terrorist attacks when evaluating environmental impacts of nuclear waste storage.

In denying Pacific Gas & Electric's appeal of a June 2 ruling by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals in San Francisco, the high court may have forced the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission to address the threat of terrorist attacks on nuclear facilities like it hasn't in the past.

The appellate court said the NRC violated the National Environmental Policy Act when it didn't include a terrorist attack in an environmental impact report for an application to create dry cask storage at the Diablo Canyon Power Plant near San Luis Obispo, Calif.

12 Study: Yankee can't afford shutdown Rutland Herald Nov 15, 2007 By Susan Smallheer Herald Staff "VERNON If Vermont Yankee nuclear plant shut down today, or even in 2012 when its federal license expires, there would not be enough money in its decommissioning fund to pay for it to be dismantled and disposed of safely."

"The plant would have to be essentially mothballed for 12 to 15 years for its stock market-invested trust fund to build so there was enough money to dismantle it, Entergy Nuclear engineer David McElwee told the Vermont State Nuclear Advisory Panel Tuesday evening."

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13 Exelon manages the money in an externally, segregated sinking fund.

According to AmerGen, the last official accounting for the fund demonstrated the Company was making progress towards their savings goal:

The amount of decommissioning funds accumulated through December 31 , 2002 was $ 285.2 million. However, [u]under the plant purchase agreement, there is no remaining amount to be collected from the previous owner [.] A two percent annual real rate of return is being assumed on the decommissioning trust funds. Financial assurance for decommissioning continues to be provided by the prepayment method, coupled with an external trust fund. (Jeffrey A. Benjamin, Vice President, Licensing and Regulatory Affairs, AmerGen Energy Company, LLC, March 31, 2003)

As part of the purchase agreement between GPUN and AmerGen, GPUN agreed to prefund the TMI-i decommissioning trust account for at least $303 million. This amount exceeds the minimum amount required by the generic formulas in 10 CFR 5o.75(c), and thus allows AmerGen to buy TMI-1 without providing additional assurance for any unfunded portion of the decommissioning cost estimate. However, in an effort to forestall any adverse Federal income tax consequences from the sale of TMI-1 and the buildup of additional decommissioning funding required under the terms of the sale, GPUN and AmerGen proposed that GPU Energy (the three owner subsidiaries of GPU, Inc., the parent company of GPUN) hold the decommissioning trust until such time as the U.S. Internal Revenue Service (IRS) issued a favorable ruling on the tax consequences related to the transfer of TMI-1 decommissioning funds. (Dr. William Travers, EDO, NRC, "Lessons Learned from the Transfer of the Operating Licenses of the Three Mile Island-i and Pilgrim Nuclear Power Stations, July 1, 1999).

Several months later, Exelon spokesman Craig Nesbitt stated, "All of our sites are fully funded for decommissioning. They are on track to be fully funded now, and they will be fully funded when the time comes to decommission" (LancasterNew Era, December 3, 2003).

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14 September 12, 2007 Ms. Annette Vietti-Cook Secretary US Nuclear Regulatory Commission Washington, DC 20555 Re: Petition For Rulemaking Requiring Periodic Comprehensive NRC Review Of Emergency Planning Around U.S. Nuclear Power Plants During The License Renewal Process

Dear Ms. Vietti-Cook,

Pursuant to the N4RC's §2.802 rulemaking process, I'm writing to submit a petition for rulemaking.

This petition seeks new NRC rulemaking requiring periodic comprehensive NRC review of emergency planning around U.S. nuclear power plants during the license renewal process for the purpose of making a new finding of reasonable assurance of adequate protection of the population.

Also pursuant to NRC Regulations Section (D) of §2.802, this petition requests the Commission immediately suspend all licensing proceedings throughout the United States until validation of "reasonable assurance of adequate protection of the population" has been re-established by the NRC for all US Licensees. Thank you for your assistance with this issue.

Sincerely, Eric Epstein Three Mile Island Alert 410o Hillsdale Rd.

Harrisburg, PA 17112 (717) 541-1101 20