ML20202J845
| ML20202J845 | |
| Person / Time | |
|---|---|
| Issue date: | 02/09/1999 |
| From: | NRC OFFICE OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS (OPA) |
| To: | |
| References | |
| NUREG-BR-0164, NUREG-BR-0164-R03, NUREG-BR-164, NUREG-BR-164-R3, NUDOCS 9902090259 | |
| Download: ML20202J845 (27) | |
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NRC-REGULATOR OF NUCLEAR SAFETY The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory hearings, Com- public meetings in local mission (NRC) was formed in 1975 to areas, and discussions with individu-regulate the various commercial and als and organizations. l institutional uses of nuclear energy, ; including nuclear power plants. The agency succeeded the Atom,c i Energy WH-Y REGULATE? - l Commission, which previously had PeoP,le are responsibility for both developing and ##"'"'"""*IJ he nuclear industry is strictly regu- exposed to regulating nuclear activities. Federal research and development work for all lated because of the potential hazards radiationfroin energy sources, as well as nuclear involved in using radioactive materials. niaisy sou c >s , weapons production, is now conducted These radioactive materials give off by the U.S. Department of Energy. radiation, which can be hazardous t people if they are exposed to it in radia infroin Under its responsibility to protect ## "### # significant amounts. The extent of the . f f public health and safety, the NRC risk depends on the type and amount , ,$,#f,',',[y f$f,$,# ,, has three principal regulatory func- of radiation emitted by the radioactive froin inedicaland tions: (1) establish standards and material, the distance between the dentalx-rays and regulations, (2) issue licenses for source of the radiation and a person, ot/rer inedical nuclear facilities and users of nuclear procedures. and the length of time a person is matenals, and (3) inspect facilities exposed to the radiation. and users of nuclear matenals to m ensure compliance with the require- The risks can be lessened , e
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ments. These regulatory functions by reducing any or all of these - . relate to both nuclear power i plants and to other uses of $7 nuclear materials -like nuclear medicine programs at hospitals, j, academic activitics at educa- j / ip tional institutions, research work, and such industrial appli-
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;M J cations as gauges and , , /+g L!
testing equipment. ,' 7*] y f The NRC places a high priority on keeping
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the public informed of g its work. The agency ,_.B recognizes the interest N of citizens in what it does through such m activities as maintain- jgg @:'%p hy"= ing public document ~ rooms across the coun- .e try and holding public e }-
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factors. The hazard is less if there is headquarters in Rockville, Maryland, a shielding material like lead or con- or nearby offices. The remainder are crete to block some of the radiation, located in four regional offices and one if a person moves farther from the field office throughout the country or at raJiation source, or if the exposure resident inspector offices at each time is reduced. commercial nuclear power plant. If radioactive materials are properly handled and regulated, they do not NRC 'RE LATIONS pose a significant risk to the public or to workers. Radioactivity from natural sources _L he NRC sets the rules that users is present throughout the world. of radioactive materials must follow. People are continuously exposed to These rules are intended to protect the low-level radiation from radioactive persons using the radioactive materials materials in the earth and from cos- and the general public from the poten-mic rays from space. Exposure to tial hazards of radioactivity. Many NRC natural radiation can be affected by regulations have been established or geography as well as lifestyle. For changed, as necessary, based on the example, radiation levels are higher in recommendations of the NRC staff. the mountains, and travel by airplane Members of the public and interested contributes additional exposure be- organizations can also request changes cause of increased cosmic radiation in regulations. The views of the public, at high altitudes. Most people also of the industry being regulated, and of receive some radiation exposure from other interested parties are usually medical and dental x-rays and other solicited before new rules or changes medical procedures. The NRC's are adopted. regulatory program establishes limits - for radiation exposure to workers and the general public as a result of the REGULAT RY RESEARCH various uses of radioactive materials licensed by the NRC. In addition, the NRC requires users to take steps to s part of its regulatory program, keep exposures well below the limits. the NRC conducts an extensive re-search program to provide indepen-NRC ORGAN 17,ATION dent inf rmation and expertise to support its safety decisionmaking and to assess potential technical issues. The NRC is headedive- bymem-a f. This NRC research is performed by Government laboratories, universities, ber Commission. The Commissioners and other research institutions. Topics are appointed to 5-year terms by the of inquiry include such subjects as the President of the United Statos w!!h durability and integrity of reactor com-confirmation by the Senate. A Chair-ponents, the impact of natural phe-man is designated by the President. nomena like earthquakes and torna-The NRC staff numbers approxi- does on nuclear facilities, radioactiva mately 3,000 with a budget of about waste disposal technology, and the
$500 million. Roughly two-thirds of the way workers react to instruments and 2 NRC employees work in the agency's systems in nuclear facilities.
! E.~ - licenses describe the location of use, LICENSES .-- the training and qualifications of work-l ers, specific procedures for using the
. . materials, and any special safety l ny organization or individual precautions required. The license , tending to possess or use radioac-in holder must follow the specific license tiva matenals must obtain a license, requirements as well as the more The use of very small amounts of general NRC regulations.
radioactive materials -like the tiny radiation source inside many smoke d3tectors -is exempt from licensing POWER PLANT 11 CENSES ?f or is authorized by a general license, which does not require active control T to assure safety. However, for the _L n the past, nuclear power plants manufacturing of these and similar required two licenses - a construction items, a specific license involving permit, which allowed the facility to be regulatory control is required. built, and an operating license, which Licenses for nuclear power plants p9rmitted operation of the facility once and their operators are issued by the it was completed. NRC. Licenses for other uses of radio- In 1989 the NRC adopted a stream-active materials are issued either by lined licensing process that encour-tha NRC or by State Governments ages the use of standardized and pre-under NRC-approved regulatory pro- approved designs for any future plant grams. About 6,000 licenses for redio- proposals and provides for the issu- NRC active materials are under the jurisdic- ance of a combined construction Headquarters and tion of the NRC, and about 15,500 are permit and operating license. Another regional office under the jurisdiction of those States feature of the streamlined process is locations known as Agreement States that regulate z em m certain radioactive $ p'"
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wm-""~~~g[g aseenai WMif%e m e m m +.2 *
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The NRC or State FL license specifies the UN s types and quantities of radioactive materials * ** **8 Ha*Il ** McMNdoia lV-that may be possessed and used, as well as any specific restrictions on their use. Typically, b
l 1 l possible early approval of sites for individuals must completo an exten- . nuclear plants. This combined licens- sive training program conducted by the ) ing process provides for the early utility and pass license examinations
- resolution of virtually allissues before administered by NRC examiners. ;
construction begins. This combined Once licensed, the operators continue j to receive training and are periodically license also incorporates a program of tests, inspections, and related tested to show they remain qualified to acceptance criteria that are neces- operate the plant. 1 sary and sufficient to show that the ] plant has been properly built. These ~ 2- . . criteria must be met before operation INSPECTIONS : can begin. This process provides for public he NRC periodically inspects all hearings on the certification of the facilities it licenses to ensure that standard design, it also provides for their activities meet NRC regulations l public hearings on the site approval ' and the terms of their licenses. These and on the issuance of a combined inspections vary in scope and fre-construct,on i permit and operating quency according to the relative I license. As the plant nears completion, hazard of the authorized activities, a public hearing could be held if a
, , Throughout the construction period
" " P e i er o h com ed ice se usi spec at or e a e have been met.
tions are conducted each year. A The licenses for nuclear power small medical or research facility, plants are issued for a 40-year period. using limited quantities of radioactive Licenses for currently operating materials, might be inspected every plants will begin to expire after the few years. 1 year 2000. The NRC has developed For a nuclear power plant, the NRC cntena to be used if utilities seek t inspection program includes the work have the licenses extended. of NRC resident inspectors, who are l Licenses for nuclear power plants stationed at the nuclear plants on a i can be amended and updated as the full-time basis; inspections by special-result of operating experiences at that ists based in regional offices and NRC l plant or at other plants. When neces- headquarters; and special team in-sary, the NRC can impose new regu- spections made up of personnel from lations or require changes in operat- the regional offices and from NRC 1 ing procedures or equipment to im- headquarters. Normal inspections l prove the safety of nuclear power consist of examination of a sample of 1 plant operations. the work being performed by a utility. lf evidence of problems is found, the In addition to licensing the facility, . , the NRC also licenses the individuals !nspector w,ll i focus on that work area in more detail. i I who operate the controls of the reac-l tor. Licenses fall into two categories - The core of the NRC inspection reactor operator and senior reactor program for nuclear power plants is , ! operator. The second category is carried out by the resident inspectors; 1 necessary for supervisory positions. at least two inspectors are assigned to
- 4i Before operator licenses are issued, each site. .
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The inspection special- ~ w "*
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ists, based in regional / offices, review plant v security, emergency f(. f1 planning, radiation protec- e tion, environmental moni- [a}y % toring, periodic testing of h(, ' plant equipment and [
, systems, fire protection, b coastruction activities, and other more special-ized areas. p During the course of b a year, NRC specialists
- may conduct 10 to 25 + -
routine inspections ,
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4 at each nuclear power < plant, depending on **W 7 %gp 4 the activities at the plants q;7 > . Agw and problems that i%wmu% g ~ E % gif 5 g i The special team inspections may For more serious violations or re- NRC resident
, focus on a specific plant activity, like petitive ones, the NRC may fine utili- inspectors are l maintenance or security, or a team ties and other licensees up to assigned to cach may be sent to the plant to look at a
$110,000 a day for each violation. nuclearpower specific operating problem or accident.
If serious questions exist about the planti specialists Allinspections and the findings by safety of NRC-licensed activities, the from NRC regional the inspectors are documented in NRC may issue orders requiring that offices and
- inspection reports. These reports are licensed activities be halted or an headquarters sent to the facility to inform the utility of individual be removed from work conduct additional
. the findings. Inspection reports are involving NRC-licensed materials. inspections. also maintained for public review in a NRC orders also may modify, cus- , public library near each plant site and pend, or revoke a license. at the NRC Public Document Room in Licensed activities, if halted, may Washington, D.C. (Certain sensitive
, not be resumed until the safety and information - pnncipally on nuclear management problems are corrected facility security - may be withheld and the NRC approves the resumption from public disclosure.)
of work. When the inspections uncover viola-A licensee or individual who chooses tions of NRC requirements, the agency to contest a fine or an order has the has a range of enforcement act,ons. i right to a hearing before the NRC. The basic action is issuance of a notice of violation, which requires the licensee The results of the NRC inspection 4 to correct the problem and take steps to program for each nuclear power plant , prevent a recurrence of the violation. are periodically compiled with other The licensee's response must be agency evaluations in a review called g acceptable to the NRC. a Systematic Assessment of Licensee ,)
l l OTHER USES OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS i py= wpm,qwmmymngw -w. , ~n mym yg re .w, ,- - yye%,wm9 'I h2
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- Detectors
- Generators Static Eliminator' I*
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l Gun & Luminous Watch Dials ' '% 1
.?g Wood Flooring Radioactive inaterials are used abrasion, and certain Each of these uses requires an
-in a wide variety of applications gernstones such as blue topa: NRC or Agrcernent State besidesfuelfor nuclearpower license, and the activities are e Industrialradiography,
# '" " ' periodically inspected by NRC using sealed radiation or State personnel. Violations These applications include: sources to inake x-ray-like ofNRC requirernents are O Medicalradiation therapy pictures of heavy inetal sufiject to the surne objects like pipes and valves.
and diagnostic tests using enforcernent options as radioactive phannaceuticals. e Otherconunercialand nuclear power plants, o Consumerproducts like industrial uses, including although the level offines sinoke detectors, " Exit" testing devices undgauges to isnposed are norntally signs, static ethnination ineasure such characteristics substantially lower. devices, and turninous as soildensity or levels ofa watch dials. substance in processEng equijnnent. o Woodflooring treated with
; ganuna radiation to rc<ist e Various research activities.
6 F
P:rformanca (SALP) report These The turbine is connected to a gen-r: ports, issued every 12 to 24 months, erator. As the turbine shaft spins, the ara public documents and are reviewed generator turns and produces electric-with the utility in a meeting open to ity. This electricity is then carried by th: public. wires to the homes, businesses, and On occasion, the NRC receives institutions where the electricity is used. all:gations of wrongdoing involving Electricity is one of the few forms of misconduct by licensees or their con- energy that can easily be moved from tractors. Allegations of possible crimi- one place to another. Electrical energy nal activities are handled by the pro- can be produced in large quantities at f:ssionalinvestigative staff of the NRC one location and transported by wires Office of Investigations. These investi- to many different places. gations may result in civil enforcement action or criminal prosecution against We can see coal, oil, or gas burning lic:nsees, individuals, or others. - and we know from experience that , it produces heat. This is the sort of nt,rgy,is re c,aser energy many people use to heat their when an atoin splits K homes. Some furnaces heat air, which into smallerpieces. HOW 7AjNUCLEAR POWsR = is biown through ducts into each room; rhese smaller PLANT WO.RKS*'~ a . 1 1, -~ others heat water, which is piped
~ - '
pieces strike other throughout the house into radiators atoms, releasing where the water gives off some of the more energy. This Power plants change one form of heat it absorbed from the burning fuel. continuous splitting cnergy into another. Electrical generat- Nuclear energy - as it is used in a of atoms in a ing plants convert heat, the energy of nuclear power plant - cannot be seen. reactor is called wind or falling water, or solar energy There is no burning of fuelin the usual chain reaction. into electricity. g<*
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h:at-conversion plants s* MW , yg v , burn coal, oil, or gas for a h:at source that is used g E y 9 - c?p7jgjy c 'W 4 M.k g I' [%afg@h sc g +!. y; to produce electricity. .
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turbine - which has a [I e 1; M s ties of fan blades on . a shaft. The force of the stram pushes against the blades, turning the turbine. 7
l l Thefiset rods in the sense. Rather, energy is given off by Water in the reactor is heated by the reactor contain the nuclear fuel as certain types of nuclear reaction - and the heat is atoms split into pieces. This energy is carried off to spin the turbine. hundreds of ceramic pellets of in the fcrm of fast-moving particles and .,
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invisible radiation. As the particles and uraniumfuel. Each radiation move through the fuel and
. URANIUM FUEL L - ' -
rod is scaled to "9 # '"9 Y prevent radioactive
#*U" n er ed into heat.
T.l.he fuel of a nuclear plant is ura-byproductsfrom entering the cooling The heat is the useful energy result- nium, but only a certain type of u.anium water surrounding ing from the splitting of atoms. The atom can be easily split to produce radiation energy itself can be hazard- energy. This type of uranium atom - ) thefuel. Thefuel aus and requires special precautions called uranium-235 -is less than rods are grouped
. to protect people and the environment. 1 percent of uranium as it is mined. I into bundles or To make fuel for reactors, the uranium To understand this process let,s loc, (
assemblics. Control is #M M h gesM b rods in the reactor at a nuclear reactor- which is a large water-filled vessel containing the ease me peqe d mh regulate the energ), 235 to 2 to 4 percent of nuclear fuel. g g; ,ygg being produced. centage is enough for a l continuous splitting of {p/j' ,]l ' controined l
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ff W/ *#""#""" tip. These pellets are then loaded into metal tubes about 4 p %pP 12 feet long. These tubes, called fuel rods, are sealed and grouped into [ bundles or assemblies. The fuel 4 , 3 assemblies are produced at several
"*""" " .. commercial facilities for shipment to the nuclear plants to be loaded into the reactor.
When a uranium-235 atom splits - or " fissions," to use the technical term b -it gives off energy in the forrn of l_ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ -
radiation and as also fast-moving large cylinders called steam genera-pi':ces of the original atom. One of tors. The heated reactor water flows these pieces, which is called a neu- through thousands of tubes in the tron, can collide with another ura- steam generator. The tubes are sur-nium-235 atom and cause it to split, rounded by a secondary water supply too. A continuing series of these that boils and produces steam, which atomic splits, each triggering another is carried away by pipes to spin the ons, is called a chain reaction. turbine generator. Uranium-235 will split, or " fission," The reactor cooling water then spontaneously, but these spontane- returns to the reactor to be reheated ous atomic splits aren't frequent or and circulated back to the steam r: liable enough to use as an energy generator, again in a continuous loop. source. The pieces fly away too fast The BWR is a single-stage system and don't cause the fission of another atom. The pieces need to be slowed that allows the water in the reactor to boil and produce steam, which is then down so that they can collide with p ped directly to the turbine generator. another uranium-235 atom and con-tinue the chain reaction. In both types of reactors, once the
- ses its energy in spinning the Several types of materials can be turb.ine, it flows into a condenser.
used to slow down the atomic par-Because not all the heat energy in the ticles, but most nuclear power plants steam can be converted into electric-(including all of those now operating ity, the leftover heat must be carried in the United States) use water as the away by cooling water pumped
" moderator"- the material that slows through the condenser. The condenser down the particles to allow the chain contains thousands of tubes carrying reaction to continue. cool water, which causes the steam to To control the chain reaction, condense back to water. The water is reactors have control rods which collected in the condenser and can be inserted into the reactor to pumped back to be reheated, either in absorb the neutrons as they are the reactor itself for a BWR or in the given off, thus slowing or stopping PWR steam generator.
the chain reaction. The condenser cooling water is drawn from a lake, river, or ocean. This water does not actually pass TWO REACTORTYPES through the reactor, but only through the condenser tubes to cool the Two main types of reactorssteam after it goes through the tur- ' areThere bine. in is no contact between the operation in the United States - the condenser cooling water and the pressurized water reactor (PWR) and reactor cooling water or the reactor the boiling water reactor (BWR). About components themselves, two-thirds of the reactors are PWRs, This outside cooling water, heated and one-third are BWRs. as it passes through the condenser, is The PWR is a two-stage system that returned to the source lake, river, or kteps the water in the reactor under ocean. Many nuclear plants as well as high pressure so that it does not boil. other types of power plants or indus-Piping carries this heated water to trial facilities use cooling towers, h
l % X.Q.j,Q3,;.} Radioactive materials 1 P O T:},j p & y require careful use 1 3 ';}/l7h.j Qf because they produce Mym radiation - a form of f w g1 hh. & energy that can damage
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1 w*M= , mA - wMw ' , , q long periods of time. A n i e n W ca. E_ >t {' A person can be exposed h hM hhgg y'1%,' j to radiation in two ways. f; , y,3 , y a
; y 7j internal exposures c ; H occur if a radioactive i.&mc r
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.y' PrNNurized Water Reactor? deposited in the body.
m &. % . ~ , . 2 :, um ch a- - m External exposures can result from a person A pressurized water cooling lakes or ponds, or other tech- being close to a radioactive material reactor circulates niques to reduce the effects of heated without adequate shielding. water through the water discharged directly back into the In the reactor, most of these haz-nver, lake, or ocean. With cooling reactor under ardous radioactive substances - towers, the water, once cooled, ,s i pressure. The called fission byproducts - are usually pumped back into the con- trapped in the fuel pellets themselves heated water goes denser to be used again to carry oH or in the sealed metal tubes holding to a large cylinder p t. Only a smau podon of me water the fuel. Small amounts of these j called a stearn i u d to the natwal water source. generator where it radioactive fission byproducts, princi-Once the steam is produced, the pally gases, however, become mixed i heats another water process and equipment used to gen- with the water passing through the system to make . .. . i erate electricity are s. imi.lar in nuclear reactor. Other .impunties in the water steam. T/n.s steam power plants and fossil-fueled power are also made radioactive as they spins the turbme plants. Fossil fueled plants also pass through the reactor. The water is l generator to make discharge heated water to the envi- processed and filtered to remove l electricitJ- ronment or tce cooling towers or these radioactive impurities and then other means to cool the water from returned to the reactor cooling sys-the condenser. tem. Small quantities of radioactive l gases and liquids are ultimately rele sed t the environment under
-RADIOACTIVE BYPRODUCTS contro!!ed and monitored conditions.
Radioactive materials lose their B ecause the fission reaction radioactive properties over time. Some produces radioactive materials, which are short-lived and become nonradio- ! can be hazardous, nuclear power active forms in seconds or minutes. plants are equipped with safety sys- Other radioactive elements take much tems to protect workers, the public, longer to lose their radioactivity. This 10 and the environment. process is called radioactive decay.
The NRC has estab-lished limits for the release of radioactivity j during routine opera- : tions. These limits are based on guidelines set 6 b
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by the Envirnmental $ h'i . i % :or~ N 1 . AN'W YM M Protection Agency and N a % '"""~' M@!E4$ 9.,e k'd I l @kN , by national and interna- T ' E,. 2 b@ g '. tional standard-setting groups. Although the g, .g M
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assumption that radia- , s '#
.p tion exposures to mem- 7 *?
(,,,j,,, Watei Reastor + bers of the public i .. ( . n u.v. umaa
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m ,- should only be a small fraction of what they receive from The environmentalimpact of routine A boiling water natural environmental radiation. operations at a nuclear plant is very reactor sends stearn Experience has shown that nuclear small. But because of the radioactivity froin the reactor plants typically release only a sma remaining in the reactor fuel, the plant directly to the portion of the NRC limits during normal must have effective safety systems to turbine generator to operations. A person spending a full prevent an accident that would lead to produce electricity. year at a nuclear plant boundary would a large amount of that radioactivity affy,.pyyyjyg receive an addiNonal radiation expo- being released from the plant. The h- h& sure of less than 1 percent of the radia- likelihood of such an accident is re-mote, but the possibility that one could tur/>ine, the stenin is tion exposure everyone receives from occur leads to special care in design, cooled, becoining naturally occurring radiation. (Netural construction, and operation of nuclear water again. This environmental radiation exposures ams. water is then average 300 millirems per year.) Year-round exposure at the plant boundary is purnped back to the be an additional 1 to 2 millirems or less. REACTOR SAFETY SYSTEMS reheated. The NRC also sets limits for radia-tion exposure to individuals working at nuclear plants and other facilities usin9 nuclear power plant is equipped radioactive materials. Because these with four major types of safety systems ind;yiduals receive the radiation expo- to prevent accidents and reduce their sure as part of their employment and effects if one should occur: because they receive special training on radiation protection, the occupa- 1. A system to quickly shut down a tionallimits are higher than those reagtor and stop the fission permitted for the general public. Ra- chain reaction. diation workers must wear devices to 2. Numerous systems to control measure the radiation to which they reactor pressure and to continue are exposed. 33 cooling the reactor fuel- that is, 11
. Ne' _,,
COSUNG AND PRESSURE - CONTRDL SYSTEMS 1
- es i i
hen a reactor is operating, the heat energy from the fission reaction is ; 4 carried off in the cooling water. That s .k y e- *e energy is used as steam to spin the pn . turbine generator, mak-
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IE **i ' km A MQ' - is still generated by the radioactive fission f j A nuclearpower ,; byproducts, which have ; built up in the reactor i plant includes the 15 g C r building housing I, fuel. Much less heat is the reactor and N "" .. t created than when the reactor is operating, but cooling systeur the heat is still sufficient coinpanents, the * 's U
- 9' '
auxiliary building g g gg g ',g ' g with the control to carry away the heat that passes after the reactor shutdown, i room and unportant continues to be generated even the amount of heat produced in the l safety equipinent, after the reactor is shut down. fuel in the reactor core decreases. and the turbine Continued cooling of the fuel remains l 3. Electrical, control, and instru-l "" "'# # #" ment systems for safety sys-necessary, however. Both normal elutrichy is tems and for monitoring reactor cooling systems and emergency l Produced. Many conditions, cooling systems are available. Each nuclearplants also system has at least two parallel parts
- 4. System of barriers to contain so that if one fails, the other part have cooling towers radioactivity if it should escape would still be available to continue to j, yyf ,,, ,r that rom the reactor fuelin an cool the reactor.
has been used to accident. condense stearn The emergency core cooUng system passing through the SHUTDdWN SYSTEMS (ECCS) consists of pumps and valves turbine. Waterfor and pipes that are independent of the i this condensing normal cooling system. The ECCS function comes ach reactor has a system to insert contains equipment that can pump at , from a river, lake or high pressure to inject water into the l the control rods into the reactor core ' ocean and does not within seconds to stop the fission reactor when the pressure inside is at pass through the reaction. This immediate shutdown - the high levels maintained during called a reactor " scram" or reactor operation. In addition, low pressure reactor itself'
" trip"- can be triggered by a reactor systems pump water at lower pres-operator or by automatic controls that sures, such as those that might occur if protect the reactor from any unusual a cooling water pipe broke and allowed 4 conditions in the plant. pressure inside the reactor to drop.
The reactor systems also contain banks of batteries provide DC power if valves that can be opened to reduce there is an interruption in the normal pressure by releasing steam. These sources of electricity. relief valves open automatically if pressure gets too high in the reactor system. Some of the valves can be CONTAiNfNG - , opened using controls in the reactor ' RADIOACTIVITY
~
control room. These pressure-reduction systems can also be used to reduce - -- reactor pressure so that the low pres- The reactor sure cooling systems can function. - uclear power plants have three principal barriers to prevent the release uahirint is a of radioactivity - the sealed fuel rods, sealni ra. n fomd-the reactor vessel and associated com- concrete and steel
- SAFETY SYSTEM POWER . . .
structure which
~
ponents, and the structure housing the reactor, called the reactor containment. surrounds the reactor. It is
- ost of the safety systems are A serious reactor accident could . .
damage the fuel rods, which form the "# ## ##"##'" powered by electricity, although some pumps do use steam to drive them radu. >act""'ive gam first barrier,if adequate cooling does in order to have an alternative source not occur. Overheated fuel rods could that inight be of power. Because of this reliance leak or break apart and eventually released by a pipe on electrical power, nuclear plants melt. Possible damage to the reactor break or other are required to have multiple sources cooling system piping could breach the inajor reactor of electricity. second barrier. accident. A nuclear plant uses a 1 portion of the power it ([ Q* y ! [* 1 3 1 s A q q f ] ] g<
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ho (approximately , .- offsite power sources if a {, 4 w , 3-5 feet thick) > f shutdown occurs. Should ; # $ , y > < 4 " there be a failure in the b + offsite power connec- 0 l ) , tions, each plant has < j .' ' emergency diesel gen- g b- g'
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erators with sufficient , m I y / t capacity to supply elec-tricity to the critical safety 4 '
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systems. The control and instru- ; Example of a PWR Containment ment systems normally . . _ _ use direct current (DC) eh:ctricity, the kind of power found in 39 batteries. For these systems, large _L 0
Even with the failure of these first Although some radioactivity was two barriers, the reactor containment released to the atmosphere by an is designed to hold radioactive mate- indirect route, the containment itself rial that might otherwise be released performed as designed and kept the to the outside environment. One type radioactivity safely bottled up inside. of reactor containment is a large The effectiveness of the containment cylinder-shaped building made out of was the major factor in preventing the reinforced concrete with a steel lining. release of large amounts of radioactive it is designed to withstand the pres- materials to the environment. sures that might build up inside as in 1986 a much more serious acci-steam and gases escape from the dent occurred at Chornobylin the reactor during an accident. Another former Soviet Union. The reactor was type of containment, called a pres- very different from those used in the sure suppression containment, has a United States. The plant had no con-large water-filled pool to cool the tainment system like that of U.S. plants. steam and reduce the pressure The Chornobyl accident severely buildup in the containment. damaged the reactor core, releasing The NRC requires that the reactor large quantities of radioactivity to the containment be periodically tested to environment. Radioactive material was show it meets requirements to prevent deposited in nearby countries, and leakage from inside the structure. radioactivity was detectable at very low Although reactor containments were levels in the United States. designed to cope with many types of serious reactor accidents, they may not g p-withstand the conditions that result from an extremely unlikely accident in which all cooling capability is lost in the reac-tor. Under these circumstances, the Ithough a major reactor accident energy produced by the radioactivity is unlikely and each plant is equipped remaining in the fuel could cause the with safety systems to prevent or cope I fuel to melt. Melting of the fuel could with an accident, additional measures eventually lead to a pressure buildup in help protect public heath and safety. the containment that could cause The first is special training given to radioactive gases to leak through seals the reactor operators in the handling of I and gaskets around the containment. emergency situations. One of the The molten fuel could also damage the lessons leamed as a result of the Three concrete base of the containment,
. Mile Island accident was that reactor leading to a possible release of radio- operators needed to practice how they activity. Even in these cases, however, would handle emergencies. Detailed most of the long-term hazardous radio- emergency operating procedures have active material would remain inside the been prepared and the operators have l
containment structure. been trained to use them. In addition, l in the only major commercial power most nuclear power plants use com-reactor accident in the United States, puter-based simulators for training in the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, both routine and abnormal situations. there was extensive fuel damage. These simulators are laid out just like Radioactive gases and contaminated the plant's control room with all of the cooling water filled the containment, controls and instrumentation. Comput-l
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mg@w yp q vg;@ gjgg g% - up g +, gynnepp ers let the operators practice dealing recommendations. State and local Each nuclearplant with emergencies as they occurin the governments have detailed plans for has a warning simulator's control room. sheltering and evacuation of residents systern to notify The Three Mile Island accident also !f necessary. Federal emergency plans nearby residents of pointed out the need for improved include Federal personnel, equipment, einergency planning by Federal, State, and local and resources needed to respond to a nuclear power plant accident. The onditivE governments to deal with possible reactor accidents. The NRC now NRC would closely follow the handling Instructions in the requires that emergency plans be of an accident by a utility and investi-gate the causes of the accident, einergency n,vuld prepared for evacuation or other actions to protect the residents ,n i the These emergency plans are tested coinefrain Sate . vicinity of nuclear plants. These plans andlocalofpetals through emergency exercises that usually cover an area about 10 miles simulate a serious reactor accident. using the einergency l In all directions around each nuclear Utility personnel and government broadcast systein. plant. The utility has its own emer- officials follow their emergency plans gency plan to notify government offi- in gathering information, consulting cials of a possible emergency and to with each other, and issuing instruc-provide them with iriformation and tions to the public. These emergency 1.5
exercises sometimes include small- ance program, initiated under the scale evacuation drills for schools, Price-Anderson Act, combines com-nursing homes, and other institutions, mercial insurance and self-insurance by the nuclear industry. Large The NRC must datermine that there nuclear plants are required to have is reasonable assurance that evacua- the maximum amount of liability tion or other steps can be taken to insurance that is commercially avail-protect area residents in the event of a M8SI 8/',he highly, able, currently $200 million. In addi-major reactor accident. To make this radioactive spent tion, each licensed reactor is liable determination, the NRC reviews the fuelremovedfrom utility's plans, conducts inspections, for a $75.5 million assessment to cardian nuclear provide funds in the event of a major and considers the assessment of State Powerplants is and local planning by the Federal accident at a plant in the United storedin speciallJ Emergency Management Agency. States. (No reactor would be as-sessed more than $10 million in any designed water one year.) basins at the nactors tes n 'en NUCLEAR INSURANCE With about 110 nuclear power a Federal hlgh-lcrel plants in the United States, the com-waste site becomes bination of commercialinsurance arallable, the used ongress has established a sys- and industry self-insurance exceeds fuel willbe moved tem of "no-fault" insurance to provide $8 billion. This is the totalliability thereforpermanent liability coverage in the event of a limit for an accident under the Price-disposal. major reactor accident. This insur- Anderson Act and no claims are required to be paid in excess of this amount. Congress, however, will
. $MI
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# providing an additional source of funds should
$8 billion prove inad-
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p The Price-Anderson Act provides for liability g s, insurance coverage for actual damages
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f: 9 . ya,,^ maintain $1 billion in onsite property dam-j r "y wg y;c . .
'QE age insurance to provide funds to deal with cleanup of the reactor site 16 after an accident. I
d
'*" ' ' d' ""e m teri I is that it RADISACTIVE WASTE decays or loses its radioactivity at a DISPOSAL set rate. Each radioactive component
- has a different rate of decay called its half-life - the time it takes the mate-rial to lose half of its radioactivity.
D uring normal operations,Some a fission byproducts have a half-nuclear power plant generates two life of a few seconds; others have half-types of radioactive wastes - high- lives of hundreds or thousands of years. level waste, which consists of used fuel (usually called spent fuel), and low- When fuelis first removed from the level wastes, which include contami- reactor, the short-lived radioactive nated equipment, filters, maintenance materials are still present. But over materials, and resins used in purifying time, these substances decay, leaving water for the reactor cooling system. the longer-lived materials as the pnnci-I pal substances for disposal. These Other users of radioactive materials also generate low-level wastes. m terials include cobalt-60 (5-year half-life), cesium-137 (30-year half-life), and Each type of waste is handled plutonium-239 (24,400-year half-life). differently. Special procedures are needed in the handling of the spent fuel, since HIGH-LEVEL WASTE , the radiation ieveis can be very dan- N#F"#"I gerous without proper shielding. The /ng/ -Inc/ waste water in the spent fuel storage pool disposalsite at The spent fuel from nuclearprovides powercooling and adequate shield. Yucca Mountain, plants is stored in water-filled pools at ing from the radiation to protect workers Nevada each reactor site and at one storage facility in Illinois. Several utilities have recently begun using dry cask storage pending final disposal. In y this way spent fuelis stored in heavy metal or . concrete containers g m: placed on concrete pads _ j. adjacent to the reactor facility. From one-fourth to one-third of the reactor fuel is removed and replaced during . refueling. Reactors are , normally refueled every *99 e 12 to 18 months. m 7 . 7 M ( "%.,.3 Spent fuelis highly , .' _ 1,3 .
~'w radioactive because it '~
u m , a c a z.. . . . 'i n .c:2 contains the fission byproducts that were created while the e7 reactor was operating. One character-
- in a nuclear plant. Concrete and steel Federal requirements, and the De-in dry casks provide adequate protec- partment of Transportation sets the tion, too. rules for actual transportation of the spent fuel.
Although most of the spent fuel remains stored at individual plants, Some of the components in spent Diagram of a spent some spent fuel has been shipped to fuel remain hazardous for a long time, fuelstorage cask offsite interim storage facilities. One Permanent disposal of spent fuel, l offsite storage therefore, requires a disposal facility that provides reasonable assurance u y' ' -m;wvmme--: m; facility operates ' i x j in Illinois. These that the waste will remain isolated for as2r 4 shipments have thousands of years. X 'y j used heavily The Department of Energy (DOE)
; shielded shipping is developing plans for a permanent l
. Anem.a containers de- disposal facility for spent fuel from l 83$ ,
/ cace ;
signed to with- nuclear power plants as well as for I p[:.: h,%
/ stand the cond.i- the high-level waste produced by p;.y y:
w' g tions that might occur during a the Nation's nuclear weapons produc-
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shipping acci-tion activities.
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Up fat,MM dent. Spent fuel Congress has directed DOE to has been shipped focus on a proposed site at Yucca
; .gp j by rail and by Mountain in southern Nevada for this waste disposal facility. Site studies
@/ j' truck. The NRC are still under way to determine if the
- .. certifies each
*** site is adequate for long-term dis-
.. .. shipping con-c:T. ~hi .'J.0.~
. . ,.
- tainer that meets posal of the high level waste.
" DOE would design, build, and operate the facility, and the NRC l
would regulate it. The NRC must approve the
^
---- site and desi9n for the 5 ,,; p.,
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*m t- y y "lOEN% MiF sw7%j Jf it during construction and operation.
h- [@Iin : , 3 i h rJ ]yy[g 7 7:wgr y - 4g Although some 6" j r s r ]* N w;205N6 SN A MMSynQ W@ nuclear plants have
- _ $[ jY gyp: @5fisgiyg jig?ff adequate capacity to 7 p==9 y nnMy$
g f M FEEMR store the spent fuel they gf@yi 1
-1 a MiMM% "W@$I$ generate until a DOE f', .
4 WE" q RMin d S$ inn site is available for i "g q *_ M, , disposal, other plants, e n; se T' j particularly LC, T ones, maythe soonolderrun out
~
_ Jf%.i of storage space in their spent fuel pools. DOE Storage casks at the Surry Nuclear and the nuclear industry are consider-18 _ Power Plant in Virginia ing various options to store additional
spent fuel, including dry storage, the availability of disposal capacity for constru .Fon of additional offsite in- commercial low-level waste produced terim storage facilities, and techniques in the State. States could provide for for storing more fuelin the existing disposal either individually or as a spent fuel storage pools, group by joining together in a regional , agreement. The individual States or Through theyears, , State groups are in the process of cornmerci..i low-LOW-LEVEL WASTE l selecting new bunal sites or, ,n i some lereiradioactive cases, will use the facilities that have waste has been been operating. Low-level r1dioactive waste, buried at sites in six , whether from a nuclear power plant or from other users of radioactive mate- TRAN'SPORTATION H'adu,ngton, South l rial, is shipped to licensed commercial Carolina, Nevada, disposal facilities where it ir packaged Illinois, Kentucky, l and placed in burial trenches and { bout 3 million packages of radio-covared with soil. Less thar half of the active materials are shipped each year in the lana thue waste volume is from nuclear power States have hun in the United States - by highway, plants; the remainder is generated by rail, air, and water. Regulating the shut downfor inany hospitals, research institutes, and years, and the safety of these shipments is the joint other useis of radioactive materials. Nerada site ceased responsibility of the U.S. Department in 1980 Congress mandated that of Transportation (DOT) and operation on the each State be responsible for assuring the NRC. first day ofl993. f-7], ' -m,mwwwymmm#mmmmm-m
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Typical of small-ll'@^ , quantity shipments -
,m.
using packages meeting 4
i DOT requirements-are radioactive materials for
'y
" medical diagnostic tests
' and therapy.
These shipments cormitute the major J '" ' '
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of radioactive materials each year. For these h shipments, packaging (classified as " Type A")
' is used that is expected to withstand the rigors of normal transportation
'~
without incurring any damage. The packages for The Federal segulatory system larger quantities of radioactive materials Spent reactorfuct protects transport workers and the are designed to withstand accident is carried in conditions without releasing their con-containers that are public by setting performance stan. dards for the packages and by setting tents. These packages, designated as specially designed " Type B," are used for shipping industrial to withstand limits on the radioactive contents and radiation levels for packages and irradiators, medical radiation therapy I accident conditions devices, and some radioactive wastes. l . vehicles. Information on radioactive without releasing The accident evaluation criteria for these l shipments is provided by package their radioactive marking and labeling, vehicle plac- Packages include impact, puncture,
##"'#"'#- ards, and shioping papers describing heat, and submersion in water.
the materials. A specialized Type B package is DOT has regulatory jurisdiction over the spent fuel shipping cask, which is radioactive shipments while the mate- used to transport used fuel from nuclear reactors. These large ship-rial is in transit. DOT also establishes shipping categories, sets the stan. ping casks are carried on trucks or dards for labeling of radioactive ship. rail cars. Like all Type B packages, ments, and establishes criteria for they are sealed to prevent teakage packages used for smaller quantities and heavily shielded to tri.,imize the of radioactive materials.The NRC, radiation levels. which licenses the organizations The NRC also imposes security shipping and receiving the radioactive requirements on shipments of spent materials, assures that its licensees fuel and on shipments of larger quanti-comply with the DOT shipping require- ties of highly enriched uranium or ments. The NRC also establishes the plutonium. These security measures requirements for the design and manu- include route evaluation, escort per-facture of packages for larger quanti- sonnel and vehicles, communications 20 ties of radioactive materials- capabilities, and emergency plans. l
State governments are notified in that may require cleanup procedures advance of spent fuel shipments and when the facility is closed. Careful those large-quantity shipments of radiation surveys must also be per- ' radioactive waste requiring Type B formed before the site can be released packages. for other uses. The regulatory system for transpor- During the operating life of a tation of radioactive materials has nuclear power plant, many plant been successfulin minimizing the components associated with the safety impact from accidents involving reactor become radioactive, either the shipments. Few accidents have through contamination or as a result oc :urred involving shipments of radio- of the radiation from the fission reac-active materials (averaging less than tion. Therefore, care is needed in the 50 out of 3 million packages shipped handling of decommissioning work, annually). Only a small number of and contaminated materials have to those accidents have involved any be shipped to a low level radioactive releace of the radioactive contents. In waste disposal site for burial. these instances, radioactive contami-nation has been generally minor with The NRC has identified two principal no public safety consequences. Pl ans for decommissioning a nuclear power plant -immediate dismantiing l or safe storage for a period of 30 to 50 1 DECOMMI 10NING' years followed by dismantling. A third option, called entombment, may also be available in some cases. This Dismantlement of Decommissioning is the term wouldused involve sealing off radioactive the Trojan Nuclear for ending the operation of a nuclear components with concrete and steel. Power Plant in facility. Nuclear power plants are Entombment would require less main- Oregon. licensed for a term of 40 years. Some plants may be closed before that time elapses; others may seek an extension of the license period. Several nuclear power plants have been de- ,, commissioned, and "; J r some others are under-
~; '4 going decommissioning. "i The NRC has adopted extensive regulations for dealing with the techni-cal and financialissues associated with decom-missioning.
These r . alations apply to nuaar power plants and to other facilities that a3 l handle radioactive materials in forms 41.
l i I
~^~ ~ '
' ~
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\
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- the site ceased in - .., . .. T.. s, 4y8 ,9 rw f f M ,i j 1983. Soil N ?.5 .' . M s
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- monitanng Indicate . g .. _,
- the site meets NRC * ' ' '
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"hy release criteria, the -
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tenance and fewer security provisions Similar financial procedures are also than the storage option. required for other types of nuclear The storage and entombment f cilities, including plants that prepare methods allow for a reduction in the fuel for nuclear power plants or pro-levels of radioactivity over time. NRC cess radioactive materials. studies have shown that after 50 Some facilities that previously used years, the volume of radioactively nuclear materials in processing or contaminated material would be manufacturing activities require special reduced to one-tenth of the original management attention to ensure volume as a result of radioactive proper remediation. The NRC devel-decay. Delay in dismantling a plant oped a Site Decommissioning Man-would also result in lower radiation agement Plan to compel timely exposures to the workers involved. cleanup of certain unusual and difficult Cost estimates for decommissioning sites, particularly those with a lot of I a large nuclear plant are $300 million soil contamination or with old, contami-or more, plus the cost of demolition of nated buildings. About 40 sites are non-contaminated materials. The NRC listed in the plan. Remediation can decommissioning rules require utilities usually be completed in four years. to establish funds to pay for the future Afterwards, the site can be used safely decommissioning of their plants. for any purpose. FOR . ADDITIONAL INFORMATION, CONTACT: Office of Public Affairs U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Washingan, D.C. 20555-0001 301-415-8200 E-Mail: OPA@ NRC. GOV Internet Home Page: http://www.nrc.gc , REGIONALPUBl.lC AFFAIRS OFFICES . .
=-
Region i Region lli
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475 Allendale Road 801 Warrenville Road King of Prussia, PA 19406-1415 Lisle, IL 60532-4531 610-337-5330 630-829-9663 Region 11 Region IV 61 Forsyth Street, S.W. 611 Ryan Plaza Drive Suite 23T85 Suite 400 Atlanta, GA 30303 Ar!ington, TX 76011-8064 404-562-4400 817-860-8128 23
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