ML20282A658
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| Issue date: | 10/30/2020 |
| From: | Couret I Office of Public Affairs |
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| Malone, Tina | |
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3 NUCLEAR REACTORS 25
N UC L E A R R E AC TOR S U.S. Electricity Generated by Commercial Nuclear Power According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), in 2018, about 4,178 billion kilowatt-hours (kWh) (or 4.18 trillion kWh) of electricity were generated at utility-scale electricity generation facilities in the United States. About 63 percent of this electricity generation was from fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, petroleum, and other gases). Nuclear energy provided 19.3 percent (807 billion kWh), and about 17 percent came from renewable energy sources. EIA estimates that an additional 30 billion kWh of electricity generation was from small-scale solar photovoltaic systems in 2018 (see Figure 9. U.S. Gross Electricity Share by Energy Source, 2018, and Figure 10. U.S. Electricity Generation by Energy Source, 2013-2018).
Since the 1970s, the Nations utilities have asked permission to generate more electricity from existing nuclear plants.26 The NRC regulates how much heat a commercial nuclear reactor may generate. This amount of heat, or power level, is used with other data in many analyses that demonstrate the safety of the nuclear power plant. This power level is included in the plants license and technical specifications. The NRC must review and approve any licensees requested change to a license or technical specification. Increasing a commercial nuclear power plants maximum operational power level is called a power uprate.
The NRC has approved power uprates that have collectively added the equivalent of seven new reactors worth of electrical generation to the power grid.
A-Z See Glossary for information on the electric power grid.
According to the EIA, in 2018, each of the following States generated more than 40,000 megawatt-hours of electricity from nuclear power: Illinois, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, New York, North Carolina, and Texas. Illinois ranked first in the Nation in both generating capacity and net electricity generation from nuclear power. Illinois nuclear power plants accounted for 12 percent of the Nations nuclear power generation. The 2018 data cited reflect the total net generation electricity from nuclear sources in each of these States (see Figure 11. Gross Electricity Generated in Each State by Nuclear Power). In 2018, 30 of the 50 States generated electricity from nuclear power plants.
U.S. Commercial Nuclear Power Reactors Power plants convert heat into electricity using steam. At nuclear power plants, the heat to boil water into steam is created when atoms split apart in a process called fission. When the process is repeated over and over, it is called a chain reaction. The reactions heat creates steam to turn a turbine. As the turbine spins, the generator turns and its magnetic field produces electricity.
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3 Figure 9. U.S. Gross Electricity Share by Energy Source, 2018 Petroleum Natural Gas 0.6%
35.1%
Coal 27.4%
Nuclear 19.3% Renewable 17.1%
Solar 1.6%
Hydropower 7%
Note: Figures are rounded.
Source: DOE/EIA, data as of May 2020 for April 19, 2019, https://www.eia.govTable 7.2a Electricity Net Generation:
Total (All Sectors)
Figure 10. U.S. Electricity Generation by Energy Source, 2013-2018 Note: Figures are rounded.
Source: DOE/EIA, data as of May 2020 for April 19, 2019, https://www.eia.govElectricity Data Browser Electricity Net Generation: Total (All SectorsAnnually 2013-2018) 27
N UC L E A R R E AC TOR S Net Electricity Generated in Each State by Nuclear Power Figure 11. Gross Electricity Generated in Each State by Nuclear Power WA ME MT ND OR MN VT NH ID WI NY MA SD WY MI CT RI IA PA NJ NV NE OH DE UT IL IN CA CO WV MD KS MO VA DC KY NC TN AZ OK NM AR SC MS AL GA TX LA AK FL HI Total Nuclear Power Generated (in thousand megawatt-hours)
None < less than 20,001 to 40,001 to > more than 20,000 40,000 60,000 60,001+
20 States 16 States 8 States 4 States 2 States Note: *
U.S. Territories not pictured. American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, and Minor Outlying Islands do not generate nuclear power.
Total Nuclear Power Generated by State (in thousand megawatt-hours)
Total Nuclear % of Nuclear Total Nuclear % of Nuclear State Generated Electricity State Generated Electricity Illinois 97,191 53% Ohio 17,687 15%
Pennsylvania 83,199 39% Connecticut 16,499 48%
S. Carolina 54,344 58% Louisiana 15,409 16%
Alabama 42,651 42% Maryland 15,106 44%
N. Carolina 42,374 33% Minnesota 13,904 24%
New York 42,167 33% Arkansas 12,691 21%
Texas 38,581 9% Kansas 10,647 21%
New Jersey 34,032 45% New Hampshire 9,990 57%
Georgia 33,708 26% Wisconsin 9,648 15%
Michigan 32,381 29% Washington 8,128 7%
Arizona 32,340 31% Missouri 8,304 10%
Tennessee 31,817 40% Nebraska 6,912 20%
Virginia 30,533 34% Mississippi 7,364 12%
Florida 29,146 12% Massachusetts 5,047 16%
California 17,901 9% Iowa 5,213 9%
Source: DOE/EIA, Net Generation by State, Type of Producer and Energy SourceTables for 2017 Released September 2018. Monthly Nuclear Utility Generation by State and Reactor, Annual December 2017, EIA-923 and EIA-860 Reports, https://www.eia.gov - Data as of May 2020 for 2018 and 2017.
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3 Nuclear power plants are very complex. There are many buildings at the site and many different systems. Some of the systems work directly to make electricity.
Some of the systems keep the plant working correctly and safely. All nuclear power plants have a containment structure with reinforced concrete about 4 feet (1.2 meters) thick that houses the reactor. To keep reactors See Appendix E for a list of parent performing efficiently, operators companies of U.S. commercial operating remove about one-third of the fuel nuclear power reactors, Appendix A for a every year or two and replace it list of reactors and their general licensing with fresh fuel. Used fuel is stored information, Appendix T for Native American and cooled in deep pools of water Reservations and Trust lands near nuclear located on site. The process of power plants, and Appendix J for radiation removing used fuel and adding doses and regulatory limits.
fresh fuel is known as refueling.
The United States has two types of commercial nuclear reactors.
Pressurized-water reactors are known as PWRs. They keep water in the reactor under pressure so it heats to over 500 degrees Fahrenheit (260 degrees Celsius) but does not boil. Water from the reactor and the water that is turned into steam are in separate pipes and never mix. In boiling-water reactors (BWRs), the water heated in the reactor actually boils and turns into steam, which then turns a turbine generator producing electricity. In both types of plants, the steam is turned back into water and is used again in the process.
The NRC regulates commercial nuclear power plants that generate electricity.
There are several operating companies and vendors and many different types of reactor designs. Of these designs, only PWRs and BWRs are currently in commercial operation in the United States. Although commercial U.S. reactors have many similarities, each one is considered unique (see Figure 12. U.S. Operating Commercial Nuclear Power Reactors).
A-Z See Glossary for typical PWR and BWR designs.
Resident Inspectors Since the late 1970s, the NRC has maintained its own sets of eyes and ears at the Nations nuclear power plants. These onsite NRC personnel are referred to as resident inspectors. Each plant has at least two such inspectors, and their work is at the core of the agencys reactor inspection program. These highly trained and qualified professionals scrutinize activities at the plants and verify adherence to Federal safety requirements. The inspectors visit the control room and review operator logbook entries, visually assess areas of the plant, observe tests of (or repairs to) important systems or components, interact with plant employees, and check corrective action documents to ensure that problems have been identified and appropriate fixes implemented.
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N UC L E A R R E AC TOR S U.S. Operating Commercial Nuclear Power Reactors Figure 12. U.S. Operating Commercial Nuclear Power Reactors WA ME MT ND OR 2 VT NH ID MN WI NY MA SD 2 2 WY MI 2 RI 2 2 2 CT 2 IA 2 2 PA 2 NE 2 2 NJ 2 NV 2 OH DE UT IL IN 2 CA CO WV MD 2 KS VA 2 DC 2 MO KY 2 2 NC TN 2 2 2 AZ OK 2 3 3
NM AR 3 SC 2
MS AL GA 2 2 = 1 unit TX 2 LA 2 = 2 units 2 FL 3 = 3 units AK 2 HI 2 Licensed to Operate (94)
REGION I REGION II REGION III REGION IV CONNECTICUT ALABAMA ILLINOIS ARKANSAS Millstone 2 and 3 Browns Ferry 1, 2, Braidwood 1 and 2 Arkansas Nuclear 1 and 2 and 3 Byron 1 and 2 MARYLAND ARIZONA Farley 1 and 2 Clinton Calvert Cliffs 1 and 2 Palo Verde 1, 2, and 3 Dresden 2 and 3 FLORIDA NEW HAMPSHIRE LaSalle 1 and 2 CALIFORNIA St. Lucie 1 and 2 Seabrook Quad Cities 1 and 2 Diablo Canyon 1 and 2 Turkey Point 3 and 4 NEW JERSEY GEORGIA MICHIGAN KANSAS Hope Creek Wolf Creek Hatch 1 and 2 Cook 1 and 2 Salem 1 and 2 Vogtle 1 and 2 Fermi 2 LOUISIANA Palisades River Bend 1 NEW YORK NORTH CAROLINA FitzPatrick Brunswick 1 and 2 MINNESOTA Waterford 3 Ginna McGuire 1 and 2 Monticello MISSISSIPPI Indian Point 3 Harris 1 Prairie Island 1 and 2 Grand Gulf Nine Mile Point 1 and 2 SOUTH CAROLINA OHIO MISSOURI PENNSYLVANIA Catawba 1 and 2 Davis-Besse Callaway Beaver Valley 1 and 2 Oconee 1, 2, and 3 Perry Robinson 2 NEBRASKA Limerick 1 and 2 WISCONSIN Summer Cooper Peach Bottom 2 and 3 Point Beach 1 and 2 Susquehanna 1 and 2 TENNESSEE TEXAS Sequoyah 1 and 2 Comanche Peak 1 and 2 Watts Bar 1 and 2 South Texas Project 1 and 2 VIRGINIA WASHINGTON North Anna 1 and 2 Columbia Surry 1 and 2 map_operation_reactors_2020_May Note: NRC-abbreviated reactor names listed. Data are current as of August 2020. For the most recent information, go to the Dataset Index Web page at https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/datasets/.
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3 Figure 13. Day in the Life of an NRC Resident Inspector 1 An NRC resident inspector is a specially trained expert who START lives in the community around the plant. Each plant has at least two inspectors.
3 Each morning, the inspector visits the reactors control room, gets 2 information on the plant status, and As with everyone at the plant, relays this information to NRC offices.
the inspector passes through security checkpoints.
5 4 The inspector attends the plan-of-the-day meeting with plant officials As part of to understand what their routine, activities are planned.
inspectors proceed with inspection activities, observe plant workers, 7 make sure the plant is 6 Inspectors routinely inspect safety systems, discuss safety issues Resident inspectors play following NRC rules, with plant employees, and submit a very important role for and report publicly available reports. the NRC. They are the concerns. agencys on-the-ground eyes and ears.
Have a safe day!
Learn more about resident inspectors. Watch the videos on the NRC YouTube Channel at https://www.youtube.com/user/NRCgov.
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N UC L E A R R E AC TOR S Resident inspectors promptly notify plant operators of any safety-significant issues they find so they are corrected, if necessary, and communicated to NRC management. If problems are significant enough, the NRC will consider whether enforcement action is warranted. More information about the NRCs Reactor Oversight Process and the resident inspector program is available on the agencys Web site (see Figure 13. Day in the Life of an NRC Resident Inspector).
Post-Fukushima Safety Enhancements On March 11, 2011, a 9.0-magnitude earthquake, followed by a 45-foot (13.7-meter) tsunami, heavily damaged the nuclear power reactors at Japans Fukushima Dai-ichi facility. Following this accident, the NRC required significant enhancements to U.S. commercial nuclear power plants. At the front lines of this effort were the agencys resident inspectors and regional staff. They inspected and monitored U.S.
reactors as the plants worked on these enhancements.
The enhancements included adding capabilities to maintain key plant safety functions following any kind of severe event, updating evaluations of potential impacts from seismic and flooding events, installing new equipment to better handle potential reactor core damage events, and strengthening emergency preparedness capabilities. These actions ensure the nuclear industry and the NRC are prepared for the unexpected. The NRC continues to inspect plants efforts to ensure they have the required resources, plans, and training (see Figure 14. NRC Post-Fukushima Safety Enhancements and the Web Link Index).
Principal Licensing, Inspection, and Enforcement Activities See Appendix C for a list of reactors The NRCs commercial reactor licensing undergoing decommissioning and and inspection activities include:
permanently shut down and reviewing
separate license change Appendix V for a list of significant requests from power reactor enforcement actions.
licensees performing inspection-related activities at each operating reactor site conducting initial reactor operator licensing examinations ensuring NRC-licensed reactor operators maintain their knowledge and skills current by passing rigorous requalification exams every 2 years and obtaining an NRC license renewal every 6 years reviewing applications for proposed new reactors inspecting construction activities reviewing
operating experience items each year and distributing lessons learned that could help licensed facilities operate more effectively issuing notices of violation, civil penalties, or orders to operating reactors for significant violations of NRC regulations on public health and safety 32
3 Figure 14. NRC Post-Fukushima Safety Enhancements Mitigation Strategies Seismic FLEX Defense Equipment Hardened Vents Spent Fuel Pool Instrumentation Emergency Preparedness FLEX Offsite Flooding Equipment Defense Note: FLEX refers to the industrys term for mitigation strategy equipment.
The NRC Region I Deputy Administrator Ray Lorson (left), dressed in anticontamination clothing, accompanies NRC Resident Inspectors Brian Haagensen (middle) and Nik Floyd during a visit to New Yorks Indian Point nuclear plant, Unit 3. The gear was necessary to view calibrations of a submersible inspection device, which can be used to perform ultrasonic testing on hard-to-reach reactor baffle bolts.
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N UC L E A R R E AC TOR S investigating allegations of inadequacy or impropriety associated with NRC-regulated activities incorporating
independent advice from the ACRS, which holds both full committee meetings and subcommittee meetings each year to examine potential safety issues for existing or proposed reactors Oversight of U.S. Commercial Nuclear Power Reactors The NRC establishes requirements for the design, construction, operation, and security of U.S. commercial nuclear power plants. The agency ensures the plants operate safely and securely within these requirements by licensing the plants to operate, licensing control room personnel, establishing technical specifications for operating each plant, and inspecting plants daily.
Reactor Oversight Process The NRCs Reactor Oversight Process (ROP) verifies that U.S. reactors are operating in accordance with NRC rules, regulations, and license requirements. If reactor performance declines, the NRC increases its oversight to protect public health and the environment. This can range from conducting additional inspections to shutting a reactor down.
The NRC staff uses the ROP to evaluate NRC inspection findings and performance records for each reactor and applies this information to assess the reactors safety performance and security measures. Every 3 months, through the ROP, the NRC places each reactor in one of five categories. The top category is fully meeting all safety cornerstone objectives, while the bottom is unacceptable performance (see Figure 15. Reactor Oversight Action Matrix Performance Indicators). NRC inspections start with detailed baseline-level activities for every reactor. As the number of issues at a reactor increases, the NRCs inspections increase. The agencys supplemental inspections and other actions (if needed) ensure licensees promptly address significant performance issues. The latest reactor-specific inspection findings and historical performance information can be found on the NRCs Web site (see the Web Link Index).
The ROP is informed by 50 years of improvements in nuclear industry performance.
The process continues to improve approaches to inspecting and evaluating the safety and security performance of NRC-licensed nuclear plants. More ROP information is available on the NRCs Web site and in NUREG-1649, Revision 6, Reactor Oversight Process, issued July 2016 (see Figure 16. Reactor Oversight Framework).
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3 Figure 15. Reactor Oversight Action Matrix Performance Indicators Performance Indicators Performance GREEN Indicators YELLOW WHITE RED GREEN WHITE YELLOW RED INCREASING SAFETY SIGNIFICANCE INCREASING SAFETY SIGNIFICANCE Inspection Findings Inspection GREEN Findings WHITE YELLOW RED GREEN WHITE YELLOW RED INCREASING SAFETY SIGNIFICANCE INCREASING SAFETY SIGNIFICANCE Figure 16. Reactor Oversight Framework Mission Protect Public Health and Safety in the Use of Nuclear Power Strategic Performance Reactor Safety Radiation Safety Safeguards Areas Cornerstones Initiating Mitigating Barrier Emergency Public Occupational Security Events Systems Integrity Preparedness Radiation Radiation Cross-Cutting Human Problem Identification and Safety-Conscious Work Areas Performance Resolution Environment 35
N UC L E A R R E AC TOR S Reactor License Renewal The Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as amended, authorizes the NRC to issue 40-year initial licenses for commercial power reactors. The Act also allows the NRC to renew licenses. Under the NRCs current regulations, the agency can renew reactor licenses for 20 years at a time. Congress set the original 40-year term after considering economic and antitrust issues, as opposed to nuclear technology issues. Some parts of a reactor, however, may have been engineered based on an expected 40-year service life. These parts must be maintained and monitored during the additional period of operation, and licensees may choose to replace some components (see Figure 17. License Renewals Granted for Operating Nuclear Power Reactors).
For current reactors grouped by how long they have operated, see Figure 18.
U.S. Commercial Nuclear Power ReactorsYears of Operation by the End of 2020.
Nuclear power plant owners typically seek license renewal based on a plants economic situation and on whether it can continue to meet NRC requirements in the future (see Figure 19. License Renewal Process).
The NRC reviews a license renewal application on two tracks: safety and environmental impacts. The safety review evaluates the licensees plans for managing aging plant systems during the renewal period. For the environmental review, the agency uses the Generic Environmental Impact Statement for License Renewal of Nuclear Plants (NUREG-1437, Revision 1, issued June 2013) to evaluate impacts common to all nuclear power plants, then prepares a supplemental environmental impact statement for each individual plant. The supplement examines impacts unique to the plants site. The public has two opportunities to contribute to the See Appendices F and G for environmental reviewat the beginning and power reactor operating licenses when the draft report is published. issued and expiring by year.
The NRC considered the environmental impacts of the continued storage of spent nuclear fuel during rulemaking activities and published its final continued storage rule and supporting generic environmental impact statement in 2014. The rule addresses the environmental impacts of the continued storage of spent nuclear fuel beyond a reactors licensed operating life before ultimate disposal (previously referred to as waste confidence). The environmental impacts of continued storage of spent nuclear fuel are incorporated into each environmental review for license renewal.
Subsequent License Renewal The NRC staff developed guidance and a standard review plan for subsequent license renewals that would allow plants to operate for more than 60 years (the 40 years of the original license plus 20 years in the initial license renewal).
The Commission determined the agencys existing regulations are adequate for subsequent license renewals, but the new guidance would help licensees develop aging management programs appropriate for the 60-year to 80-year period.
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3 License Renewals Granted for Operating Nuclear Power Reactors Figure 17. License Renewals Granted for Operating Nuclear Power Reactors WA ME MT ND MN OR VT 2 NH ID WI NY MA SD 2 2 WY MI 2 RI 2 2 CT 2 IA 2 PA 2 NE 2 2 2 NJ 2 NV 2 OH DE UT 2 IN 2 CA CO IL WV MD 2 KS VA 2 DC 2 MO KY 2 TN 2 NC 2 2 AZ OK 2 3 2 NM AR 3 SC 3
MS AL GA 2 2 2 TX 2 LA = 1 unit 2 = 2 units AK 2 FL 2 3 = 3 units HI 2 Licensed to Operate (94)
Original License (8) License Renewal Granted (82) Subsequent License Renewal Granted (4)
Note:
Note: The The NRC NRChas has issued issued a total a total of 98 of 96 license license renewals; renewals; 8 of eight these of these units have units p have
ermanently shut down. Data are as of permanently August 2020. For shut the down. Data are most recent as of August information, go to2020.
the Dataset Index Web page at https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/datasets/.
Figure 21. Years of Operation Figure 18. U.S. Commercial Nuclear Power ReactorsYears of Operation by the End of 2020 44 43 2 4 1
reactor reactors reactors reactors reactors 1-19 years 20-29 years 30-39 years 40-49 years >50 years Note: Ages have been rounded up to the end of the year.
Note: Ages are based on operating license issued date and have been rounded up to the end of the year. For Source: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission the most recent information, go to the Dataset Index Web page at https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/
doc-collections/datasets/.
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N UC L E A R R E AC TOR S License Renewal Figure 19. Process License Renewal Process Not applicable to the subsequent license renewal process Opportunities for public interaction Onsite If a request for a hearing is granted Safety Review Inspection(s) Available at https://www.nrc.gov 10 CFR Part 54 Safety Inspection Evaluation Reports Audit and Review Issued**
License Renewal Process and Safety Evaluation Environmental Report Issued**
Scoping Meeting Advisory START Environmental Committee on Review Reactor Safeguards 10 CFR Part 51 (ACRS) Review License Renewal ACRS Application** Letter Issued**
Draft Site Environmental Audit Supplement to Generic Environmental Impact Draft Hearings*
DECISION Statement (GEIS) Issued** Supplemental Environmental Inpact Statement Public Comment/Meeting Final Supplement NRC Decision to GEIS Issued** on Application**
Public Involvement The public plays an important role in the license renewal process. Members of the public have several opportunities to contribute to the environmental review.
The NRC shares information provided by the applicant and holds public meetings. The agency fully and publicly documents the results of its technical and environmental reviews. In addition, ACRS public meetings often discuss technical or safety issues related to reactor designs or a particular plant or site. Individuals or groups can raise legal arguments against a license renewal application in an Atomic Safety and Licensing Board (ASLB) hearing if they would be affected by the renewal and meet basic requirements for requesting a hearing. (For more information, see the Web Link Index.)
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3 Research and Test Reactors Nuclear research and test reactors (RTRs), also called nonpower reactors, See Appendices H and I for a are primarily used for research, training, list of RTRs regulated by the NRC and development to support science that are operating or are in the and education in nuclear engineering, process of decommissioning.
physics, chemistry, biology, anthropology, medicine, materials sciences, and related fields. These reactors do not produce electricity. Most U.S. RTRs are at universities or colleges.
The largest U.S. RTR (which operates at 20 megawatts thermal (MWt)) is approximately 80 times smaller than the smallest U.S. commercial power nuclear reactor (which operates at 1,677 MWt). The NRC regulates a wide variety of RTRs located across the country (see Figure 20. Size Comparison of Commercial and Research Reactors and Figure 21. U.S. Nuclear Research and Test Reactors). DOE also uses nonpower nuclear research reactors, but they are not regulated by the NRC.
NRC inspectors visit each RTR facility about once a year to conduct varying levels of oversight. RTRs licensed to operate at 2 MWt or more receive a full NRC inspection every year. Those licensed to operate at less than 2 MWt receive a full inspection every 2 years.
Figure 20. Size Comparison of Commercial and Research Reactors 1,677 MWt SMALLEST LARGEST COMMERCIAL RESEARCH &
POWER REACTOR TEST REACTOR 80 20 MWt 1,677 Megawatts 20 Megawatts thermal thermal Note: Nuclear research and test reactors, also known as nonpower reactors, do not produce commercial electricity.
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N UC L E A R R E AC TOR S U.S. Nuclear Research and Test Reactors Figure 21. U.S. Nuclear Research and Test Reactors WA ME MT ND OR MN VT NH ID WI MA SD MI NY WY CT RI IA PA NJ NV NE OH IL DE UT IN CA CO WV MD KS VA DC MO KY NC TN AZ OK NM AR SC MS AL GA TX LA AK FL HI RTRs Licensed/Currently Operating (31)
Note: RTRs are also referred to as non-power facilities. For the most recent information, go to the Dataset Index Web page at https://
www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/datasets/.
Principal Licensing and Inspection Activities The NRCs RTR licensing and inspection activities include:
licensing new and current operating sites, including license renewals and license amendments overseeing decommissioning licensing operators overseeing operator relicensing programs conducting inspections each year, based on inspection frequency and procedures for operating RTRs overseeing facility security and emergency preparedness programs NRC staff examine control panels during a license renewal site visit at the North Carolina State University PULSTAR Research Reactor Building.
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3 New Commercial Nuclear Power Reactor Licensing New reactors are often considered to be any reactors proposed in addition to the current fleet of operating reactors (see Figure 22. The Different NRC Classifications for Types of Reactors).
The NRCs current review of new power See Appendix B for a list of reactor license applications improves new nuclear power plant licensing applications in the United States.
on the process used through the 1990s (see Figure 23. New Reactor Licensing Process). In 2012, the NRC issued the first combined construction permit and operating license (called a combined license, or COL) under the new licensing process. The NRC continues to review applications submitted by prospective licensees and (when appropriate) issues standard design certifications, early site permits (ESPs), limited work authorizations, construction permits, operating licenses, and COLs for facilities in a variety of projected locations throughout the United States. The NRC has implemented the Commissions policies on new reactor safety through rules, guidance, staff reviews, and inspection.
A-Z See Glossary for typical PWR and BWR designs.
The NRCs ongoing design certification, COL, and ESP reviews are incorporating lessons learned from the Fukushima accident. The environmental impacts of continued storage of spent nuclear fuel are incorporated into each environmental review for new reactor licensing. The NRC considered these impacts in a rulemaking and published its final continued storage rule and supporting generic environmental impact statement in September 2014. Section 5 discusses the continued storage rule in more detail.
Combined License ApplicationsConstruction and Operating By issuing a COL, the NRC authorizes the licensee to construct and (with specified conditions) operate a nuclear power plant at a specific site, in accordance with established laws and regulations. If the Commission finds that the acceptance criteria are met, a COL is valid for 40 years. A COL can be renewed for additional 20-year terms (see Figure 24. Locations of New Nuclear Power Reactor Applications). For the current review schedule for active licensing applications, consult the NRCs Web site (see the Web Link Index).
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N UC L E A R R E AC TOR S Figure 22. The Different NRC Classifications for Types of Reactors Operating Reactors Design: The U.S. fleet consists mainly of large reactors that use regular water (light water, as opposed to heavy water that has a different type of hydrogen than commonly found in nature) for both cooling the core and facilitating the nuclear reaction.
Capacity: The generation base load of these plants is 1,677 MWt (570 MWe) or higher.
Safety: These reactors have active safety systems powered by alternating current (ac) and require an operator to shut down.
Fuel: These reactors require enriched uranium.
Advanced Reactors Design: Advanced reactors are a new generation of nonlight-water reactors.
They use coolants including molten salts, liquid metals, and even gases such as helium.
Capacity: These plants range in power from very small reactors to a power level comparable to existing operating reactors.
Safety: These reactors are expected to provide enhanced margins of safety and use simplified, inherent, and passive means to ensure safety.
They may not require an operator to shut down.
Fuel: These reactors could use enriched uranium, thorium, or used nuclear fuel.
Small Modular Reactors Design: Small modular reactors (SMRs) are similar to large light-water reactors but are smaller, compact designs. These factory-fabricated reactors can be transported by truck or rail to a nuclear power site. Additional SMRs can be installed on site to scale or to meet increased energy needs.
Capacity: These reactors are about one-third the size of typical reactors with a generation base load of 1,000 MWt (300 MWe) or less.
Safety: These reactors can be installed underground, providing more safety and security. They are built with passive safety systems and can be shut down without an operator.
Fuel: These reactors require enriched uranium.
Research and Test Reactors Design: Research and test reactorsalso called nonpower reactorsare primarily used for research, training, and development. They are classified by their moderator, the material used to slow down the neutrons, in the nuclear reaction. Typical moderators include water (H2O), heavy water (D2O), polyethylene, and graphite.
Capacity: These current licensed facilities range in size from 5 watts (less than a night light) to 20 MWt (equivalent to 20 standard medical x-ray machines).
Safety: All NRC-licensed research and test reactors have a built-in safety feature that reduces reactor power during potential accidents before an unacceptable power level or temperature can be reached.
Fuel: Reactors may also be classified by the type of fuel used, such as MTR (plate-type fuel) or TRIGA fuel. TRIGA fuel is unique in that a moderator (hydrogen) is chemically bonded to the fuel.
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3 Combined License Application Review Process Figure 23. New Reactor Licensing Process Safety START Combined Review License Application Public Involvement Final Safety Evaluation Report Public Comments Notice of Environmental Hearing Review DECISION Hearings Final Environmental Impact Statement Commission Decision on Application Figure 24. Locations Location of New of Projected NewNuclear NuclearPower PowerReactor Applications Reactors Oklo WA Fermi ME MT ND OR MN VT NH ID WI NY MA SD WY MI CT RI IA PA NJ NV NE PSEG (ESP)
OH DE UT IL IN CA CO WV MD KS VA DC MO KY NC 2 North Anna TN 2 AZ OK Clinch River (ESP)
NM AR 2 SC Shearon Harris*
MS AL GA 2 William States Lee TX LA AK HI FL Vogtle Turkey Point 2
Comanche Peak*
= A proposed new reactor at or near an existing nuclear plant = 1 unit
= A proposed reactor at a site that has not previously produced nuclear power 2 = 2 units
= Approved reactor
- Review suspended
- Review suspended Note: On July 31, 2017, South Carolina Electric and Gas announced its decision to cease construction on V.C. Summer Units 2 and 3, and the licensee has requested that the COLs be withdrawn. As of October 2017, Duke Energy has announced plans to cancel reactors at Levy County, FL, and William States Lee, SC. Applications were withdrawn for Calvert Cliffs, Grand Gulf, Nine Mile Point, Victoria County, and Callaway (COL and ESP). In June 2018, Nuclear Innovation North America submitted a letter requesting that the COLs for South Texas Project Units 3 and 4 be withdrawn. NRC-abbreviated reactor names listed. Data are current as of August 2020. For the most recent information, go to the Dataset Index Web page at https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/datasets/.
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N UC L E A R R E AC TOR S Public Involvement Even before the NRC receives an application, the agency holds a public meeting to talk to the community near the proposed reactor location. The agency explains the review process and outlines how the public may participate. After the application is submitted, the NRC asks the public to comment on which factors the agency should consider in its environmental review under the National Environmental Policy Act.
The NRC later posts a draft environmental evaluation on the agencys Web site and asks for public input. There is no formal opportunity for public comment on the staffs safety evaluation, but members of the public are welcome to attend public meetings and make comments. Individuals or groups can raise legal arguments against a new reactor application in an ASLB hearing if they would be affected by the new reactor and meet basic requirements for requesting a hearing. The NRC announces opportunities to request these hearings in news releases, in the Federal Register, and on the NRCs Web site.
Early Site Permits An ESP review examines whether a piece of land is suitable for a nuclear power plant. The review covers site safety, environmental protection, and emergency preparedness. The ACRS reviews safety-related portions of an ESP application. As with COL reviews, the public participates in the environmental portion of the NRCs ESP review, and the public can challenge an application in a hearing.
Design Certifications The NRC issues certifications for reactor designs that meet basic requirements for ensuring safe operation. Utilities can cite a certified design when applying for a nuclear power plant COL. The certification is valid for 15 years from the date issued and can be renewed for an additional 15 years. The new reactor designs under review incorporate new elements such as passive safety systems and simplified system designs. The six certified designs are GE-Hitachi Nuclear Energys Advanced Boiling-Water Reactor (ABWR)
Westinghouse Electric Companys System 80+
Westinghouse Electric Companys AP600 Westinghouse Electric Companys AP1000 GE-Hitachi Economic Simplified Boiling-Water Reactor (ESBWR)
Korean Electric Power Corporation APR 1400 (Advanced Power Reactor)
The NRC is reviewing one application for a design certification for the NuScale small modular reactor design and has been issued a final safety evaulation report.
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3 Design Certification Renewals The NRC staff has completed its review of GE-Hitachis application to renew the ABWR design certification.
Advanced Reactor Designs Several companies are considering advanced reactor designs and technologies and are conducting preapplication activities with the NRC. These technologies are cooled by liquid metals, molten salt mixtures, or inert gases. Advanced reactors can also consider fuel materials and designs that differ radically from todays enriched-uranium dioxide (UO2) pellets with zirconium cladding. While developing the regulatory framework for advanced reactor licensing, the NRC is examining policy issues in areas such as security and emergency preparedness.
Small Modular Reactors Small modular reactors (SMRs) use water to cool the reactor core in the same way as todays large lightwater reactors. SMR designs also use the same enriched uranium fuel as todays reactors. However, SMR designs are considerably smaller.
Each SMR module generates 300 MWe (1,000 MWt) or less, compared to todays large designs that can generate 1,000 MWe (3,300 MWt) or more per reactor. The NRCs discussions to date with SMR designers involve modules generating less than 200 MWe (660 MWt).
New Reactor Construction Inspections NRC inspectors based in the agencys Region II office in Atlanta, GA, monitor reactor construction activity. These expert staff members ensure licensees carry out construction according to NRC license specifications and related regulations.
The NRC staff examines the licensees operational programs in areas such as security, radiation protection, and operator training and qualification. Inspections at a construction site verify that a licensee has completed required inspections, tests, and analyses and has met associated acceptance criteria. The NRCs onsite resident construction inspectors oversee day-to-day licensee and contractor activities.
In addition, specialists at NRC Region IIs Division of Construction Oversight periodically visit the sites to ensure the facilities are being constructed using the approved design.
The NRCs Construction Reactor Oversight Process assesses all of these activities.
Before the agency will allow a new reactor to start up, NRC inspectors must confirm that the licensee has met all of the acceptance criteria in its COL.
The agency also inspects domestic and overseas factories and other vendor facilities. This ensures new U.S. reactors receive high-quality products and services that meet the NRCs regulatory requirements. The NRCs Web site has more information on new reactor licensing activities (see the Web Link Index).
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N UC L E A R R E AC TOR S New Commercial Licensing of Nonpower Production and Utilization Facilities Doctors worldwide rely on a steady supply of molybdenum-99 (Mo-99) to produce technetium-99m in hospitals, which is used in radiopharmaceuticals in approximately 50,000 medical diagnostic procedures daily in the United States.
The NRC supports the national policy objective of establishing a reliable, domestically available supply of this medical radioisotope by reviewing license applications for nonpower production and utilization facilities submitted in accordance with the provisions of 10 CFR Part 50. Since 2013, the NRC staff has received two construction permit applications and one operating license application for nonpower production and utilization facilities. The proposed facilities would irradiate low-enriched uranium targets in utilization facilities, then separate Mo-99 from other fission products in hot cells contained within a production facility. The NRC approved the construction permits for SHINE Medical Technologies, LLC (SHINE), in February 2016 and for Northwest Medical Isotopes, LLC, in May 2018.
The staff is reviewing SHINEs application for a license to operate its facility.
The NRC staff conducts safety and environmental reviews on construction permit and operating license applications, which are also subject to regulatory requirements for hearings and an independent review by the ACRS.
The NRC anticipates receiving additional construction permit applications, operating license applications, materials license applications, and license amendment requests in the coming years from other potential Mo-99 producers.
The NRC continues to develop the necessary infrastructure programs for these facilities, including inspection procedures for construction and operation. The agency provides updates on the status of these licensing reviews through NRC-hosted public meetings, Commission meetings, and interagency interactions.
Technetium-99m is produced by the decay of molybdenum-99 and is used in diagnostic nuclear medical imaging procedures.
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3 Nuclear Regulatory Research The NRCs Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research supports the agencys mission by providing technical advice, tools, methods, data, and information. This research can identify, explore, and resolve safety issues, as well as provide information supporting licensing decisions and new regulations and guidance. The NRCs research includes:
independently confirming other parties work through experiments and analyses developing technical support for agency safety decisions preparing for the future by evaluating the safety implications of new technologies and designs for nuclear reactors, materials, waste, and security The research program focuses on the challenges of an evolving industry, as well as on retaining technical skills when experienced staff members retire. The NRCs research covers the light-water reactor technology developed in the 1960s and 1970s, todays advanced light-water reactor designs, and fuel cycle facilities. The agency has longer term research plans for more exotic reactor concepts, such as those cooled by high-temperature gases or molten salts. The NRCs research programs examine a broad range of subjects, such as:
material performance (for example, environmentally assisted degradation and cracking of metallic alloys, aging management of reactor components and materials, boric-acid corrosion, radiation effects on concrete, alkali-silica reaction in concretes, and embrittlement of reactor pressure vessel steels) events disrupting heat transfer from a reactor core, criticality safety, severe reactor accidents, how radioactive material moves through the environment, and how that material could affect human health (sometimes using NRC-developed computer codes for realistic simulations) computer codes used to analyze fire conditions in nuclear facilities, to examine how reactor fuel performs, and to assess nuclear power plant risk new and evolving technologies (such as additive manufacturing and accident tolerant fuel) experience gained from operating reactors digital instrumentation and controls (such as analyzing digital system components, security aspects of digital systems, and probabilistic assessment of digital system performance) enhanced risk-assessment methods, tools, and models to support the increased use of probabilistic risk assessment in regulatory applications earthquake and flooding hazards 47
N UC L E A R R E AC TOR S ultrasonic testing and other nondestructive means of inspecting reactor components and dry cask storage systems and developing and accessing ultrasonic testing simulation tools to optimize examination procedure variables the
human side of reactor operations, including safety culture, and computerization and automation of control rooms The Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research also plans, develops, and manages research on fire safety and risk, including modeling, and evaluates potential security vulnerabilities and possible solutions (see the Web Link Index for more information on specific NRC research projects and activities).
NRC Research Funding The NRCs research program involves about 5 percent of the agencys personnel and uses about 7 percent of its contracting funds. The NRCs $69 million research budget for FY 2020 includes contracts with national laboratories, universities, research organizations, and other Federal agencies (e.g., the National Institute of Standards and Technology, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the U.S. Geological Survey). NRC research funds support access to a broader group of experts and international research facilities. Figure 25. NRC Research Funding, FY 2020, illustrates the primary areas of research.
The majority of the NRCs research budget supports maintaining operating See Appendix U for States reactor safety and security. The with Integrated University Program Grant Recipients.
remaining research budget supports regulatory activities for new and advanced reactors, industrial and medical use of nuclear materials, and nuclear fuel cycle and radioactive waste programs. The NRC cooperates with universities and nonprofit organizations on research for the agencys specific interests.
The NRCs international cooperation in research areas leverages agency resources, facilitates work on advancing existing technologies, and determines any safety implications of new technologies. The NRCs leadership role in international organizations such as IAEA and OECD/NEA helps guide the agencys collaborations.
The NRC maintains international cooperative research agreements with more than two dozen foreign governments. This work covers technical areas from severe accident research and computer code development to materials degradation, nondestructive examination, fire risk, and human-factors research. Cooperation under these agreements is more efficient than conducting research independently.
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3 Figure 25. NRC Research Funding, FY 2020 Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of rounding.
Total $69 Million Reactor Program$52 Million New/Advanced Reactor Licensing$15 Million Materials and Waste$2 Million Source: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Reactor Program$52 Million New/Advanced Reactor Licensing$15 Million Materials and Waste$2 Million Note: Dollars are rounded to the nearest million.
Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of rounding.
Source: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Photo courtesy: Randy Montoya. (September 2011)
A group observes the Annular Core Research Reactor. The reactor has been in operation since 1979 at Sandia National Laboratories in New Mexico.
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