ML20135A492

the Regulation and Use of Radioisotopes in Today'S World

ML20135A492
Person / Time
Issue date:	07/31/1996
From:	NRC OFFICE OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS (OPA)
To:
References
NUREG-BR-0217, NUREG-BR-217, NUDOCS 9612030258
Download: ML20135A492 (20)

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l

i The regulation and use of radioisotopes in today's world Introduction ... 1 Table Of CODfentS Why Are Radioisotopes Useful? .3 Where Do Radioisotopes Come From and Who Regulates

Their Use? .6 What Is the Role of the U.S. Nuclear i Regulatory Commission? . .7 Ilow Are Radioisotopes Used in Medicine?. .10 Diagnostic Applications. 10 Therapeutic Applications. .13 IIow Are Radioisotopes Used in Industry?.. 16 Irradiation and Treatment of Materials With Radioisotopes.. .17 Measuring and Testing Applications - . 20 Industrial Radiography - . 23 Ilow Are Radioisotopes Used in Agriculture? 24 Food Irradiation ar.d Its Safety . . 25 What are Other Uses of Radioisotopes? . . 27 Geology, Archeology, and Space.. 27 Conclusion.. . 29

< Appendix: Some of the Major Uses of Radioisotopes in the United States . -. . 30

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M p, More than 100 years ago, scientists lntroduction L,. discovered that many elements com-  !

),  % ,

. J, /W - monly found on earth occer in differ-

+ ent atomic confieurations. These vary-o.m.. -

l ~ 'h- . ing configurations, called isotopes, j  ; _ were found to have identical electroni-

, ,.. ,. . w,#X cally charged particles and identical r .4 j , 7; p., .g . a- - gg , chemical properties, but different

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atomic weights and physical properties.

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s.& a It was soon discovered that some iso-3 .

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F- , topes of elements were radioactive.

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] i g.-s The dense central portion (called the

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,- .g &$fg nucleus) of an atom of the element i Dp%f%  ;,gg6 emits energy in several different forms.

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~ Jt MS=, V U Radioisotopes are simply atoms with ,

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'.w:.@ ,m ' W e. gip nuclei that are seeking a more stable I k

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diation. Scientists have learned that i ,

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1, more radioisotopes could be created by ,

subj.ecting certain elements to radiation s

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l ;e. e% inside a nuclear reactor or bombard-

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La 7 e. A wniD Gradually we have learned to harness l l

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'W' these radioisotopes for use in our mod- l

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- lw ern, high-tech world. In this brochure j

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w

, . +v*ag_n; i are described some of the most com-  !

m: a.  % h, .g :,;

gp w- w" mon uses for radioisotopes, as well as

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the relative benefits and hazards in-

.s  ; . . a volved in their applications. The ap-W . , .: u  ?- ,

pendix at the end of this brochure de-M .~

M.  :. ffQeyv (' mr 9 > scribes various uses of radioisotopes on

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w .

s N .~ m this country.

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i i

i INSIDETHE ATOM Also explained are the A few radioisotopes occur naturally but Why Are

~

properties of radiation most are man made. A radioisctope is Radioisotopes that enable it to change typically described by its name fol- Useful?

e the physical character- lowed by a number, such as carbon-14 istics ofcertain materi- (C-14) or fluorine-18 (F-18). The i

, i als. Because they emit number represents the atomic weight i  ! i tell-tale ionizing radia- or the total number ofprotons and neu-i I

ME[

c- -- --

tion, extremely small quantities of radio-trons that make up the atom's nucleus.

l isotopes can be traced Radioisotopes have unique properties Radioisotopes emit and measured using special equipment. that make them useful tools in solving different kinds of i , This property makes them a useful problems, radiation.

diagnostic tool in medicine. The radiation from some radioisotopes can Three predominant types of radiation penetrate thick metal parts and provide , are emitted by radioisotopes: (1) alpha

, a way to "see" inside objects that are particles, (2) beta particles, and i  ; impenetrable to light. Radiation (3) gamma rays. The different types I deposits sufficient energy in human of radiation can penetrate materials of l tissue to disrupt normal cell function as i varying thicknesses such as paper, it passes through, thus providing ; body tissue, or concrete. A single sheet . Penetratingpower a unique method of attacking and ' of paper will stop an alpha particle,  !

ofradiation destroying cancerous cells and tumors. '

which, because l Radiation can also be used to kill bac- l it is heavy, has

' ~

l teria and germs that contaminate medi- very little pen- ,,, *. . -

l cal instmments and some foodstuffs. j etratmg power. '

e

{  !  ; Alpha emitters ..= issasessusass . , ,- l 1 l Finally, this brochure describes the re- are typically ( ,

.- i

! sponsibilities of the U.S. Nuclear ~used in smoke -------~~~ - ~ ~ * ' .-

l l Regulatory Commission (NRC), some other Federal agencies, and the States, detectors. Athin sheet of metal N

i in regulating the manufacture, use, and ! will stop a beta - . ;  !

i possession of radioactive materials. l particle, which, ,

I  !

1 I '

i l

2 3

i i MMtegulation sp( QQg gg 7 i

because it is lighter, is more penetrat- We can trace the movement ofa chemi- - Radioisotopes of a ing than an alpha particle. Beta emit- cal element by using a radioisotope of chemical element ters such as strontium-90 (Sr-90) are that element. For instance, the chemi- behave in the same used in the treatment of eye disease. cal element iodine concentrates natu- . manner as a stable, Gamma rays, which have no charge rally in the thyroid. By usir; a radio- nonradioactive or weight, can be extremely energetic active isotope ofiodine as a tracer, a element.

and highly penetrating. Several meters picture can be taken of the material's ,

i of concrete or several millimeters of path through the body and its deposit l other dense materials, such as lead, are in a specific organ. i Half-life decay needed to block gamma rays. Radio-isotopes that emit gamma rays are used , ,,, ,

After one half-life only halfthe frequently in medical applications ,,,,,,,, ,. ,,i:,:i:l!!!!

jiGil::.:;l,G radioactivity remains.

against tumors, and in industry to check .}j

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for cracks or flaws in valves and pip- i i.[.; .h.. 8.ij#.h.,.,j.,,'i,. .,. ..,,

! ing. Because of their varying penetrat- l ii/II .'.i.,l,, .!*(:.:*:.'i,i '

3 ing properties, radioisotopes can be ma- i

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nipulated to perform different tasks. i ,ig:[!I.

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Q Thelength of a The process of radioactive decay, in

• radioisotope's life which radioisotopes lose their radio- - 3,;.j,..

r is predictable. activity over time, is measured in half- *

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• F*"'"*""**

lives. A half-life of a radioactive ma-t terial is the time it takes one-half of *

• the atoms of the radioisotope to decay 1  ? . . -

by emitting radiation The half-life of i -

a radioisotope can range from fractions ! Six Half-Uwes of a second (radon-220) to millions of l years (thorium-232). When radio- l , ,

isotopes are used in industry or medi- l l cine, it is vital to know how rapidly ; I they disappear, so that the precise l Ten HaMves amount of radioisot6pc available for l After ten half-lives only one thousandth the medical procedure or industrial use i ofthe radioactivity remains. j is known. '

i 4 5

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. 1 i ,

i Where Do Radioisotopes come from three The licensing and regulation of radio '

Radioisotopes sources: (1) from nature, such as isotopes in the United States are shared l Come From and Who radon in the air or radium in the soil; by the NRC, the U.S. Environmental !

(2) from machine-produced nuclear Protection Agency (EPA), and many Regulates Their Use? State governments. The EPA is also interactions in devices, such as linear 4

accelerators and cyclotrons; or responsible for, among other things, i j (3) from nuclear reactors. setting air emission and drinking l t waterstandards forradionuclides.The i A linear accelerator is a long, straight States regulate radioactive substances !

tube in which charged particles gain that occur naturally or are produced by 4

energy through oscillating electromag- machines, such as linear accelerators or netic fields. A cyclotron is an accelera- cyclotrons.The Food and Drug Admin-tor in which charged particles travel in istration (FDA) regulates the manufac-an almost circular path, rather than in a ture and use of linear accelerators; the straight path as in a linear accelerator. States regulate their operation.

Radioisotopes produced in linear ac-celerators are used in some modern The NRC is the Federal agency given ' What is the Role nuclear medicine procedures. the task of protecting public health and of the Nuclear safety and the environment with regard ' Regulatory The nuclear reactors that produce to the safe use of nuclear materials.

Among its many responsibihties, the Commission?

radioisotopes bombard atoms with high-energy neutrons. The research re , NRC regulates medical, academic, and actors used for this purpose do not pro- industrial uses of nuclear materials gen-duce electricity and are much smaller ,' erated by or from a nuclear reactor.

in size and power than large power re- Throughacomprehensiveinspection actors. Reasearch reactors are mostly i and enforcement program, the used for training and for identifying the ! NRC ensuresthat these facilities  ;

composition of certain elements. l OPerateincompliancewithstrict i Forty-seven research reactors are safety standards. ,

i licensed by the NRC to operate in the '

UnitedStates. They are located mostly The NRC has relinquished its at targe universities. , authority to regulate certain s radioactive materials, including Because of the potentially hazardous some radioisotopes, to 29 States.

properties of radioisotopes, their use These States, which have entered must be closely regulated to ensure that into an agreement assuming this regu-latory authority from the NRC, public health and safety are protected.

6 7

i.c The regulation and uselpf radioisotoped'";

1 l j 2

j i

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{

4 are called Agreement States, and are ,.

shown on the map below. Agreement jl - *

• l l

l States,like the NRC, regulate reactor ' ,.

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I produced radioisotopes within their ' i borders and must provide at least as ,

• f

much health and safety protection as !

j the NRC.

li 1

4 1 i j ,

The NRC maintains approximately !

i

, 6,500 licenses for the use of radio- I l active materials, and the Agreement !

i States maintain approximately 15,000 l gm i , Map ofAgreement States I I l i i

I - *^ materials licenses. Every license speci !

MT N ME ND VT

} , Iles the type, quantity, and IoCation 1  : OR e of radioactive material that may be so m" j j "Y I .m ui p,

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Possessed and used. When radioactive material is transported, special pack-I  !

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? i aging and labeling are required. Also A

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\ M w *^ Mo specified in each license are the train- '

l TN ing and qualification of Workers using l y NC the materials, specific procedures for Az oK gy A sC using the materials, and any special I

Ms AL GA safety precautions required. Every li-i j ta j eensee is inspected periodically either ;

" I by the NRC or the Agreement State to i

O Aar**manistat. A rt ensure that radioactive materials are f l l l l being used and transported safely. Vio-l

) 1 lators of regulatory requirements are not.: o.ta as on2/am mas =. .no Ha..ii .r. noi Agr m.nt stat... .

Sourc.:Nuciear R.gulatory Comrmsson g3ect to fines and other enforcement actions, including loss oflicense.

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The regulation and useof radidisotdptinjsk . -) Q.Jrodd j.-

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1 l How Are About one-third of all patients admit- f concentrate naturallyin an or-Radioisotopes ted to U.S. hospitals are diagnosed or ! gan or tissue so that a picture -

i Used in Medicine? treated using radioisotopes. Most ma , can be taken. The process of p jor hospitals have specific departments attaching a radioisotope to a j

l '

dedicated to radiation medicine. In all, chemicalcompound is called , .

l about 112 million nuclear medicine or ; labeling. g(

4 i

radiation therapy procedures are per- !

i , formed annually, with the vast major- To detect problems within i

i ity used in diagnoses. Radioactive ma- l terials used as a diagnostic tool can a body organ, doctors use radiopharmaceuticals or W.

j

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identify the status of a disease and mini- i radioactive drugs. Radio- , Ed mize the need for surgery, reducing the isotopes that have short half- a . << w l

4

, risks from postoperative infection.  ; lives are preferred for use in nam

!  ! these dmgs to minimize the ra- P i i Diagnostic Radioisotopes give doctors the ability , diation dose to the patient. In )h @ -

I Applications ,

to "look"inside the body and observe , most cases, these short-lived p%fhg' p- - -

~~

soft tissues and organs, in a manner radioisotopes decay to stable

! similar to the way x-rays provide im- elements within minutes, hours, or days, Gamma camera used to

) , ages of bones. Radioisotopes carried , allowing patients to be released fmm the detect dysfunctionalactivity l ,

in the blood also allow doctors to de- i hospital in a relatively short time. in body organs i l tectcloggedarteriesorcheckthe func- l f j tioning of the circulatory system. l The radioisotope used in about 80 per-

, Some chemical compounds concen- cent of nuclear diagnostic procedures

! I trate naturally in specific organs ortis- l is Tc-99m. The penetrating proper-l , sues in the body. For example, iodine i ties of its gamma rays and its short j l collects in the thyroid while various l (6-hour) half-life help reduce risk to

! l compounds of technetium-99m' ! the patient from more prolonged ra-l (Tc-99m) collect in the bones, heart, : diation exposure.

l and other organs. Taking advantage

! of this proclivity, doctors can use Because of their short half-lives, cer-

! radioisotopes of these elements as tain radiopharmaceuticals must be pro-tracers. A radioactive tracer is chemi- duced, shipped to the hospital, and then cally attached to a compound that will used within a couple of weeks. Short-4 lived radionuclides such as Tc-99m,

+ 1

• The "m" refers to "metastate," which pertains to the isotope's short half-life and elevated gallium-67, and thallium-201 are of-energy state. ten used to diagnose the functioning of 10 II

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' Ther regulation and use of radielsetopes in deday's world 1

I i

, I y"W the heart, brain, lung, kidney, or liver. The same property that makes radia- Therapeutic dlW 'y?.

For example, Tc-99m is used to diag-nose osteoporosis, a condition caused tion hazardous can also make it use-ful in helping the body heal. When Applications

by calcium deficiency in older people, living tissue is exposed to high levels especially women. of radiation, cells can be destroyed or damaged so they can neither repro-

, l To evaluate the presence of heart dis- duce nor continue their normal func-

! ease, a radioisotope is injected into a tions. For this reason radioisotopes are i

patient's bloodstream while he or she used in the treatment of cancer (which l  ;$ ,

is exercising on a treadmill. The amounts to uncontrolled cell division).

radioisotope travels toward the heart, Although some healthy tissue surround '

allowing doctors to follow the blood ing a tumor may be damaged during the flow on a screen. While looking at the treatment, mostly cancerous tissue can Mg .- - image, doctors can check for reduced be targeted for destmetion.

'llfG '

blood flow through the arteries, a pos-sible signal of heart disease. A device called a teletherapy unit de-U[k 40

r l Nuclear imaging is also used to evalu-stroys malignant tumors with gamma radiation from a radioisotope such as

.i t .@f 4 ,f , j j ate brain function. Organic radio- cobalt-60 (Co-60). Teletherapy units Of

,;g(h Q. n%  ; chemicals are labeled with F-18 and use a high-energy beam ofgamma rays

y' <? l then injected into the bloodstream. A to reduce or eradicate tumors deep g y j device called a gamma camera detects within the body. These units are li-W3 h hh

c, , radiation emitted from the organ, dis- censed by the NRC because they use Pl aying an image that can enable the byproduct material that is produced Tracer usedin the body ofa

. physician to detect blockages or other only by a nuclear reactor.

j 65-year old man m. dicatmg . dysfunctional activity.

I hone densityproblems as a Another treatment, called brachy-l result ofa thyroidcondition '

For some diagnostic tests, the patient therapy, destroys cells by placing the I

i need not come into contact with radio- radioisotope (in the form of a sealed j Photo: Courtesy ofAppleton activity at all. The tests are performed source) directly into the tumor. Gener-

& Lange.from "A Clinical , on blood or other fluids taken from the ! ally, two techniques are used for this Manual ofNuclearMedi-  ! patient, using a procedure called radio- type of treatment: (1) direct, manual

• cine,"byJohn Walkerand immunoassay. These tests can detect , implantation of a radiation source by a

! Donald Margouless,1984. some diseases by identifying and mea- ! physician or (2) automated implanta-I ' suring the amounts of hormones, vita- l tion using a device called a remote

' mins, enzyrnes, or dmgs in the body. afterloader. The NRC as well as 12 13

I b $b kb $7 A h $b i

4 l W Agreement States li- lymph glands) and cancers of the cer-

_f f cense these brachy , vix, larynx, and skin, can be treated by therapydevices. Using radiation alone. Boron capture neutron l these devices, a small, therapy has been used on a trial basis

~

thin wire or sealed recently to treat potentially fatal brain

,- needle containing radio- cancer. In this procedure, the diseased

! j ,/ active material, such as l brain tissue incorporates a neutron-iridium-192 (Ir-192) or absorbing isotope and then is exposed i'

A,i  ? iodine-125 (I-125), is to neutron radiation originating from a inseneddirectlyintothe . nuclear research reactor. The energy l - cancerous tissue. The and radiation emitted as a result of the radiation from the iso- neutron activation slow down the Brachytherapy device tope attacks the tumor as long as the growth of cancer cells and, in some device is in place. When the treatment cases, completely kill them.

Photo: Courtesy ofNucletmn is complete, long-lived material (Ir-192)

InternationalB.t is removed, but short-lived redio- The overall objectives of NRC's safety

! isotopes (I-125) may be left perma- mies for radiation medicine are to en-nently. This technique is used fre- sum that patients receive only the expo-quently to treat mouth, breast, lung, and sure medically prescribed and that the uterine cancer. radiation is delivered in accordance with I

j the physician's instructions.

Brachytherapy and teletherapy proce-dures are performed only in hospitals NRC regulations require that physi-

or clinics by trained medical personnel. cians andphysicists have special train-Strict controls and safety requirements ing and experience to practice set by the NRC or the Agreement States radiation medicine. The training em-i must be followed. For example, treat- phasizes safe operation of nuclear-ment rooms must have adequate related equipment and accurate shielding to prevent scattered radiation recordkeeping.

from penetrating into an adjacent room.

Radiation monitors must be used and When using radiation as a medical patients carefully oberved at all times treatment, the physician weighs the po-during treatment. tential benefits against the risk of side effects. Intense radiation exposure of-Many types of cancer, such as ten destroys tumors that would prove Hodgkin's disease (cancer of the fatal, but side effects such as hair loss, l

14 15 j

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hh!kthhhth.hhkkMM3Mh I

reduced white blood cell count, and Radiation can destroy germs, bacteria, Irradiation and nausea can be severe and must be moni- .

and other harmful organisms that con- Treatment of Materials tored carefully. taminate medical supplies, blood sup- With Radlofsotopes plies, and even our food. Over the How Are Radioisotopes are used in many of years, we have leamed how to safely ,

Radioisotopes today's industrial processes. High- treat these items with radiation to ster-( h Used in Industry? tech methods that ensure the quality ilize or preserve them when other of manufactured products often rely methods such as boiling or using As on radiation generated by radio-isotopes. To determine whether a well chemical preservatives are either im- N drilled deep into the ground has the practical or not as etTective.

[ ]

potential for producing oil, geologists Medical supplies, such as rubber 'y use n uclear well-logging, a technique gloves, cloth bandages, syringes, that employs radiation from a radio- and contact lens solution, can be 7

isotope inside the well to detect sterilized by using an Irradiator. g the presence of different materials. An irradiator exposes the materials , t

' Well-loggingdevice Radioisotopes are also used to steril- to gamma radiation, usually from ize instruments; to fm' d Co-60.

flawsin criticalsteelparts and welds that go into Bacteria in foods can be destroyed by ,

automobiles and modern using radiation. Astronauts, for ex ,

buildings;to authenticate ample, take food into space that often 3 valuable works of art; has been preserved using radiation. ' l

.d Detector and to solve trimes by Food irradiation is discussed in greater i

/p spottmg trace elements detail later in this brochure.  !

Shield j of poison, for example. l Radioisotopes can also The NRCregulates irradiators topm-L

} eliminate dust from film tect workers and the public but, with  ;

l

/- and compact discs as some exceptions. does not speci[v the l well as static electricity types ofpmducts that may be irradi- l' Bore hole probe may create a &e I atd ne NWoes not Muae &

hazard)Trom can labels. \ quality ofirradiatedproducts or the '

) i i

S 16 17

s. =mM -9 4  %

9 Radiation Shield fr m an irradiator and exposing them Irradiation Room 6 to radiation from a reactor. The gamma radiation from Co-60 in an ir-radiator kills bacteria and germs, but

,, ,', N does not leave any radioactive residue

-' Unloading or cause any of the materials exposed s .

Processed to become radioactive themselves.

$ . Product This is because the Co-60 is contained

,/ in stainless steel capsules and does not

• commingle with the product being ir-i .. t' _q I

c4*

jg -U y

radiated. This ditTers, however, from the effects ofneutron radiation. Mate-Storag < Control ~<-

Pool J Console rial can become radioactive after ex-l Loading posure to neutrons from a reactor or ;

l Radiation Source linear accelerator because the neu-trons are absorbed by the nucleus of An industrialirradiator usedforfoodproducts consists ofa room the atoms in the material, which then form different radioactive isotopes or with concrete walls 2 meters thick and a radiation sourte (Co-60).

A conveyorsystem automatically moves theproducts into the room elements (also uferred to as neutron for irradiation and then removes them. When it is necessaryfor activation).

personnel to enter the room, the source is lowered to the bottom of

, the pool, where water absorbs the radiation energy and protects In manufacturing, radiation can the workers. change the characteristics of materi-als, often giving them features that are highly desirable. For example, wood Diagram: Courtesy of technical or economicfeasibility of and plastic composites treated with Food Technology Service, Inc. product irradiation. gamma radiation are used for some flooring in high-traffic areas ofdepart-In the United States, food safety is ment stores, airports, hotels, and regulated by the FDA and the U.S. De- churches, because they resist abrasion r

partment of Agriculture (USDA). and ensure low maintenance. Some

? gemstones, such as blue topaz,can be

\

There is an important difference be- given a more pleasing color using neu-tween exposing materials to radiation tron radiation treatment.

18 19

- .- 6 _. .-

The regulation and use of radio %o SUjg3ttphiyhttend{.]

t

,. Although there might be some For example, radioisotopes in gauges

.. residual radiation from neutron

• are used to monitor and control the

.# A bombardment of gemstones and other thickness of sheet metal, textiles, alu-consumer products, the half-life minum foil, newspaper, copier paper, of these materials is generally so plastics, and photographic film as they j short (seconds or hours) that risk aremanufactured. Radiationpenetrates

. to the public is extremely low. To en- the material as it is processed, and

' sure that the products are manufac- detectors measure the amount of radia-tured correctly, manufacturers and tion passing through and compare it to distributors ofthese materials must be the amount that should be detected for licensed by the NRC. the desired thickness ofmaterial. If the readings are too high or too low, con-4

; Today, luminous watch dials are trols in the manufacturing process can l Painted with tritium or promethium- be activated to correct the problem.

i Gauge, luminous watch dial ,

147 repl acing radium used many years This is accomplished with a high andsmoke detector j i  ; ago. These radioisotopes trigger a degree of accu-chemical reaction with other materials racy, and the ma- oirect tranernission n, us, offorro61, gauges upon contact, which then give off a terials need not is wid' spread ia iad=stries l such as agriculture aad

" glow." These materials are sometimes be touched by hu- ,,,,,,,c, ion la 14,inustra-placed in gun sights or clocks and man hands. rioa oa :Ae l<A rke ra==a

, watches so they can be used at night. j l -

%  %,"',""f,(l', ,Y'gD l One frequently sees " exit" signs illu- i Radioactiye m .

through a tube. Radiario= is l

minated by tritium as safety markers on tracers can also

["j,',""'",""#fg passenger aircraft, aboard ships, and in j be used in the , . .*-

of the gauge. anowing ac-c"'"" " """ '" 's */

many buildings. Some gas lantern i: machine-tools compaction mantles are manufactured with the  ; mdustry to mea-  %

radioisotope thorium to provide a bright i sure wear on cut-light when bumed.  ! ting tools and

! drills. Gauges Measuring and As radiation from a radioisotope passes j also play a role *

Testing Applications through matter, it is scattered or ab-  ; in the measure- ,,",'*,',",',,',',,,"["; , .,

, sorbed. The amount of radiation pass- i ment of every- abo ^< sur/ ce. aad w -l . .:. ',.g*.;

7 l ing completely through depends on the 6 l dayobjects,such ,7 6 ,,,,,"'# "jj . .3 *. . .

aaaaa

i thickness and density of the matter. This  ; as the amount of back to rA, d< rector to - -

pmperty makes radiation useful for many  ! glue on a post- g',,j "',"'"j"'"' s.ex.c.it.,

manufacturing quality control processes.  ! age stamp, the 20

i 4 .

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i l 1

l

level of liquid in  ! Aprocesscalledindustrialradiogra- i IndustrialRadiography j canned beverages, -  ! phy is used to inspect many metal i . the amount of air parts and welds for defects. A sealed

• radiation source, usually Ir-192 l $[$ih*' ANN*?p whipped cream,into and icethe or Co-60, beams radiation at the ob- l yE~'

-' * ,,I- amount of tobacco ject to be checked. Special photo- l

} {" i packed into a ciga- graphic, or radiographic, film on the j

) i i

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- f rette. Other gauge and nuclear instru-opposite side of the source is exposed when it is struck by radiation passing

- by - ment applications through-like an x-ray. More radia-l Rf include: (1) moni- tion will pass through if there are toring the structural cracks, breaks, or other flaws in the l 1 Portable gauge used to test integrity of roads, buildings, and metal parts and will be recorded on the l film. Therefore, structural problems j l the structuralintegrity of bridges; (2) exploring for oil, gas, and j mads and bridges minerals; and (3) detecting explosives can be detected by studying the film.

l

in luggage at airports. To ensure ad- i Portable radiography l

' equate water supplies, radioisotopes i Rad.iography is used throughout camera used ro testfor are used to measure water runoffs mdustry. For example, jet engine g y i

from rain and snow, flow rates of turbme blades are radio-streams and rivers, and leakage from graphed to ensure that lakes, resen oirs, and canals. ' internal cooling pas-  !

j sages are manufactured j Radioisotopes can also be used to properly.

test for the presence of certain mate-

- nuent l

rials. For example, a small amount of The NRC or Agreement Mg l

americium-241 is found in most States license radi- 6 smoke detectors used in homes and ographers andperiodi-

) cally inspect them to i offices. This radioisotope is part of the sensing unit that triggers an alarm ensune theyfollowsafety i  !

when smoke is present. s pmcedures. -- .qv"O 'MN 4

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! i l , How Are j Radioisotopes have played an impor-content of soil, helping make the most ,

! ! Radioisotopes Used i tant role in improving agricultural sci- efficient use oflimited water sources.

it . i ence. Radioisotopes are used as a re-j i e7 j search tool to develop new strains of TheNRCandtheAgreemenrStatesli-t food crops that are cense byproduct radioactive materi-more resistant to dis- als used in these agricultural appli-ease, are of higher cations in the UnitedStates.

quality, allow earlier ripening,and produce Radiation can be used to destroy bac-FoodIrradiation and '

a higher yield. When teria in food and control insect and its Safety insects are sterilized parasite infestation. Since 1963, the -

with radiation, they FDA has approved irradiation as a

, mate without produc- method to inhibit sprouting and to de-

!' ing offspring, thus lay ripening in many fresh fruits and '

providing some con- vegetables. The FDA has more re-trol of insect popula- cently approved the use ofirradiation 'g, l

i tion growth. With to control insects in food, trichina in @ t

• I l' fewer pests, food crops can flourish. pork, and bacteria in poultry, spices, ,  ;

, This technique has eliminated screw and seasonings.

ll i worm infestation in the southeastern

'i j United States and hiexico and has Currently, irradiation is used in the l I helped control the hiediterranean fruit United States on very few food items;

}  ! fly in Califomia. It has also been used however, some spices are irradiated. In

+; l to control mosquitoes and flies through. 1992, the USDA also approved the

}l

)i I out the world.

I commercial irradia-tion of poultry, cur-1i l Radioisotope tracers in plant nutrients rently marketed in

! onlya fewlocationsin

' enable scientists to make discoveries that have increased the effectiveness the United States.

l: i l offertilizer,

\

The FDA has estab-

\

A major factor in successful crop pro. lished regulations

, duction is the presence of an adequate . . controllingirradiation

\

! water supply. Nuclear moisture den. ' of food. Irradiated

! sity gauges can monitor the moisture food must clearly I  !

! 24 25 1 - - . .

e

Dd (I 'b Y 'b bNNkN [N_

display the radura logo (a green. Through a method called radiocarbon flower-like. international symbol for What Are Other Uses dating, archaeologists can determine of Radioisotopes?

irradiation) and words such as when formerly living materials were treated with radiation." last alive. This procedure relies on the 7

Geology, Archeology, 9 Governments in about 37 coun-trieshaveapprovedirradiation of some 40 foods. In this country only one commercial facility is devoted solely toirradiating food presence ofC- 14, a naturally occurring, long-lived radioisotope present in all living things.

The ratio ofC-14 to C-12 in the atmos-a@ ace I

phere has been relatively constant products. It is located in Florida throughout history. When an animal 3.

and licensed by the State. That fa- or plant dies, it stops taking in carbon, --:- r Y%

cility irradiates strawberries and citrus and the amount of C-14 in its tissue fruits by exposing them to gamma rays begins to decrease through the process Radura logo from a radioactive source. When not of radioactive decay. Comparing the in use, the radiation sources are safely C-14 to C-12 ratio in dead material stored in a pool of water. with the "living ratio" enables us to cal-culate how long ago the plant or ani-Although it is a relatively new commer- mal lived. This method was used to cial process, food irradiation has been determine the approximate age of two studied at length for over 40 years. major archaeological discoveries in re-According to the FDA, research to date cent decades: the Shroud ofTurin and has turned up no evidence of adverse the Dead Sea Scrolls. C-14 analysis health effects from irradiation of the has also been used during space mis-treated food. The radiation passes sions to test for life on Mars.

through the food leaving no radioactive residue. Some concerns have been Heat generated by radioisotopes is raised regarding the chemical changes used to power small generators used that may alter the finished food prod- for remote applications, such as in uct. However, research has shown that i space exploration.

changes in flavor and texture caused by irradiating food are similar to changes Radioisotope-powered electrical gen-due to canning or freezing. Studies are '

erators have been used to power ex-continuing to ensure that all irradiated pioration space craft, navigational and food is safe to eat. weather satellites, and communication b

27

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i us p ra e eather tran om arded wi h n to The

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M_s,,,,am,,,,,,,,w,s,c stations at the North induced radiation produces a " finger-

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. H m f-n-.pw.= s,oner, a., ,. I and South Poies, seis ' i Print of the elements m the sample.

~

i S -@ 3 c v agia,- su.7,. or i-a i,, < mic sensing stations 3 r e'x s=adk" N' ..

we is awr6nd 6r a da*dd

• a in remote loca- In addition, activation analysis can prove g e . -. waica c=,is= of 4 tions, and devices the authenticity of old paintings by de-a aa coara"'

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H Pl aced on the tecting whether cenain modem maten- c<

oor r w a ws - A, 5

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ocean floor for 313 3.e 7_ men ne3.c us, .q

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i N. s this and other techniques that rely on ,pb8 i

• yf g y Q j ,wa.a,w,.,se - -

scientific investi-l he =dr. <=<ra a==/" * - ' radioisotopes to spot forceries. '? ,,[

-u,,u, ,fiu ,: r- - - .~

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gations and na \ . ~

v j ,a,,a, cion,,. 4,f-s -=

• s - E  :

N tional defense.

-cas14 r ucmea a ./- N i Radioisotopes are used to detect pol- - e'

% c c,,ta.,,, p N- .

lution m the air. water, and soil.

i a,, ,4 c.a s aa.,, y J - ,

The Department a,,, a, amfro - na w.,-ns ru.i l Sources of acid rain and greenhouse

,,,,, ax .ap, 11 ;  ; of Energy (DOE) i i s=en,

• ka ( ,=,=,1 + gases that may be causing global ra,,sar., ace,et. st,,,Ic.m s44. t- s >

m a n u fa c t u re s

~ , \ ~ ' . warming can be traced using radio-s,,,,,,,,,,a,,,,,,wi., , x radioactive ther- ..

isotopes. In addition, electron beam l! t C,,*,",' *,cT',M37

. ,ta,, s.,co,, ,a,a,, co,as

~ '

.,,,, uy N - mal generators, radiation can be used to remove gas-

-  % which arepowered

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, by plutonium-238 eous pollutants such as sulphur diox-ide or nitrogen oxide, both harmful J N

., , ,,a, ,.ca . ,aico. .a /' and Sr-90. The

' gases emitted from coal-fired power

! CYr#" #'~ ay o,-

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97 tanceforsomeofthese When used properly, radioisotopes are Conclusion

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A procedure called ac. committed to protecting public health Diagram: Courtesy ofthe tivation analysis is frequently used and safety in the use of these nuclear l' o dentify tace quantities of materi. materials by inspecting medical, aca-Nuclear Energy Institute ,

als such as glass, tape, gunpowder, , demic, and industrial applications care-lead, and poisons that are important to fully, and mom,tonng users to ensure criminal investigations. Samples of safe practices.

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, Appendix: Some of the Major Uses of

. Rtdioisotopes in the United States.

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~U+l UM3Ml I Used in many smoke detectors for Used to treat cancerous tumors...to Used in mining to analyze material Used to test the integrity of pipeline homes and businesses...to measure measure correct patient dosages of :nated from pits...and slurries welds, boilers and aircraft pans and levels of toxic lead in dried paint radioactive pharmaceuticals...to m Jrillmg operations. in brachytherapy / tumor irradiation, samples...to ensure uniform thickness measure and control the liquid flow in rolling processes like steel and pa- in oil pipelines...to tell researchers pgpg )7 l per production...and to help detennine whether oil wells are plugged by py,$]

i where oil wells should be drilled. sand...and to ensure the right fill level Used in medical diagnosis 1

for packages of food, drugs and other Used to analyze electroplating solu-Cadm/gp.1Qh products. (The products in these pack- . . +. tions and to detect the presence of ages do not become radioactis e.) M' r"l sulphur in the air. Used in metabolism

[ Used to analyze metal alloys for research.

l checking stock, scrap sorting. QMd 7 "'g W.idely used to diagnose thyroid dis-orders and other metabolic disorders Used in research in red blood cell sur-including brain function.

g vival studies i Important aid to biomedical research- l ff O'r G .Sl Used in indicator lights in appliances !

ers studying the ce!!ular fur.ctions and W ; 9

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! such as clothes washers and dryers, bone formation in mammals Major diagnostic tool used in clinical stereos, and coffeemakers...to gauge Used as a tracer to diagnose perni- tests and to diagnose thyroid disor. the thickness of thin plastics and sheet k, hNhk- )-l cious anemia ders. Also used in biomedical re. metal, rubber, textiles and paper. .. a nd search. to measure dust and pollutant levels.

Used to inspect airline hggage for hid m denexpolsives...togragethemoisture h , l p content of soil in the mad construction " .! 'l%y[l Used to sterilize surgical m-and building industries...and to mea.

sure the moisture of materials stored stnunents...and to improve the safety Used to check some radioactivity Used to detect explosis es* and in volt-m soils. and reliability ofindustrial fuel oil bum. counters m m vitro diagnostic testing ers. Used in cancer treatment, food ir-laboratories' age regulators and current surge pro-tectors in electronic devices, and in gMQQ] radiation, gauges, and radiography. ,

electron capture detectors for gas l

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chromatographs.

Major research tool. Ilelps in research j to ensure that potential new drugs are Used to treat thyroid disorder 1 .

metabolized without forming harmful When injected with monoclonal (Former President George Bush and b 7.6f.M$%l by-products. Used in biological re- antibodies into a cancer patient, helps  ; Mrs. Bush were both successfully search, agriculture, pollution control, the ant; bodies bind to and destroy the treated for Graves' disease, a thyroid Used in molecular biology and genet-and s.rcheology. tumor. disease, with iodine-131.) ics research.

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Phosphorupi3,3 Vf$$$l i N ' Wl W Rl l Used in molecular biology and genet. Used to locate leaks in industrial pipe Used in nuclear medicine for nuclear Major tool for biomedical research.

t ics research. lines...and in oil well studies. cardiology and tumor detection. Used for life science and drug me-tabolism studies to ensure the safety flu _testl h >

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of otential F new dmgs_.for self-ha-mmous aircraft and commercial exit Has powered more than 20 NASA Used eq study bone formation and signs...for luminous dials, gauges spacecraft since 1972. metabohsm.

els on filter paper...and gauges the and wrist watches...to produce lumi-thickness ofplastics, sheet metal, rub- n us paint, and for geological pros-

.. MllER"Ada baf"5v l ber, textiles and paper. pecting and hydrology.

i Reduces the static charge in produc- Used in survey meters by schools,the

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tion of photographic film and other military and emergency management 6 W_6^$g I materials authorities. Also used in cigarette manufacturing sensors and medical Used in dental fixtures like crowns Used m. electric arc welding rods in and dentures to provide a natural

, 'l treatment. construction, aircraft, petrochemical color and brightness.

and food processing equipment indus-

' Used in electric blanket thermo- h[3[iMNl tries. They produce easier starting, ,

stats...and to gauge the thickness of greater arc stability and less metal I thin plastics, thin sheet metal, rubber, Used in genetics and molecular biol- contamination.

textile and paper ogy research, Fuel for nuclear power plants and naval nuclear propulsion systems g _

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r-: .l ..and used to produce fluorescent glassware, a variety ofcolored glazes Makes lighting rods more efTective. The most widely used radioactive IIelps fluorescent lights last longer. and wall tiles.

pharmaceutical for diagnostic studies

!@@$(( in nuclear medicine. Different chemi- N g -6TQ g cal forms are used for brain, bone, Used in protein studies in life science liver, spleen and kidney imaging and Provides coloring and fluorescence in research, Used in nuclear medicine for lung also for blood flow studies. colored glazes and glassware. ventilation and blood flow studies.

Courtesy ofManagement Information Systems. Inc.

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