ML21300A286
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| Issue date: | 10/31/2021 |
| From: | Couret I Office of Public Affairs |
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| Malone, Tina | |
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| NUREG-1350, Volume 33 | |
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3 NUCLEAR REACTORS
U.S. ELECTRICITY GENERATED BY COMMERCIAL NUCLEAR POWER According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), in 2020, preliminary estimates show that 4,009 billion kilowatt-hours (kWh) (or 4 trillion kWh) of electricity were generated at utility-scale electricity generation facilities in the United States. About 60.3 percent of this electricity generation was from fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, petroleum, and other gases). Nuclear energy provided 19.7 percent (790 billion kWh), and about 19.8 percent came from renewable energy sources (see Figure 9. U.S. Gross Electricity Share by Energy Source, 2020, and Figure 10. U.S. Electricity Generation by Energy Source, 2015-2020).
Since the 1970s, the Nations utilities have asked permission to generate more electricity from existing nuclear plants. The NRC regulates how much heat a commercial nuclear reactor may generate. This heat, or power level, is used with other data in many analyses that demonstrate the safety of the nuclear power plant. Because this power level is included in the plants license and technical specifications, the NRC must review and approve any licensees requested change to it, as it would for any license or technical specification change. Increasing a commercial nuclear power plants maximum operational power level is called a power uprate.
The NRC has approved power uprates that have collectively added the equivalent of seven new reactors worth of electrical generation to the power grid. See the Glossary for information on the electric power grid.
According to the EIA, in 2019, each of the following States generated more than 40,000 megawatt-hours of electricity from nuclear power: Illinois, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, New York, Alabama, North Carolina, and Texas. Illinois ranked first in the Nation in both generating capacity and net electricity generation from nuclear power. Illinois nuclear power plants accounted for 12 percent of the Nations nuclear power generation. The 2019 data cited reflect the total net electricity generation from nuclear sources in each of these States. See Figure 11. Gross Electricity Generated in Each State by Nuclear Power. In 2019, 30 of the 50 States generated electricity from nuclear power plants.
Figure U.S. 9. U.S. Gross Electricity Net Electricity Generation Share by by Energy Source, Selected Energy2020 Source, 2020 Petroleum Natural Gas 0.4%
40%
Coal 19.3%
Nuclear 19.6% Renewable 19.8%
Wind Solar 8.4%
2.3%
Hydropower 7.3%
Note: Figures are preliminary and rounded.
Source: DOE/EIA at https://www.eia.govTable 7.2a Electricity Net Generation: Total (All Sectors) data released as of June 24, 2021, annual total for 2020.
22 l NUCLEAR REACTORS
FigureU.S. 10. Electricity U.S. Electricity Net Generation Generationby byEnergy EnergySource, Source, 2015-2020*
2015-2020 Thousand Megawatt-Hours
- 2020 data are preliminary. Note: Figures are rounded.
Source: DOE/EIA, https://www.eia.govElectricity Data Browser; Electricity Net Generation: Total (All SectorsAnnually 2015-2020) released as of June 2021 for 2020 data.
U.S. COMMERCIAL NUCLEAR POWER REACTORS Power plants convert heat into electricity using steam. At nuclear power plants, the heat to boil water into steam is created when atoms split apart in a process called fission. When the process is repeated over and over, it is called a chain reaction. The reactions heat creates steam to turn a turbine. As the turbine spins, the generator turns, and its magnetic field produces electricity.
Nuclear power plants are very complex. There are many buildings at the site and many different systems. Some of the systems work directly to make electricity, while others keep the plant working correctly and safely. All nuclear power plants have a containment structure with reinforced concrete about 4 feet (1.2 meters) thick that houses the reactor. To keep reactors performing efficiently, operators remove about one-third of the fuel every year or two and replace it with fresh fuel. Used fuel is stored and cooled in deep pools of water located on site. The process of removing used fuel and adding fresh fuel is known as refueling.
See Appendix E for a list of parent companies of U.S. commercial operating nuclear power reactors, Appendix A for a list of reactors and their general licensing information, Appendix T for Native American Reservations and Trust lands near nuclear power plants, and Appendix J for radiation doses and regulatory limits.
The United States has two types of commercial nuclear reactors. Pressurized-water reactors are known as PWRs. They keep water in the reactor under pressure, so it heats to over 500 degrees Fahrenheit (260 degrees Celsius) but does not boil. Water from the reactor and the water that is turned into steam are in separate pipes and never mix. In boiling-water reactors,called BWRs, the water heated in the reactor actually boils and turns into steam, which then turns a turbine generator to produce electricity. In both types of plants, the steam is turned back into water and reused.
NUCLEAR REACTORS l 23
The NRC regulates commercial nuclear power plants that generate electricity. There are several operating companies and vendors and many different types of reactor designs. Of these designs, only PWRs and BWRs are currently in commercial operation in the United States. See Glossary for typical PWR and BWR designs. Although commercial U.S. reactors have many similarities, each one is considered unique (see Figure 12. U.S. Operating Commercial Nuclear Power Reactors).
Figure 11. Gross Electricity Generated in Each State by Nuclear Power U.S. Gross Electricity Generated in Each State by Nuclear Power RI ALASKA HAWAII PUERTO RICO GUAM AMERICAN SAMOA NORTHERN MARIANAS Total Nuclear Power Generated (in thousand megawatt-hours)
None < less than 20,000 20,001 to 40,000 40,001 to 60,000 > more than 60,001+
0 States 16 States 8 States 4 States 2 States Total Nuclear Power Generated by State (in megawatt-hours)
Total Nuclear % of Nuclear Total Nuclear % of Nuclear State Generated Electricity State Generated Electricity Illinois 98,735,488 53% California 16,165,384 8%
Pennsylvania 83,229,652 36% Connecticut 16,733,398 42%
S. Carolina 56,103,043 56% Maryland 15,012,922 38%
New York 44,865,018 34% Minnesota 14,104,547 24%
Alabama 43,656,862 30% Louisiana 13,981,335 14%
N. Carolina 41,915,605 32% Arkansas 13,574,947 21%
Texas 41,298,007 8% Mississippi 11,032,514 17%
Tennessee 35,720,405 43% New Hampshire 10,906,923 60%
Georgia 33,591,181 26% Wisconsin 10,030,305 16%
Michigan 32,909,275 28% Kansas 9,247,734 18%
Arizona 31,920,368 28% Missouri 9,189,863 12%
Virginia 29,497,516 30% Washington 8,866,499 8%
Florida 29,108,066 12% Nebraska 6,951,600 19%
New Jersey 26,637,324 37% Iowa 5,235,716 8%
Ohio 17,010,561 14% Massachusetts 2,177,204 10%
Source: DOE/EIA, State Historical Tables for 2019, Released September 2020, Revised February 2021, https://eia.gov/state.
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Figure 12. U.S. Operating Commercial Nuclear Power Reactors U.S. Operating Commercial Nuclear Power Reactors RI REGION I REGION II REGION III REGION IV CONNECTICUT ALABAMA ILLINOIS ARKANSAS Millstone 2 and 3 Browns Ferry 1, 2, Braidwood 1 and 2 Arkansas Nuclear 1 and 2 and 3 Byron 1 and 2 MARYLAND Clinton ARIZONA Farley 1 and 2 Palo Verde 1, 2, and 3 Calvert Cliffs 1 and 2 Dresden 2 and 3 FLORIDA LaSalle 1 and 2 CALIFORNIA NEW HAMPSHIRE St. Lucie 1 and 2 Seabrook Quad Cities 1 and 2 Diablo Canyon 1 and 2 Turkey Point 3 and 4 MICHIGAN KANSAS NEW JERSEY GEORGIA Cook 1 and 2 Hope Creek Wolf Creek Hatch 1 and 2 Fermi 2 Salem 1 and 2 Vogtle 1 and 2 Palisades LOUISIANA River Bend 1 NEW YORK NORTH CAROLINA MINNESOTA Waterford 3 FitzPatrick Brunswick 1 and 2 Monticello Ginna McGuire 1 and 2 Prairie Island 1 and 2 MISSISSIPPI Nine Mile Point 1 and 2 Harris 1 Grand Gulf OHIO PENNSYLVANIA SOUTH CAROLINA Davis-Besse MISSOURI Beaver Valley 1 and 2 Catawba 1 and 2 Perry Callaway Limerick 1 and 2 Oconee 1, 2, and 3 NEBRASKA Robinson 2 WISCONSIN Peach Bottom 2 and 3 Point Beach 1 and 2 Cooper Susquehanna 1 and 2 Summer TENNESSEE TEXAS Sequoyah 1 and 2 Comanche Peak 1 and 2 Watts Bar 1 and 2 South Texas Project 1 and 2 VIRGINIA WASHINGTON North Anna 1 and 2 Columbia Surry 1 and 2 Note: NRC-abbreviated reactor names are listed. Data are current as of June 2021. For the most recent information, go to the NRC facility locator page at https://www.nrc.gov/info-finder/reactors/index.html.
NUCLEAR REACTORS l 25
Resident Inspectors Since the late 1970s, the NRC has maintained its own sets of eyes and ears at the Nations nuclear power plants. These onsite NRC personnel are referred to as resident inspectors. Each plant has at least two resident inspectors, and their work is at the core of the agencys reactor inspection program. These highly trained and qualified professionals scrutinize activities at the plants and verify adherence to Federal safety requirements. The inspectors visit the control room and review operator logbook entries, visually assess areas of the plant, observe tests of (or repairs to) important systems or components, interact with plant employees, and check corrective action documents to ensure that problems have been identified and appropriate fixes implemented.
Resident inspectors promptly notify plant operators of any safety-significant issues they find so they are corrected, if necessary, and communicated to NRC management. If problems are significant enough, the NRC will consider whether enforcement action is warranted. More information about the NRCs Reactor Oversight Process and the resident inspector program is available on the agencys Web site (see Figure 13. Day in the Life of an NRC Resident Inspector).
Figure 13. Day in the Life of an NRC Resident Inspector 1 An NRC resident inspector is a specially trained START expert who lives in the community around the plant.
Each plant has at least two inspectors.
3 2 Each morning, the inspector visits the reactors control room, gets information on the plant status, and relays As with everyone at the plant, this information to NRC offices.
the inspector passes through security checkpoints.
As As 4 The inspector attends the plan-of-the-day meeting with plant 5 officials to understand what activities are planned.
As part of their routine, inspectors proceed with inspection 7 activities, observe 6 Inspectors routinely inspect Resident inspectors play safety systems, discuss safety issues plant workers, a very important role for with plantLorem ipsumand submit employees, make sure publicly available reports. the NRC. They are the the plant is agencys on-the-ground following eyes and ears.
NRC rules, and report concerns.
Have a safe day!
Learn more about resident inspectors. Watch the videos on the NRC YouTube Channel at https://www.youtube.com/user/NRCgov.
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Post-Fukushima Safety Enhancements On March 11, 2011, a 9.0-magnitude earthquake, followed by a 45-foot (13.7-meter) tsunami, heavily damaged the nuclear power reactors at Japans Fukushima Dai-ichi facility. Following this accident, the NRC required significant enhancements to U.S. commercial nuclear power plants. At the front lines of this effort were the agencys resident inspectors and regional staff. They inspected and monitored U.S. reactors as the plants worked on these enhancements.
The enhancements included adding capabilities to maintain key plant safety functions following any kind of severe event, updating evaluations of potential impacts from seismic and flooding events, installing new equipment to better handle potential reactor core damage events, and strengthening emergency preparedness capabilities. These actions ensure the nuclear industry and the NRC are prepared for the unexpected. The NRC continues to inspect plants efforts to ensure they have the required resources, plans, and training (see Figure 14. NRC Post-Fukushima Safety Enhancements NRC Post-Fukushima Safety Enhancements and the Web Link Index).
Figure 14. NRC Post-Fukushima Safety Enhancements Mitigation Strategies Seismic FLEX Defense Equipment Hardened Vents Spent Fuel Pool Instrumentation Emergency Preparedness FLEX Offsite Flooding Equipment Defense Note: FLEX refers to the industrys term for mitigation strategy equipment.
Principal Licensing, Inspection, and Enforcement Activities The NRCs commercial reactor licensing and inspection activities include the following:
reviewing separate license change requests, called amendments, from power reactor licensees
performing inspections at each operating reactor site
conducting initial reactor operator licensing examinations
ensuring NRC-licensed reactor operators maintain their knowledge and skills current by passing rigorous requalification exams every 2 years and obtaining an NRC license renewal every 6 years
reviewing applications for proposed new reactors
inspecting construction activities
reviewing operating experience items each year and sharing lessons learned that could help licensed facilities operate more effectively
issuing notices of violation, civil penalties, or orders to operating reactors for significant violations of NRC safety and security regulations NUCLEAR REACTORS l 27
investigating allegations of inadequacy or impropriety associated with NRC-regulated activities
incorporating independent advice from the Advisory Committee on Reactor Safeguards (ACRS), which holds both full committee meetings and subcommittee meetings each year to examine potential safety issues for existing or proposed reactors OVERSIGHT OF U.S. COMMERCIAL NUCLEAR POWER REACTORS The NRC establishes requirements for the design, construction, operation, and security of U.S.
commercial nuclear power plants. The agency ensures plants operate safely and securely within these requirements by licensing the plants to operate, licensing control room personnel, establishing technical specifications for operating each plant, and inspecting plants daily.
Reactor Oversight Process The NRCs Reactor Oversight Process (ROP) verifies that U.S. reactors are operating in accordance with NRC rules, regulations, and license requirements. If reactor performance declines, the NRC increases its oversight to protect public health and the environment. This can range from conducting additional inspections to shutting a reactor down.
The NRC staff uses the ROP to evaluate NRC inspection findings and performance records for each reactor and applies this information to assess the reactors safety performance and security measures. Every 3 months, the NRC places each reactor in one of five categories. The top category is fully meeting all safety cornerstone objectives, while the bottom is unacceptable performance (see Figure 15. Reactor Oversight Action Matrix Performance Indicators).
NRC inspections start with detailed baseline-level activities for every reactor. As the number of issues at a reactor increases, the NRCs inspections increase. The agencys supplemental inspections and other actions (if needed) ensure licensees promptly address significant performance issues. The latest reactor-specific inspection findings and historical performance information can be found on the NRCs Web site (see the Web Link Index).
The ROP is informed by 50 years of improvements in nuclear industry performance. The process continues to improve approaches to inspecting and evaluating the safety and security performance of NRC-licensed nuclear plants. More ROP information is available on the NRCs Web site and in NUREG-1649, Revision 6, Reactor Oversight Process, issued July 2016 (see Figure 16. Reactor Oversight Framework).
NRC Commissioner Jeff Baran observes the reactor vessel head inside Unit 4 containment, currently under construction at the Vogtle site in Georgia.
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Figure 15. Reactor OversightAction Reactor Oversight Action Matrix Matrix Performance Performance Indicators Indicators Performance Indicators GREEN WHITE YELLOW RED INCREASING SAFETY SIGNIFICANCE Inspection Findings GREEN WHITE YELLOW RED INCREASING SAFETY SIGNIFICANCE Figure 16. Reactor Oversight Framework Mission Protect Public Health and Safety in the Use of Nuclear Power Strategic Performance Reactor Safety Radiation Safety Safeguards Areas Initiating Mitigating Barrier Emergency Public Occupational Security Cornerstones Events Systems Integrity Preparedness Radiation Radiation Cross-Cutting Human Problem Identification Safety-Conscious Areas Performance and Resolution Work Environment See Appendix C for a list of reactors undergoing decommissioning and permanently shutdowns; Appendix V for list of significant enforcement actions; and Appendices F and G for power reactor operating licenses issued and expiring by year.
NUCLEAR REACTORS l 29
REACTOR LICENSE RENEWAL The Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as amended, authorizes the NRC to issue 40-year initial licenses for commercial power reactors. The Act also allows the NRC to renew licenses. Under the NRCs current regulations, the agency can renew reactor licenses for 20 years at a time. Congress set the original 40-year term after considering economic and antitrust issues, as opposed to nuclear technology issues. Some parts of a reactor, however, may have been engineered based on an expected 40-year service life. These parts must be maintained and monitored during the additional period of operation, and licensees may choose to replace some components (see Figure 17.
License Renewals Granted for Operating Nuclear Power Reactors). For current reactors grouped by how long they have operated, see Figure 18. U.S. Commercial Nuclear Power ReactorsYears of Operation by the End of 2020. Nuclear power plant owners typically seek license renewal based on a plants economic situation and on whether it can continue to meet NRC requirements in the future (see Figure 19. License Renewal Process).
The NRC reviews a license renewal application on two tracks: safety and environmental impacts.
The safety review evaluates the licensees plans for managing aging plant systems during the renewal period. For the environmental review, the agency uses the Generic Environmental Impact Statement for License Renewal of Nuclear Plants (NUREG-1437, Revision 1, issued June 2013) to evaluate impacts common to all nuclear power plants, then prepares a supplemental environmental impact statement for each individual plant. The supplement examines impacts unique to the plants site. The public has two opportunities to contribute to the environmental reviewat the beginning and when the draft report is published.
The NRC considered the environmental impacts of the continued storage of spent nuclear fuel during rulemaking activities and published its final continued storage rule and supporting generic environmental impact statement in 2014. The rule addresses the environmental impacts of the continued storage of spent nuclear fuel beyond a reactors licensed operating life before ultimate disposal (previously referred to as waste confidence). The environmental impacts of continued storage of spent nuclear fuel are incorporated into each environmental review for license renewal.
Subsequent License Renewal The NRC staff developed guidance and a standard review plan for subsequent license renewals that would allow plants to operate for more than 60 years (the 40 years of the original license plus 20 years in the initial license renewal).
The Commission determined that the agencys existing regulations are adequate for subsequent license renewals. Nevertheless, the Commission asked the staff to develop new guidance to better help licensees develop aging management programs for the 60-year to 80-year period. The staff issued this guidance (NUREG-2191 and NUREG-2192) in July 2017.
Public Involvement The public plays an important role in the license renewal process. Members of the public have several opportunities to contribute to the environmental review. The NRC shares information provided by the applicant, holds public meetings, and publicly documents the results of its technical and environmental reviews. In addition, the ACRS reviews license renewal applications and discusses them at its meetings.
Individuals or groups can raise legal arguments against a license renewal application in an Atomic Safety and Licensing Board hearing if they would be affected by the renewal and meet basic requirements for requesting a hearing. (For more information, see the Web Link Index.)
30 l NUCLEAR REACTORS
Figure 17. License Renewals Granted for Operating Nuclear U.S. Operating Power Reactors Commercial Nuclear Power Reactors RI Original License (8)
License Renewal Granted (79)
Subsequent License Renewal Granted (6)
Licensed to Operate (93)
Note: The NRC has issued a total of 94 initial license renewals: 9 of these units have permanently shut down.
Data are as of July 2021. For the most recent information, go to NRC Web page at https://www.nrc.gov/info-finder.html Figure 18. U.S. Commercial Nuclear Power Reactors Years of Operation by the End of 2020 U.S. Commercial Nucelar Reactors --Years of Operation by the End of 2021 1 2 44 43 4 reactor reactors reactors reactors reactors 1-19 years 20-29 years 30-39 years 40-49 years >50 years Note: Ages are based on operating license issued date and have been rounded up to the end of the year.
For the most recent information, go to the NRC Web page at https://www.nrc.gov/info-finder.html NUCLEAR REACTORS l 31
License Figure 19.Renewal Process Process License Renewal Not applicable to the subsequent license renewal process Opportunities for public interaction Onsite If a request for a hearing is granted Safety Review Inspection(s) Availlable at https://www.nrc.gov 10 CFR Part 54 Safety Inspection Evaluation Reports Audit/Review Issued**
License Renewal Safety Evaluation Process and Report Issued**
Environmental Scoping Meeting Advisory Committee on START Environmental Review Reactor Safeguards 10 CFR Part 51 (ACRS) Review License ACRS Renewal Letter Application** Issued**
Draft Site Environmental Supplement Audit to Generic DECISION Environmental Draft Hearings*
Impact Supplemental Statement Environmental (GEIS) Issued** Impact Statement Public Comment/ Final Supplement NRC Decision Meeting to GEIS Issued** on Application**
Turkey Point nuclear power plant in Florida was the first U.S. plant to be approved by the NRC for Subsequent License Renewal, or an additional 20 years of operation, for a total lifespan of 80 years.
32 l NUCLEAR REACTORS
NUCLEAR RESEARCH AND TEST REACTORS Nuclear research and test reactors (RTRs), also called nonpower reactors, are a type of Nonpower Production and Utilization Facility (NPUF). RTRs are primarily used for research, training, and development to support science and education in nuclear engineering, physics, chemistry, biology, anthropology, medicine, materials sciences, and related fields. These reactors do not produce electricity. Most U.S. RTRs are at universities or colleges.
The largest U.S. RTR (which operates at 20 megawatts thermal (MWt) is approximately 80 times smaller than the smallest U.S. commercial power nuclear reactor (which operates at 1,677 MWt).
The NRC regulates a wide variety of RTRs located across the country (see Figure 20. Size Comparison of Commercial and Research Reactors and Figure 21. U.S. Nuclear Research and Test Reactors). DOE also uses nonpower nuclear research reactors, but they are not regulated by the NRC.
NRC inspectors visit each RTR facility about once a year to provide varying levels of oversight. RTRs licensed to operate at 2 MWt or more receive a full NRC inspection every year. Those licensed to operate at less than 2 MWt receive a full inspection every 2 years.
Principal Licensing and Inspection Activities The NRCs RTR licensing and inspection activities include:
licensing new and current operating sites, including license renewals and license amendments
overseeing decommissioning
licensing operators
overseeing operator relicensing programs
conducting inspections each year, based on inspection frequency and procedures for operating RTRs
overseeing facility security and emergency preparedness programs Figure 20. Size Comparison of Commercial and Research Reactors Size Comparison Commercial Power and Nonpower Reactor SMALLEST LARGEST 1,677 MWt 20 MWt COMMERCIAL RESEARCH and POWER TEST REACTOR 80 1,677 megawatts 20 megawatts thermal thermal For the most recent information, go to NRC Web page at https://www.nrc.gov/info-finder.html NUCLEAR REACTORS l 33
Figure U.S. 21. U.S. Nuclear Nuclear Nonpower Research and ResearchTest Reactorsand Test Reactors RI RTRs Licensed and Currently Operating (31)
Note: RTRs are also referred to as nonpower facilities. For the most recent information, go to NRC Web page at https://www.nrc.gov/info-finder.html See Appendices H and I for a list of RTRs regulated by the NRC that are operating or are in the process of decommissioning.
NEW COMMERCIAL NUCLEAR POWER REACTOR LICENSING New reactors are any reactors proposed in addition to the current fleet of operating reactors (see Figure 22. The Different NRC Classifications for Types of Reactors).
The NRCs current review of new power reactor license applications improves on the process used through the 1990s (see Figure 23. New Reactor Licensing Process). In 2012, the NRC issued the first combined construction permit and operating license (called a combined license, or COL) under the new licensing process. The NRC continues to review applications submitted by prospective licensees and (when appropriate) issues standard design approvals, standard design certifications, early site permits (ESPs), limited work authorizations, construction permits, operating licenses, and COLs for facilities in a variety of projected locations throughout the United States. The NRC has implemented the Commissions policies on new reactor safety through rules, guidance, staff reviews, and inspection.
The NRCs ongoing design certification, COL, and ESP reviews are incorporating lessons learned from the Fukushima accident. The environmental impacts of continued storage of spent nuclear fuel are incorporated into each environmental review for new reactor licensing. The NRC considered these impacts in a rulemaking and published its final continued storage rule and supporting generic environmental impact statement in September 2014. Section 5 discusses the continued storage rule in more detail.
34 l NUCLEAR REACTORS
Figure 22. The Different NRC Classifications for Types of Reactors Operating Reactors Design: The U.S. fleet consists mainly of large reactors that use regular water (light water, as opposed to heavy water that has a different type of hydrogen than commonly found in nature) for both cooling the core and facilitating the nuclear reaction.
Capacity: The generation base load of these plants is 1,677 MWt (approximately 570 MWe) or higher.
Safety: These reactors have active safety systems powered by alternating current (ac) and require an operator to reach a safe shutdown state.
Fuel: These reactors require enriched uranium.
Advanced Reactors Design: Advanced reactors are a new generation of nonlight-water reactors.They use coolants including molten salts, liquid metals, and even gases such as helium.
Capacity: These plants range in power from very small reactors to a power level comparable to existing operating reactors.
Safety: These reactors are expected to provide enhanced margins of safety and use simplified, inherent, and passive means to ensure safety.
They may not require an operator to shut down.
Fuel: These reactors could use enriched uranium, thorium, or used nuclear fuel.
Small Modular Reactors Design: Small modular reactors (SMRs) are similar to large light-water reactors but are smaller, compact designs. These factory-fabricated reactors can be transported by truck or rail to a nuclear power site. Additional SMRs can be installed on site to scale or to meet increased energy needs.
Capacity: These reactors are about one-third the size of typical reactors with a generation base load of 1,000 MWt (300 MWe) or less.
Safety: These reactors can be installed underground, providing more safety and security. They are built with passive safety systems and can be shut down without an operator.
Fuel: These reactors require enriched uranium.
Research and Test Reactors Design: Research and test reactorsalso called nonpower reactorsare primarily used for research, training, and development. They are classified by their moderator, the material used to slow down the neutrons, in the nuclear reaction. Typical moderators include water (H2O), heavy water (D2O), polyethylene, and graphite.
Capacity: These current licensed facilities range in size from 5 watts (less than a night light) to 20 MWt (equivalent to 20 standard medical x-ray machines).
Safety: All NRC-licensed research and test reactors have a built-in safety feature that reduces reactor power during potential accidents before an unacceptable power level or temperature can be reached.
Fuel: Reactors may also be classified by the type of fuel used, such as MTR (plate-type fuel) or TRIGA fuel. TRIGA fuel is unique in that a moderator (hydrogen) is chemically bonded to the fuel.
See Appendix B for a list of new nuclear power plant licensing applications in the United States.
NUCLEAR REACTORS l 35
Figure 23. New Reactor Licensing Process 10 CFR Part 50Two-Step Licensing Process STEP ONE:
Construction Permit Review START STEP 1 Application submitted to NRC Preliminary Safety Analysis Review Report by ACRS Environmental Safety Review Review Possible Contested Mandatory Hearing Hearing START PART 2 DECISION STEP 1 Commission Decision Construction Construction on Permit Permit and Further Design Construction Final Safety Complete Analysis Report STEP TWO: Operating License Operating License Application Application Review Submitted to NRC Review by ACRS Environmental Safety Review Review Possible NRC Operating Contested Hearing License Decision Plant Operation DECISION STEP 2 36 l NUCLEAR REACTORS
10 CFR Part 52Combined License Application Review Process Safety Review START Combined License Application Public Involvement Final Safety Evaluation Report Public Comments Notice of Environmental Hearing Review DECISION Hearings Final Environmental Impact Commission Statement Decision on Application Combined License ApplicationsConstruction and Operating By issuing a COL, the NRC authorizes the licensee to construct and (with specified conditions) operate a nuclear power plant at a specific site, in accordance with established laws and regulations. If the Commission finds that the acceptance criteria are met, a COL is valid for 40 years. A COL can be renewed for additional 20-year terms (see Figure 24. Locations of New Nuclear Power Reactor Applications). For the current review schedule for active licensing applications, consult the NRCs Web site (see the Web Link Index).
Public Involvement Even before the NRC receives an application, the agency holds a public meeting to talk to the community near the proposed reactor location. The agency explains the review process and outlines how the public may participate. After the application is submitted, the NRC asks the public to comment on which factors the agency should consider in its environmental review under the National Environmental Policy Act.
The NRC later posts a draft environmental evaluation on its Web site and asks for public input.
There is no formal opportunity for public comment on the staffs safety evaluation, but members of the public are welcome to attend public meetings and make comments. Individuals or groups can raise legal arguments against a new reactor application in an Atomic Safety and Licensing Board hearing if they would be affected by the new reactor and meet basic requirements for requesting a hearing. The NRC announces opportunities to request these hearings in news releases, in the Federal Register, and on its Web site.
NUCLEAR REACTORS l 37
Figure Locations24. Locations of New of Nuclear New Nuclear Power Power ReactorActive Reactor Active Applications Applications and Approved and Approved Licenses Licenses Oklo Fermi RI PSEG (ESP) 2 North Anna 2
Shearon Harris*
2 Clinch River (ESP)
William States Lee 2
= A proposed new reactor at or near an existing nuclear plant Vogtle
= A proposed reactor at a site that has Comanche Peak* 2 Turkey Point not previously produced nuclear power
= Approved reactor = 1 unit 2 = 2 units
- Review suspended Note: Alaska and Hawaii are not pictured, but have no sites. On July 31, 2017, South Carolina Electric and Gas announced its decision to cease construction on V.C. Summer Units 2 and 3, and the licensee has requested that the COLs be withdrawn.
As of October 2017, Duke Energy has announced plans to cancel reactors at Levy County, FL, and William States Lee, SC.
Applications were withdrawn for Calvert Cliffs, Grand Gulf, Nine Mile Point, Victoria County, and Callaway (COL and ESP).
In June 2018, Nuclear Innovation North America submitted a letter requesting that the COLs for South Texas Project Units 3 and 4 be withdrawn. NRC-abbreviated reactor names are listed. Data are current as of August 2021.
For the most recent information, go to the NRC Web site at https://www.nrc.gov.
Early Site Permits An ESP review examines whether a piece of land is suitable for a nuclear power plant. The review covers site safety, environmental protection, and emergency preparedness. The ACRS reviews safety-related portions of an ESP application. As with COL reviews, the public participates in the environmental portion of the NRCs ESP review, and the public can challenge an application in a hearing.
Design Certifications The NRC issues standard design certifications through rulemaking for reactor designs that meet basic requirements for ensuring safe operation. Utilities can cite a certified design when applying for a nuclear power plant construction permit, COL, ESP, or manufacturing license. The certification is valid for 15 years from the date issued and can be renewed for an additional 15 years. The NRC staff has also issued standard design approvals upon completion of the final SER for the design.
Standard design approvals may be referenced by a construction permit, combined license, or manufacturing license. The new reactor designs under review incorporate new elements such as passive safety systems and simplified system designs. The six certified designs are
GE-Hitachi Nuclear Energys Advanced Boiling-Water Reactor (ABWR)
Westinghouse Electric Companys System 80+
Westinghouse Electric Companys AP600
Westinghouse Electric Companys AP1000
GE-Hitachi Economic Simplified Boiling-Water Reactor (ESBWR)
Korean Electric Power Corporation APR 1400 (Advanced Power Reactor) 38 l NUCLEAR REACTORS
Design Certification Renewals The NRC staff has completed its review of GE-Hitachis application to renew the ABWR design certification. The direct final rule renewing this design certification was published on July 1, 2021, and was effective September 29, 2021.
Advanced Reactor Designs Several companies are considering advanced reactor designs and technologies and are conducting preapplication activities with the NRC. These reactors are cooled by liquid metals, molten salt mixtures, or inert gases. Advanced reactors can also consider fuel materials and designs that differ radically from todays enriched-uranium dioxide (UO2) pellets with zirconium cladding. While developing the regulatory framework for advanced reactor licensing, the NRC is examining policy issues in areas such as security and emergency preparedness.
Small Modular Reactors Small modular reactors (SMRs) use water to cool the reactor core in the same way as todays large light-water reactors. SMR designs also use the same enriched uranium fuel as todays reactors. However, SMR designs are considerably smaller. Each SMR module generates 300 megawatts electric (MWe) (1,000 MWt) or less, compared to todays large designs that can generate 1,000 MWe (3,300 MWt) or more per reactor. The NRCs discussions to date with SMR designers involve modules generating less than 200 MWe (660 MWt).
New Reactor Construction Inspections NRC inspectors based in the agencys Region II office in Atlanta, GA, monitor reactor construction activities. These expert staff members ensure licensees carry out construction according to NRC license specifications and related regulations.
The NRC staff examines the licensees operational programs in areas such as security, radiation protection, and operator training and qualification. Inspections at a construction site verify that a licensee has completed required inspections, tests, and analyses and has met associated acceptance criteria. The NRCs onsite resident construction inspectors oversee day-to-day licensee and contractor activities.
In addition, specialists in NRC Region IIs Division of Construction Oversight periodically visit the sites to ensure the facilities are being constructed using the approved design.
The NRCs Construction Reactor Oversight Process assesses all of these activities. Before the agency will allow a new reactor to start up, NRC inspectors must confirm that the licensee has met all the acceptance criteria in its COL.
The agency also inspects domestic and overseas factories and other vendor facilities. This ensures new U.S. reactors receive high-quality products and services that meet the NRCs regulatory requirements. The NRCs Web site has more information on new reactor licensing activities (see the Web Link Index).
NRC senior leaders observe new construction activities to ensure NRC regulations are being met at Vogtle Units 3 and 4, in Georgia.
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NEW LICENSING OF NONPOWER PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION FACILITIES Research reactors, testing facilities, and other nonpower facilities can be used to produce medical radioisotopes and demonstrate advanced reactor technologies. These research and test reactors are used to demonstrate new reactor technologies to meet future energy needs, promote training and education, and support needed medical care. To support these efforts, the NRC staff conducts safety and environmental reviews of construction permit and operating license applications, which are also subject to regulatory requirements for hearings and an independent review by the ACRS.
Doctors worldwide rely on a steady supply of molybdenum-99 (Mo-99) to produce technetium-99m in hospitals, which is used in a radiopharmaceutical applied in approximately 50,000 medical diagnostic procedures daily in the United States. The NRC supports the national policy objective of establishing a reliable, domestically available supply of this medical radioisotope by reviewing license applications for these facilities submitted in accordance with the provisions of 10 CFR Part 50. Since 2013, the NRC staff has received two construction permit applications and one operating license application for these facilities. The proposed facilities would irradiate low-enriched uranium targets in utilization facilities, then separate Mo-99 from other fission products in hot cells contained within a production facility. The NRC approved the construction permits for SHINE Medical Technologies, LLC (SHINE), in February 2016 and for Northwest Medical Isotopes, LLC, in May 2018. The staff is reviewing SHINEs application for a license to operate its facility.
The NRC is also engaged in pre-application topical report reviews for Atomic Alchemy and Abilene Christian University, which have proposed to construct nonpower reactors for radioisotope production and molten salt reactor technology demonstration, respectively.
The NRC anticipates receiving additional topical reports, construction permit applications, operating license applications, materials license applications, and license amendment requests in the coming years from other potential Mo-99 producers and advanced nonpower reactor applicants.
The NRC continues to develop the necessary infrastructure programs for these facilities, including inspection procedures for construction and operation. The agency provides updates on the status of these licensing reviews through NRC-hosted public meetings, Commission meetings, and interagency interactions.
Technetium-99m is produced by the decay of molybdenum-99 and is used in diagnostic nuclear medical imaging procedures 40 l NUCLEAR REACTORS
NUCLEAR REGULATORY RESEARCH The NRCs Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research supports the agencys mission by providing technical advice, tools, methods, data, and information. This research can identify, explore, and resolve safety issues, as well as provide information supporting licensing decisions and new regulations and guidance. The NRCs research includes the following:
independently confirming other parties work through experiments and analyses
developing technical support for agency safety decisions
preparing for the future by evaluating the safety implications of new technologies and designs for nuclear reactors, materials, waste, and security The research program reflects the challenges of an evolving industry. The NRCs research covers the light-water reactor technology developed in the 1960s and 1970s, todays advanced light-water reactor designs, and fuel cycle facilities. The agency has longer term research plans for more advance reactor concepts, such as those cooled by high-temperature gases or molten salts. The NRCs research programs examine a broad range of subjects, such as the following:
material performance (for example, environmentally assisted degradation and cracking of metallic alloys, aging management of reactor components and materials, boric-acid corrosion, radiation effects on concrete, and embrittlement of reactor pressure vessel steels)
events disrupting heat transfer from a reactor core, criticality safety, severe reactor accidents, how radioactive material moves through the environment, and how that material could affect human health (sometimes using NRC-developed computer codes for realistic simulations)
computer codes used to analyze fire conditions in nuclear facilities, to examine how reactor fuel performs, and to assess nuclear power plant risk
new and evolving technologies such as additive manufacturing, accident tolerant fuel, and advanced control and automation
experience gained from operating reactors
digital instrumentation and controls, including analyzing digital system components, security aspects of digital systems, and probabilistic assessment of digital system performance
enhanced risk-assessment methods, tools, and models to support the increased use of probabilistic risk assessment in regulatory applications
earthquake, flooding, and high-wind hazards
ultrasonic testing and other nondestructive means of inspecting reactor components and dry cask storage systems and developing and accessing ultrasonic testing simulation tools to optimize examination procedure variables
the human side of reactor operations, including safety culture, and computerization and automation of control rooms The Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research also plans, develops, and manages research on fire safety and risk, including modeling, and evaluates potential security vulnerabilities and possible solutions (see the Web Link Index for more information on specific NRC research projects and activities).
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NRC Research Funding The NRCs research program involves about 5 percent of the agencys personnel and uses about 7 percent of its contracting funds. The NRCs $77 million research budget for Fiscal Year (FY) 2021 includes contracts with national laboratories, universities, research organizations, and other Federal agencies (e.g., the National Institute of Standards and Technology, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the U.S. Geological Survey). NRC research funds support access to a broader group of experts and international research facilities. Figure 25. NRC Research Funding, FY 2021, illustrates the primary areas of research.
The majority of the NRCs research budget supports maintaining operating reactor safety and security, while the remainder supports regulatory activities for new and advanced reactors, industrial and medical use of nuclear materials, and nuclear fuel cycle and radioactive waste programs. The NRC cooperates with universities and nonprofit organizations on research for the agencys specific interests.
The NRCs international cooperation in research areas leverages agency resources, facilitates work on advancing existing technologies, and determines any safety implications of new technologies.
The agencys leadership role in international organizations such as IAEA and OECD/NEA helps guide the agencys collaborations.
The NRC maintains international cooperative research agreements with more than two dozen foreign governments. This work covers technical areas from severe accident research and computer code development to materials degradation, nondestructive examination, fire risk, and human-factors research. Cooperation under these agreements is more efficient than conducting research independently.
Figure 25. NRC Research Funding, Fiscal Year 2021 NRC Research Funding, FY2021 TOTAL $77 MILLION Reactor Program$55 Million New/Advanced Reactor Licensing$18 Million Materials and Waste$4 Million Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of rounding.
See Appendix U for States with NRC Grant Award Recipients in Fiscal Year 2020 42 l NUCLEAR REACTORS
A group observes the Annular Core Research Reactor. The reactor has been in operation since 1979 at Sandia National Laboratories in New Mexico.
NRC Chairman Christopher T. Hanson tours the NIST Center for Neutron Research in Maryland, learning about some of the research conducted using the largest NRC-regulated nonpower reactor in the U.S.
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