ML20236L682

Informs That, Introduction to Health Physics (H-117), Course Will Be Held in Rockville,Md from 980713-17.List of Attendees & Course Outline of Persons Scheduled to Attend Encl

ML20236L682
Person / Time
Issue date:	06/03/1998
From:	Raglin K NRC
To:	Dawn Jonsson, Lane C, Emarsha Whitt NRC, NRC OFFICE OF INSPECTION & ENFORCEMENT (IE REGION III), NRC OFFICE OF INSPECTION & ENFORCEMENT (IE REGION IV)
Shared Package
ML20236K945	List: ML20236K941 ML20236L682
References
NUDOCS 9807130135
Download: ML20236L682 (40)

Text

, _ - - _ . - - _ _ _ _ - _ _ - - _ _ _ _ _ - ____ - _ _ _ _ - _ _ - _ _ - _ _ _ __ - - _ _ ___ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ - _ _ - - _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ - - -

ps Ge o UNITED STATES p' + g, NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION E o TECHNICAL TRAINING CENTER

%- !y oSBoRNE OFFICE CENTER 5746 MARUN ROAD. SUITE 200 CHATTANOOGA. TN 37411-5677 June 3,1998 MEMORANDUM.TO: Dawn Jonsson, Training Coordinator, Rlll Connie Lane, Training Coordinator, RIV Emarsha Whitt, Trainin0 Coordinator, NMSS Christine Bonsby, Training Coordinator, RES FROM: Kenneth A. Raglin, Director, TTD, AEOD ./ g $ I l t//

SUBJECT:

INTRODUCTION TO HEALTH PHYSICS (F -117)

JULY 13 - 17,1998 The subject course is to be held in Two White Flint North, Room T3816, Rockvi'le, Maryland from July 13 -17,1998. Attached is a list of attendees and a course outline for persons scheduled to attend.

8 Students who are normally on the Compressed Work Schedu:e should be rernoved from the Compressed Work Schedule during training. Classes are scheduled to run from 8:30AM - c 4:00PM on Monday, July 13, 8:00AM - 4:00PM July 14 - 16 and 8:00AM - Noon, Friday, July 17,  !

1998. I l

'1 Attendees are encouraged to read the pre-reading material prior to coming to the course.

l Please provide your adendees with the above and inform them of their responsibilities in i preparing for this course.

If you have any questions, please call Rod Reed on 423/855-6513. I f

1 Attachments:.1. List of Attendees -

l 2. Course Outline i

cc w!atts: R. Reed TTD l P. Knapp, TTD )

J. Patterson, TTD i DnSollencergertOSP I

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9807130135 900626 'I PDR STPRG ESOGEN PDR j

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PROPOSED LIST OF ATTENDEES COURSE TITLE: Introduction To Haalth Physics (H-117)

COURSE DATES. July 13 - 17,1998 INSTRUCTORS: John Ricci Paul Knapp l'

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-John Hanna L

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BE.S John Lane i J

. Nina Barnett Tin Mo

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.NMSS l Linda Suttora .

1, Seung Lee l' John Jankovich '

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Michael Adjodha l

Vanice Perin 7 Larry Pittiglio Makuteswara Sunwasan ' -j l

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. introductory HCaith Physics TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.0 INTRODUCTION

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTAL HEALTH PHYSICS CONCEFIS 2.0 FUNDAMENTAL HEALTH PHYSICS CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1 2.1 The Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1 2.2 Radioactivity and Radioactive Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3 2.3 Alpha Emission . . .................................. 2-3 2.4 - Beta Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4 2.5 Positron Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ 2-5 2 2.6 Orbital Electron Capture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5 2.7 Gamma Rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6 2.8 Internal Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6 '

2,9 Radioactive Decay Law .... ............. ... .... ........ 2-7 2.10 Serial Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8 Chapter 2 Stud, Questions ... .. .. ... .. . ... . .. ... ... .... 2-9 l

CHAPTER 3 INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER 3.0 INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 31 Charged Particle Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 2 I

3.2 Energy Las Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 3.3 Stopping Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1  !

3.4 Specific Ionization ................................... 3-2 )

3.5 Ranp of a Charged Particle .............................. 3-2 Linear Energy Transfer ................................ 3-3 ]

3.6 i.

3.7 Photon Interactions . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . ... 3-3 3.7.1 Photoelectric Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3 3.7.2 Compton Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3

3.7.3 Pair Production . .... ..... ........... . ............... 3-4

!' 3.3 Photon Attenuation and Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4 3.9 Neutron Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5 3.9.1 Slow Neutron Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5 3.9.2 Fast Neutron Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6 i 3.9.3 Neutron Cross Sections .... ............ . .... ... ........ 3-6 i

Chapter 3 Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7 CHAPTER 4 RADIATION QUANTmtS AND UNITS 4.0 RADIATION Q'UANTITIES AND UNITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 i 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ... 4-1 4.2 Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4- 1 _

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• Introduct:ry Health Physics TA8l.E OF CONTENTS 4.3 Exposu re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4- 1 4.4 Specific Exposure Rate Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 4.5 AbsorbM Dose . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 4-2 4.6 Dose Equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2 4.7 Effective Dose Equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2 .

4.8 Committed Dose Equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3 4.9 Conversion Between Special Units and SI' Units .................4-3 Chapter 4 Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4 CHAPTER 5 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATZON

. 5.0 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION ... ... . .. ... ... . . .... . ... 5-1 4 1

5.1 Cell and System Biology Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1  ;

5.1.1 Embryonic Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1 5.1.2 Body Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2 5.2 Interactions and Effects ................................53 5.2.1 Indirect Effect . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . 5-3

.5.2.2 Direct Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4 5.3 Cell Radiosensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5 5.4 Relative Biological Effectiveness (RBE) ......................5-5 5.5 Radiation Hormesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . 5-6 5.6 H4h Dose Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6 5.7 Low Dose Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7 5.8 Radiation Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-9 5.9 Radution Injury Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-9 5.9.1 Initial Evaluation ....................................5 5.9.2 External Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10 i 5.9.3 Internal Contammation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-12 5.9.4 Penetrating External Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -

. . 5-14 Chapter 5 Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-17 CHAPTER 6 SOURCES OF RADIATION EXPOSURE 6.0 SOURCES OF RADIATION EXPOSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 6J Natural Radiation Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1 6.1.1 Terrestrial Gamma Rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .. .... ... . 6-1 6.1.2 Cosmic Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . .... . ... 6-1 6.1.2.1 Introduction ........................ .............. 61 6.1.2.2 Galactic Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3 6.1.2.3 Radiation . Belts ...... .............................. 64 6.1.2.4 Solar Particle Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4 7 6.1.3 Radon and Its Decay Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5 6.1.4 Ingested Radionuclides from Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5 6.1.5 Naturally Occurrmg Radioactive Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 5 6.2 Artificial Radiation Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6 USNRC Techr;ical Training Center li Rev.0595

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!. 6.2;1- Fallout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6 6.2.2 Doses from Medical Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7 6.2.3 Consumer Products and Industrial Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9

!_ 6.2.4 Nuclear Fuel Cycle Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9 l 6.2.4.1 Uranium Mming and Milling Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10 l- 6.2.4.2 Uranium Conversion Operations . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11 l- 6.2.4.3 Uranium Enrichment Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11 l 6.2.4.4 Fuel Fabrication Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12

!- 6.2.4.5 Power Production Opera 6ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13 6.2.4.6 Waste Generation and Storage / Disposal Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14 _

6.2.5 NARM , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6- 14 Chapter 6 Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16 C.HAPTER 7 PRINCIPLES OF RADIATION DETECTION 7.0 PRINCIPLES OF RADINf!ON DETECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1 7.1 Methods of Radiation Detection ...........................7-1 7.2 Gas-Filled Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2 7.3 Solid State Radiation Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4 7.4 Commonly Used Portable Health Physics Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5 7.5 . GNines for Instrument Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6 7.6 Exercise on Conducting Radiation / Contamination Surveys for I.ost Radiation Sources /Contanunation - Use of Different Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7 l

l Chapter 7 Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8

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CHAPTER 8 PERSONNEL DOSIMETRY AND DOSE ASSESSMENT L 8.0 PERSONNEL DOSIMETRY AND DOSE ASSESSMENT ................8-1 l

8.1 Introduction ......................................81 8.2 External Dosimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 8.2.1 Thermoluminescent Dosimeters ...........................8-2 8.2.2 Film' Dosimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3 8.2.3 Pocket Dosimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3 8.'2.4 Electronic Dosimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4

[ 8.3 Internal Dosimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4 l- 8.3.1 Scope and Responsibility .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4 j 8.3.2 Hazard Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5 8.3.3 Bioassay . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . 8-6 ,

Measurement Equipment and Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-9 j 8.3.4 l' 8.3.5 Internal Dose Calculation Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12 l 8.4 Dosimetry Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14  !

Chapter 8 Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16 l i

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, . Introduct:ry Hialth Physics TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 9 ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOLOGICAL MONITORING 9.0 ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOLOGICAL MONITORING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1 9.1 Reasons For A Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1 9.2 Environmental Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2 9.3 Environmental Transport Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-9 Chapter 9 Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-11 CHAPTER 10 OPERATIONAL ASPECIS OF HEALTH PHYSICS 10.0 OPERATIONAL ASPECTS OF HEALTH PHYSICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1 10.1 Philosophy, Meaning and Regulatory Bases of ALARA . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1 10.2 General ALARA Goals and Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2 10.3 Dose Reduction Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3 10.3.1 Administrative Control Doses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3 10.3.2 Job Planmng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4 10.3.3 Basic ALARA Principles for External Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4 10.3.4 Contanunation Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6 10.3.5 Trammg and Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-7 i

10.3.6 Facility and Equipment Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-7 10.3.7 Radiation Pmtection Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-9 Chapter 10 Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-13 CHAPTER 11 RADIATION PROTECTION STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS 11.0 RADIATION PROTECTION STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS .......... 11-1 11.1 History of Protective Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1 11.2 Dose Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3 11.2.1 Standards Rawi on Prevention of Stochastic Injury to Populations (the AEC and FRC years) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3 .

11.2.2 Standards Based on Assumed Risk-Benefit and ALARA Assessments l (Adversary Era) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5 1

11.3 Regulating Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7 11.4 Agreement S tate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-8 11.5 40 CFR Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-8 11.6 Role of OSHA - 29 CFR ..............................11-9 11.7 Summary of 10 CFR 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-9 Chapter 11 Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-12 CHAPTER 12 RADIATION PROTECTION PLANS AND PROCEDURES 12.0 RADIATION PROTECTION PLANS AND PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1 Introduction .... ....... .. ........ . .... ......... ... 12-1 12.1 USNRC Technical Training Center iv new.0595 u __ __

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Q 12.2 ' A d m in is t ra tio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1 12.3 Occupational AL ARA Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2 12.4 Operational Radiation Protection Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . 12 2 12.4.1 Radiation Protection Program Surveys and Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2 l 12.4.2 Posting and Labeling for Radiological Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3 j 12.4.3 Work Place Air Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4 1

.12.4.4 Instrument Calibration ..........................................12-4 12.4.5 Scaled Radioactive Source Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . 12-4 12:4.6 Management and Disposal of Radioactive Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5 /

12.4.7 E m e rgen cy R es p o n s e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 6

'12.5 Do si m e t ry P ro g ra m s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6 12.5.1 I nternal Dosimet ry Progra m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 6 j 12.5.2 External Dosimetry Progra m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 6 l 12.5.3 Radiation Dose to the Embryo / Fetus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7 l

~ 12.6 : Radiation Sa fety Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7 l 12.7 Occupational Radiation Protection Record. Keeping and Reporting . . . . . 12 8 12.8 Q u a li ty A ss u ra n c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 8 12.9 Other Health and Sa fety Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 8 12.10 S u m m a ry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 9 Chapter 12 Study Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 10 CHAPTER 13 COURSE

SUMMARY

l 13.0 C O U RS E S U M M A R Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1 13.1 I n t rod u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 - 1 13.2 R a d i o a c t i v i ty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1 13.3 Interactions' of Radiation with Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1 13.4 Ra d i a t io n U n i t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1 13.5 Biological Effects of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2 13.6 Sou rces of Radiation Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . 13 2 13.7 Principles of Radiation Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2 13.8 Personnel Dosimetry and Dose Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2 13.9 Environmental Radiological Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2 l 13.10 Operational Aspects of Health Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-3 13.11 Radiation Protection Standards and Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 3 l 13.12 Radiation Protection Plans and Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 3 APPE N DIX A. G LOSSA RY O F TERMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.1 USNRC Technical Training Center v Rev.1297 f

l _

INTRODUCTORY HEALTH PHYSICS j CHAPTERD11 ~ <

RADIATION' PROTECTION; STANDARDS  !

i AND REGULATIONS: 1 l

I 1

l i

i i

JThis chapter pr6vides the course participants with an overvi6w of j

)

' * -;The history of protective standards for ionizing 'tadiation.

• ~ The historical dose limits and their bases. l r * ! - The regulating agencies in relation to NRC licensees.. ,

i !

• ' The role of agreement statesi EPA, and OSHA in relation to licensee regulation. l

'* The fundamental components of 10 CFR Part.202- l.

i

LEeEMNG OBJECTIVES

)

L Upon completion-of this chapter, the student'ahould be able to successfunye j

• t Describe the historical origins of radiation protection standards:

1

= Early observations of radiation injury -

• - Standards based on prevention of clinical injury to radiation workers:.

( Standards based on prevention of stochastic injury to populations c l

• ! Standards based on assumed risk-benefit and Al. ARA assessment -

i

• identify the regulatory agencies that regulate NRC ticensees. .

i

' e'- Describe the roles of EPA and OSHA in regulating NRC licensees.

• h Describe and' define the regulatory dose equivalent limits.

.-* 2 Describe the fundamental components of 10 CFR Part 20.'

USNRC Technical Training Center Rev.0595 l

l u-__-_-.---_-___ _

. l

!ntroduct:ry Health Physics chepin 11: nedienen Preseenen siendues and neewes,mm 1

l 11.0 RADIATION PROTECTION standards still lagged because of lack of I STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS knowledge of the many complex factors which enter into radiation effects.

11.1 History of Protective Standards i The following summanzes the keystone With the discovery x-rays in 1895 by developments in radiation protection. l Roentgen, mankmd started using radiation for beneficial purposes. However, there was soon Evolution of Radiation Protection to be discovered a Pandora's Box that was associated with this new wonder. In 18%, The history of radiation protection is traced injuries caused from exposure to Roentgen from the discovery of x-rays by Roentgen in rays (x rays) were being reported. Scientists 1895 up to the present time. The began to study the reported injuries and other chronological summary of the development of effects on animals when exposed to x-rays. radiation protection standards and of the By 1915, the users of x-ray machines in promulgating orgamzations up to 1971 is taken Britain (i.e., the British Roentgen Society) largely from Taylor's book, Radiation were urging the adoption of rules for the Protection Standards, published by the CRC operators of x-ray equipment. Press,1971.

Early efforts at control were hampered by a Farly Ohearvnelane of Dad 3=*lan Inlury I

lack of quantitative methods. There were no (Pre-WW D units by which one could assess the amount of l In 1896, the earliest x-ray injury on record radiation. As a result of the use of radiation by doctors in treating patients, a unit called appears to have been observed in January of the erythema dose came into use. This was a 1896 by Grubbd. In March 1896, Edison highly qualitative unit; defined in terms of the reported severe smartmg of the eyes after amount of radiation which wculd produce a several exposures to a " discharge tube". Skin well-defined reddening of the skin. It soon dermatitis was reported by several observers became apparent that this dose unit was not at before the end of 1896.

l

! all satisfactory. It varied not only with the type of radiation and the dose rate, but also In 1901, Rollins reported that x-rays could L

with the response of different parts of the cause injury at depth within the bodies of body. Thus, two people could receive the animals as well as to the skin.

same supposed fractio'n of an erythema dose, yet one might show skin effects and the other In 1902, Rollins proposed a radiation l tolerance dose based on lack of fogging of a l

none. This lack of a certain value for this unit made protection work more or less of a photographic plate after 7 minutes of trial-and-error process. exposure.

Around 1914, radiation began to be used in In 1915, a resolution was introduced at a l

industry. The radium dial-painting process meeting of the British Roentgen Society urging came into being, and x-rays were found useful the universal adoption of stringent rules for for showing up flaws in materials. Larger the protection of operators conducting numbers of people were then being exposed. Roentgen ray exammation. The resolution No longer could the vague notion of erythema was unanimously adopted, but due to the does serve the purpose of a protection interruption caused by World War I, no standard. Yet progress toward better significant action was taken prior to 1920.

USNRC Technical Training Center 11-1 Rev.0595

. . introductory H2alth PhytiCS Chapter 11: Rsdistion Prettetion Standerde end Regulatiene Standards Based on Prevention of Clinical In 1928, the International X-ray and Radium Inlurv to Radiation Workers (WW I - WW Protection Committee (forerunner of the ID International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)] was established by the In 1920, the first standing radiation protection second International Congress of Radiology.

committee was formed by the American The committee held its initial meeting in 1928 Roentgen Ray Society, and adopted interim regulations based upon the 1921 recommendations of the British X-In 1921, the first general set of radiation ray and Radium Protection Committee. These protection recommendations were published in protection standards were directed primarily to the Journal of Roentgen Society. the shielding of x-ray tubes operated at various voltages and for radium sources. The By the end of 1922, many countries had committee also adopted the definition of the adopted standards for radiation protection. roentgen (1 electron spin unit /cm3 air at standard temperature and pressure).

The year 1925 was one of the landmark years in the evolution of radiation protection. The In 1929, the Advisory Committee on X-ray first Intemational Congress of Radiology was and Radium Protection [ forerunner of the held in London and formed an Ad Hoc group National Committee on Radiation Protection to study the problem of radiation units; this and Measurements (NCRP)] was orgamzed in was the forerunner of the International the United States. The work of this body was Commission on Radiological Units and coordinated by the National Bureau of Measurements (ICRU). Efforts to establish a Standards. The early recommendations of the

" tolerance dose" were being made Committee appeared in the National Bureau of independently in several countries. Standards Handbooks. The NCRP Mutscheller recommended a tolerance dose of recommendations as outlined in Handbooks 20 1/100 of a threshold erythema dose (TED, and 23, which have been superseded by later also called the skin erythema dose [ SED]) per reports, served as the basis for protection month or approximately 1/10 TED per year. practices during the days of the project Sievert arrived independently at the same developing the atomic bomb during the value, i.e.,1/10 of the threshold erythema Manhattan project. Many members of the dose per year. Although there began to be NCRP were engaged in this program and were some general acceptance of Mutscheller's helpfulin seeing that protection standards method of defining the tolerance dose, the prevailed.

actual value of the TED was not well established. In 1931, the first x-ray protection rules produced by the NCRP were published as In 1927, Kustner conducted an elaborate Bureau of Standards Handbook 15. (It should survey to determine the value of the TED. be noted that up until this time, protection Reported values ranged from 400 to 650 standards were expressed in terms of working roentgens, with an average value of 550 hours, x-ray shielding, electrical precautions, roentgens. (It should be noted that during this radium shielding, etc. and not in terms of time, the concept of the roentgen as a unit of exposure or dose limits),

air exposure was being developed, but that it was not quantitatively defined nor adopted by In 1934 and 1935, ICRP adopted a permissible any official committee until 1928). dose limit of 0.2 R/ day (72 R/ year). NCRP adopted an exposure limit of 0.1 R/ day (36 USNRC Technical Training Center 11-2 Rev.0595

JntrWucttry H:sith Physics chapew 11: n.d6esen pr esea ciendede end neouttdone R/ year). .Both of these limits were based on Because of the rapid expansion of the use of the earlier recommendations related to the radiation by industrial orgamzations, the TED (i.e.,0.1 TED per year, or American Standards Association organized

'approximately 55 f. 20 R/ year). The NCRP _

Committee Z-54 to develop radiation was more cautious in establishing a dose limit protection standards for use in 'mdustry. Also, because of growing suspicions that radiation the rapid increase in shipments of radioactive might induce more subtle and delayed injuries. materials prompted the Interstate Commerce The possibility of genetic effect was also Commission (ICC) to develop special tariffs under consideration during this time period. pertaming to radioactive matenals. This tariff was actually developed by the Bureau of In 1941, the Advisory Committee on X-ray Explosives of the Association of American and Radium Protection recommended a Railroads, but was adopted and enforced by permissible body burden for radium of 0.-1 the ICC. The development of operational pCi. This standard was based on an intensive standards by associations of commercial or study of radium patients and dial painters. industrial organizations based on the recommendations of scientific committees is a The Manhattan District (WW ID pattern that has been continued in the field of-radiation protection.

In the 1940's, the intensive wartime effort to develop fission reactors and nuclear weapons The three organizations, ICRU, ICRP, and introduced radtation protection problems on a NCRP, have figured prominently in the scale never before anticipated For example, development of present day radiation the entire world supply of radioactive protection pracoces. Although these bodies materials prior to 1940 consisted of act as advisory boards only, much of the approximately I kg (1000 Ci) Ra-226; in radiation inukstion philosophy which has contrast, millions of curies of a wide variety. evolved and which has been adopted by of radionuclides were produced in the first _ various regulatory agencies throughout the reactors of the Manhattan District and in the world, had its origins in the recommendations early detonations of nuclear weapons. Also, of these organizations.

prior to 1940, the most intense sources of external radiation were x-ray machines, 11.2 Dese Limits cyclotrons, or other high-voltage accelerators; the external radiation _ intensities from a The changes in acceptable dose limits nuclear reactor core are orders of magnitude followed and continues to follow the growth larger. of scientific data and recommendations by the ICRU, ICRP, and NCRP. The following L.arge scale animal experiments on the summanzes the changes in dose limits that biological effects of radiation, both internal took place between 1948 and 1977.

and external, were initiated at the National '

Cancer Institute, the University of Chicago, 11.2.1 Sea-dards Rawd on Me. - :lan of

.the University of Rochester, and at Oak Stachmetic Iniury to Por=defla== (the Ridge. The radiobiology programs started AEC and FRC vaars) during World War II have since been greatly expanded and collectively represent the largest In 1948 and 1949, the NCRP lowered the .

single source of radiation effects data in the maximum permissible dose for radiation ,

world. workers to 0.3 R/ week (15 R/ year); this standard was still based primarily on the USNRC Technical Training Center 11-3 Rev.0595

• Intr:ductrry HIalth Phytics chaptw it: cedietson Protection etendwds and Reguletsone 4

absence of detectable injury to individuals. data that are used in support of radiation The NCRP also introduced the risk-benefit standards.

philosophy and considered population and genetic effects of radiation (NBS Handbook In 1957. the NCRP formulated the age 59). prorated occupational dose limit and also adopted the population dose concept of ICRP In 1950, the ICRU and ICRP were (0.5 rem /yr to any individual or 0.17 rem /yr reorgamzed and adopted the same standards as to a population at large),

the NCRP for external radiation. The ICRU expanded the definition of the curie to include In 1959, the ICRP recommended a genetically all radioactive materials, not just radium. significant dose limit of 5 rems in 30 years for the general population. The Federal Radiation In 1952, the ICRP and ICRU held the first Council (FRC) was formed in 1959 (Public Conference on Genetic Effects and reached Law 86-373) to " advise the president with conclusions essentially as subsequently respect to radiation matters directly or recommended in 1956. indirectly affecting health including guidance for all federal agencies in the formulation of In 1953, the NCRP listed maximum radiation standards and in the establishment permissible concentrations and maximum and execution of programs of cooperation with permissible body burdens for 100 isotopes. states. . . "

(NBS Handbook 52) The ICRP adopted these NCRP recommendations and also In 1960, the FRC issued its first report recommended for members of the general " Background Matenal for the Development of public a dose limit 1/10 of that for radiation Radiation Protection Standards". 'Ihe report workers. The ICRU introduced the concept of introduced the tenns radiation protection guide absorbed dose and adopted the rad as its unit. (RPG) and radioactivity concentration guide (RCG) to replace the terms maximum In 1956, the ICRP introduced the concept of permissible dose and maximum permissible cumulative dose for both occupational and concentration as used by the NCRP and ICRP.

population exposures and recommended a dose These recommendations were made in the limit of 5 rem /yr for radiation workers. The recognition of the linear non-threshold ICRU introduced the concepts of relative assumptions of the dose-effect relationship.

biological effectiveness (RBE) and the RBE dose and adopted the rem as the unit of dose In 1964, the FRC introduced the concept of equivalent. The National Academy of protective action guides (FRC Report No. 5).

Sciences published the first of a series of reports on the biological effects of atomic in 1967, the increasing concern over the radiation (BEAR Committee, forerunner of the excessive lung cancer deaths among uranium Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation miners lead to Congressional Hearings (JCAE

[BEIR] Committee). The United Nations 1967) and to the last report issued by the FRC Scien:ific Committee on the Effects of Atomic (FRC 1967).

l Radiation (UNSCEAR) held its first two meetings and submitted a yearly progress In 1968, the Radiation Control for Health and report to the General Assembly of the United Safety Act (PL 90-603) was passed. This act Nations at its 11* Session. The Committee gave the federal government, for the first has subsequently become a .most valuable time, the authority to regulate electronic source of radiation exposure and protection product radiations. This category includes USNRC Technical Training Center 11-4 Rev.0595

,intrcduct:ry Health Physics chape.,11: noe.een pree ee.n ceandards end needenens ionizing and non-ionizing electromagnetic or 'ne National Environmental Policy Act (PL particulate radiation, and sonic, infrasonic or 91-190) was passed in 1969 also.

ultrasonic waves emitted from electronic products. Prior to this act, regulation of such In 1970, the U.S. Environmental Protection .

devices was a state responsibility. The act Agency (EPA) was formed by Reorganization I directed the Secretary of the Department of Pian No. 3 of 1970. The FRC was abolished Health, Education and Welfare (DHEW) to and its responsibilities for providmg guidance establish performance standards for electronic to all federal agencies on matters of radiation products and to regulate the manufacturing protection were given to the E?A.

and distribution of such products, but only to

" study" the control of uses aM users. In 1972, the BEIR Committee released its report, The Effects on Populations of The research supported by the AEC, and the Exposures to Low Levels ofIomzing coordination provided by the FRC, motivated Radiation. The UNSCFAR report, Ionizmg much of the development effort on standards Radiation: Levels and Effects, was published.

'during the 1950's and 1960's, even though Both committees used the same' database and AEC regulations remained relatively static '

arrived at compamble estimates of somatic and during that time. genetic effects from radiation exposures of Izrge populations. UNSCEAR did not 11.2.2 Standards Based on Assened Risk- extrapolate to individual risk from low doses, Befit and. ALARA Assessments as did BEIR.

(Advemrv Era)

In 1974, the Energy Reorgannanon Act (PL Three events occurred in rapid succession,93-438) split the AEC and also abolished the producing a'significant change in public Joint Committee on Atomic Energy. The attitudes toward radiation standards and in the regulatory functions of the AEC were given to standards-setting process, if not in the the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Comminann numerical values of the standards themselves. (NRC) and the development and promotional These events were all instigated by a public functions of the AEC were given to the mood of the late 1960's; this mood could best Energy Research and Development be desenbed as and-establishment and Administration (ERDA).

distrustful political leaders.

Several noteworthy events took place in'1975 In 1969, Drs. John W. Gofman and Arthur R. and 1977:

Tamplin presented a paper before the Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers (San 1975 The NRC issued Appendix I to 10 CFR Francisco, October 29), challenging the 50, Numerical Guides for Design Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) and FRC Objectives and Limiting Conditions for standards and demanding an immediate Operation to Meet the Criterica "As reduction of the dose limit for members of the Low as Practicable" for Radioactive general pubuc by at least one order of Material in Light-Water-Cooled Nuclear magnitude, la response to Gofman and Power Reactor Effluents (40 FR 19439, Tamplin, the FRC requested a review of May 5,1975).

radiation standards by the National Academy

' of Sciences. The BEIR Committee held its first meeting on March 25,1970.

USNRC Technical Training center 11-5 Rev.0595 Q__-_______-__-________-______-__ . _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _

r

}L L . .intaductary Hralth Physics ch rn n nad don peri.even einwnei sw n.euunoa.

L.  !

l The EPA published its proposed standards than the dose limit to prevent nonstochastic (40 CFR Part 190), Environmental Radiation Protection for Nuclear Power damage. )

I Operations (40 FR 23420, May 29,1975).

The ICRP recommendations are intended to j limit somatic effects in the individual, I The NCRP reaffirmed its existing hereditary effects in the individual's standards, i.e., individual dose limits, but immediate offspring, and somatic and i i

strongly reiterated its emphasis on the hereditary effects in the population as a ALARA principle. A summary of NCRP whole. For any organ, the dose limitation )

- standards and NRC and EPA dose limits refers to the sum of the annual dose 1 l for members of the general public are equivalents from external somces and the L shown in Table 11-1. committed done equivalents from internal

!- sources during that year.

1977 UNSCEAR released a comprehensive report on Sources and Effects of The NRC's occupational dose liraits have been l Ionizing Radiation (UN Publ. No. E. adjusted to agree with ICRP 26. Currently, j

77. IX.1). 'This report is an expansion the NRC believes that nonstochastic effects and update of the' 1972 report, will be prevented by applying a dose l equivalent limit of 0.5 Sv (50 rem) in a year The BEIR Committee issued a report on to all tissues except the lens of the eye, for  !

Considerations of Health Benefit-Cost which the reconsmendation is 0.15 Sv (15 l Analysis for Activities Involving Ionizing rem) in a year. In addition, the limits apply Radiation Exposure and Alternatives (EPA whether the tissues are' exposed singly or in 520/4-77-003). This report, also called the . combination with other organs.

BEIR-H report, represents an attempt to i develop benefitcost analysis methods and For stochastic effects, the annual dose' i apply them to specific applications', i.e., equivalent limit for uniform irradiation of the energy production and medical diagnosis, whole body is 50 mSv (5 rem). If the l irradiation is non-uniform, the system is based i p

o The ICRP published a newly revised upon the premise that the risk should not j version of its recommendations (ICRP exceed that for uniform whole body I Publ. 26). Although the terminology and irradiation. This obtains if:  ;

wording are substantially different from -

l previous ICRP publications, the underlying Hw.1,.hErwrHr (11-1) concepts and philosophy'of radiation protection are consistent with all earlier where ICRP recommendations.

Hwer is the annual whole body limit (50 mSv) j g . The ICRP believes that, for stochastic effects.

the dore eouivalent limit may be based on the Hr is the annual dose equivalent in a given total risk of all irradiated tissues. So, the tissue T, and system sets a single _ limit for uniform irradiation of the whole body and a weighing wris a weighing factor.

system to ensure that the total risk from partial body irradiation does not exceed the This weighinE factor expresses the ratio of the risk from uniform whole body irradiation. In stochastic risk in tissue T to that in the total addition,'no single tissue should receive more body. Values of w rare given in Table 11-2.

USNRC Technical Training Center 11 6 Rev.0595 t-

,. ,lntreductsry Health Physics chapt.,11: Redesa preeeemen sienderes one neoutevone The summation on the right side of equation regulations are deemed appropriate. The 11-1 is called the effective dose equivalent, bases for these rules are: to protect the public p He. health and safety, and provide for national defense and security. Under this mandate, the The weighing factor wr, is 0.06 for each of AEC was concerned with the development of the five organs of the remainder receiving the regulatory safety standards. q highest dose equivalents, and the remaining 1 tissues can be neglected. De Energy Reorgamzation Act of 1974 abolished the AEC and established twe The NRC does not intend that the hands and agencies to perform the functions of the AEC.

forearms, the feet and ankles, the skin and the The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission lens of the eye be included in the (NRC) has taken over the licensing and determination of the remainder in Tatile 11-2. regulatory functions. Licensed material under the control of the NRC includes source i The NRC dose limit in 10 CFR Part 20 for material (uranium and thorium or ores members of the public is 0.1 rem (100 mrem) contaming .05% of these materials), special

[ per year total effective dose equivalent. This nuclear matenal (plutonium, U-233, U is a stochastic limit. There are no non- enriched in U-233 or U-235), and by-product stochastic limits for members of the public material (radioactive matenal resulting from  ;

since it is assumed that non-stochastic effects producing or utilizing special nuclear will not occur at dose levels at or below the material). The regulations of the NRC are set stochastic limit for the public. forth in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title

10. Part 20, Standards for Protection Against Although the ICRP functions only as an . Radiation, deals specifically with the advisory body, their recommaaMons have regulations for control of radiation hazards by generally been adopted and applied as the the licensee. Other parts of Title 10 deal with basis for the radiation protection standards in licensing and regulatory requirements use throughout the world. The NCRP has associated with the use of source, special also endorsed these recommendations. nuclear rnmini and by-product material.

1:

11.3 Regulatina Agencies As part of its duties, the NRC is charged with the task of seeing that these measures prevail.

So far, our attention has been directed to those This aspect requires mspection and review in groups which supply recommendations for order to assure this. This function is carried exposure levels and safe practices and to the out by NRC personnel (inspectors) at regular

l. dose limits. The rest of this section will be intervals. Retr job is to make the inspections concerned with the orgamzations which are and report their fmdmgs. In the event that a charged with developing regulations. Of failure to comply is noted, the licensee is prime interest are those groups which regulate recuired to correct this, radiation matters in this country.

Many of the states have taken up the task of Under the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, the setting up their own safety standards. The United States Atomic Energy Commission NRC has been directed to assist the states to (AEC) was given the responsibility of assure that the state and Commission

. regulating the atomic-energy industry. The programs are compatible. These states are s Act authorized the AEC to. set up a licensing referred to as Agreement States.

program to be augmented by whatever rules or USNRC Technical Training Center 11-7 Rev.0695

L . j

- intrrductsry H:alth Phy2ics ch.pi.,11: acent,on pro etion ci 4.,4. .n4 n.,ui.ia.n.

An Agreement State is any state using Federal Government to other govemmental legislation known as the Radiation Control Act and private agencies and to the general public.

to provide regulation of radioactive materials Hearings are held, if necessary, to discuss and radiation producing machines and whose amending the proposals. Subsequently, the purpose is to protect the health and safety of amended proposals are published in the the public. The govemor of an Agreement Federal Register. If no adverse actior, is State signs an agreement with the NRC or its taken, the changes or additions become part of predecessor, the Atomic Energy Commission. the Code of Federal Regulations and have the As part of this agreement, the State maintains effect of law. Other agencies of the Federal a radioactive materials regulatory program that Government having an interest in the is sufficient to protect the health and safety of regulations for the shipment of radioactive the public and that meets or exceeds that of substances are: Interstate Commerce i the NRC. Com. mission, Coast Guard, Federal Asiation l Agency, Postal Service, DOE and the NRC. l The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has The Department of Transportation has made taken over the remaining functions of the an effort to make its labeling system conform AEC. These activities related to energy with the regulations of the International research and development and involved Atomic Energy Agency, activities carried out by the Commission or by its contractors. The DOE hr.s issued This concludes the brief outline of the main regulations which pertain to its own activities groups whose function is to regulate. From as well as to those of its contractors, not the dynamic nature of the field of atomic subject to licensing. These regulations appear energy, one can expect that many new in the DOE Orders, which replaced the problems will arise. for this reason, no Manual Chapters of the AEC. The standards attempt has been made to discuss any of the which apply specifically to radiation protection present regulations in detail. As new are contained in DOE Order 5480.11. These problems arise, new rules must be worked standards are based upon the recommendations out. Thus, as in the case of exposure limits, of the ICRP, NCRP, and the guidance of the changes will occur. To keep up on current EPA. Similar to the NRC, the DOE is changes, it is necessary to periodically review charged with the inspection of its contractors the Federal Register.

to see that they are in compliance with the DOE Orders. 11.4 Agreement State Safety in the shipment of radioactive An Agreement State is any state using substances is principally the responsibility of legislation known as the Radiation Control Act the U.S. Department of Transportation to provide regulation of radioactive materials (DOT). Title 49-Transportation, of the Code and radiation producing machines and whose of Federal Regulations, deals with hazardous purpose is to protect the health and safety of shipments including radioactive materials. See the public. The governor of an Agreement Section 16.K for a discussion of these State has signed an agreement with the NRC regulations. or its predecessor, the Atomic Energy Commission. As part of this agreement, the From time-to-time, changes are made in State maintains a radioactive materials various regulations. The Code of Federal regulatory program that is sufficient to protect Regulations is revised through submission of the health and safety of the public and that changes proposed by an agency and the meets or exceeds that of the NRC.

USNRC Technical Training Center 11-8 Rev.0595

. 1 introduct:ty H:cith Physics chapew 11: neztion Proteeeen cianded end noeusatione 11.5 40 CFR Overview the OSHA regulations it is not required that the NRC Inspectors become proficient with i Section 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations the regulations, but only that they report primarily sets limits on the activities and situations that appear to be unsafe, or known effects of radioactive materials dispelled violations based on the Inspector's knowledge.

beyond the boundaries of the facility. A brief outline of some specific parts are listed below: 11.7 S-mary of 10 CFR 20 40CFR 61 air pollutant limits The new 10 CFR Part 20, Standards for including radon and Protection Against Radiation, represents the other radionuclides most significant change in radiation protection 40CFR 141 public drmkmg water regulations in over 35 years. The new rule  !

R limits including Ra-226 became effective on June 20,1991 and and Ra-228 compliance was mandatory for all NRC 40CFR 190 nuclear power plant licensees on January 1,1994. The new Part operation and uranium 20 is a ris.k-based system of radiation  !

fuel cycle operation protection which implements the .

I limits recommendations of the ICRP (1977) and the  !

40CFR 191 release limits for NCRP (1977) and Presidential Guidance to disposal of spent nuclear Federal Agencies issued in 1987. The new ~i fuel, high-level, and regulation updates dose / risk models and l transuranic wastes parameters, particularly with regard to 40CFR 192 standards for remedial internally deposited radioactivity. The format actions at inactive of the new regulations has also been changed uranium processing sites to consolidate certain portions and improve its 40CFR 220-229 ocean /marme dmnping organization, limits 40CFR 440 effluent limits from ore Major changes to Part 20 include: new dose mining. limits for workers and members of the public; introduction of the concept cf effective dose .

11.6 Role of OSHA - 19 CFR equivalent; summation of external and internal dose; use of Annual Limit on Intake (ALI)

The Occupational Safety and Health and Derived Air Concentration (DAC); dose Administration is charged with improvement limitation to the embryo / fetus of a declared cf safety to workers in the United States. pregnant woman: planned special exposure Their rules are codified in 29 CFR 1910 (PSE); the new respirator rule requiring total

' Occupational Safety and Health Standards" effective dose equivalent to be maintained and 1926 " Construction" for operational ALARA; changes in dose recorhsg and facilities and construction respectively. These reporting (NRC Forms 4 and 5); and new rules cover most aspects of worker safety and effluent concentration limits for releases of are applicable to any company that has more radioactivity to air and water.

than ten employees. The Commission has a memorandum of understanding with the A series of regulatory guides have been issued OSHA which allows NRC Inspectors to to provide additional guidance on the new Part report / review safety compliance status by a 20. Also, an extensive series (seven sets to licensee, thus becoming additional OSHA date) of questions and answers (Q & A's)

" eyes." However, due to the complexity of have been issued to reflect NRC staff USNRC Technical Train' wig Center 11 9 Rev.0595

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' introductory H:alth Phy:ics em.m., i t : n.46 5 n siend.,4 .nd n.,4 6.n.

decisions and technical opinions on specific Subpart H provides the requirements for aspects of new Part 20 regulatory respiratory protection and controls to restrict requirements. . internal exposure in restricted areas.

A summary of the subparts of 10 CFR 20 is Subpart I provides the requirements for the presented below: storage and control of licensed material.

Subpart A discusses the general provisions of Subpart J provides the requirements for the regulations including purpose, scope, precautionary procedures including posting of

' defmitions, and units of dose and areas and materials, and the receiving and radioactivity. Further it defmes the proper opening of packages.

mechanism for interpretations of these regulations, and lists the proper directions for Subpart K provides the requirements for communication and provides implementation radioactive waste disposal.

guidance. ]

Subpart L provides the requirements for Subpart B states the requirements for licensees records generated in support the radiation i to develop, document, and implement a protection program. These records consist of radiation protection program. such things as survey and monitoring reports, dose reports, planned special exposure Subpart C provides the requirements for documents, member of the public dose, and occupational dose limits. This subpart waste disposal.

includes requirements for summing internal and external dose, determming dose due to Subpart M provides the requirements for internal exposure, the use of planned special reports to the Commission and include such exposure, and dose limits for minors and an things as theft or loss of licensed material,  ;

embryo / fetus. incidents, events where radiation levels, exposures, or concentrations of radioactive Subpart D provides the requirements for dose materials exceed limits, planned special limits for members of the public and includes exposures, and individual dose monitoring, compliance with 40 CFR 190.

Subpart N provides exemptions to these Subpart E is reserved. regulations as well as other additional requirements.

Subpart F provides the requirements for the making of surveys and monitoring of Subpart O provides the requirements for personnel for external and internal enforcement of these regulations.

occupational dose.

Appendix A provides the allowed protection Subpart G provides the requirements for the factors for respirators.

control of exposure from external sources in restricted areas and includes access to high Appendix B provides radionuclides specific and very high radiation areas for both normal values for the annual limits on intake and licensees and irradiators, derived air concentrations for occupational exposure, effluent concentrations, and sewerage releases.

USNRC Technical Training Center 11-10 Rev.0595

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, , Intr:du;t:ry H:alth Physics che,ew 11: medstion pru oven cisnewes and m.out dens o

Appendix C provides radionuclidess pecific values for quantities of licensed material that requires labelmg. j l

Appendix D lists the addresses and phone l numbers for each of the four NRC Regions and the California Field Office.

Appendix E is reserved.

Appendix F lists the requirements for low-level-waste transfer for disposal at land I disposal facilities and manifests.

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USNRC Technical Training Center 11-11 Rev. 0595

introductory Healdi Physics chapter 11: Radiation Protsetion Stendsede and Ragsdztione Chapter 11 Study Questions

1. What are four of the subparts of 10 CFR Part 20?

2. What gives agreement states jurisdiction / power to regulate NRC licensees?

3. What gives the EPA jurisdiction / power to regulate NRC licensees?

4 What gives the DOT jurisdiction / power to regulate NRC licensees?

5. What gives the OSHA jurisdiction / power to regulate NRC licensees?

6. What are the radiation dose equivalent limits specified by the NRC for licensee workers and members of the public? Where can these limits be found?

7. Prior to the adoption of dose limits, how did the early radiation workers limit their exposure to ionizing radiation?

8. What agencies have guided the evolution of dose limits the most?

USNRC Technical Training Center 11-12 Rev.0595

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,Introduct:ty Hulth Physica Chapter 11: Radiation Protection Standards and Regulations

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Table ! l-1. Non. occupational Radiation Standards (NCRP) and l

Dose Limits (NRC, EPA) l l

NCRP (Reports 39,1971 and lo,1975)

To individual members of the public: 50 mrem /yr  !

Average to population groups: 170 mrenvyr 1

1 NRC (10 CFR 50, Appendix I), LWR Design Criteria From liquid effluents:

All pathways - Total body: 3 mrem /yr

- Individual organs: 10 mcemlyr From airborne efiluents:

Air dose - camma radiation: 10 mrad /vr

- lieta radiation: 20 mrad /yr External dose to individual:

Total body: '

5 mrem /vr Skin: 15 mremihr Internal dose to any organ: 15 mremlyr i

NRC(10 CFR 20) Radiation Protection Regulations From all pathways. total effecove dose equivalent to member 100 mremlyr .

of the public: l EPA (40 CFR 61) Clean Air Regulations (no longer applicable to NRC licensees - replaced by ALARA dose constriniin 10 CFR Part 20)

From all air pathways, etfecow dose equivalent to member of 10 mremlyr the publie- 1 1

From airborne radioiodine: 23 mrem /vr 1 l

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, introduct:ry He:lth Phyrica Chapt:r 11: Radi: tion Prottetion St:nderds and Regul:tions EPA (40 CFR 190), Nuclear Fuel Cycle From all sources except radon and short-lived progeny:

To any individual- Total body: 25 mrem /yr

- Thyroid: 75 mrem /yr

- Other organs 25 mrem /yr Release limits for total fuel cycle teffective 1983):

Per gigawatt-year of power production:

- krypton 85: 50 kCi

- iodine-129: 5 mci

- transuranic: 0.5 mci EPA (40 CFR 141), Safe Diinking Water Act Regulations From man-made radionuclides in drinking water 4 mrem /yr i l

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l USNRC Technical Training Center 11-14 Rev.0598

Introduct:ry H:alth Physics chepter 11: Radiation Pres. coon etenderde end A eulaison.

Table 11-2. Weighing Factors for Stochastic Risk Tissue wr Gonads 0.25 Breast 0.15 Red bone marrow 0.12 Lung 0.12 Thyroid 0.03 Bone surfaces 0.03 Remainder 0.30 ,

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l USNRC Technical Training Center 11-15 Rev.0595

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. INTRODUCTORY HEALTH : PHYSICS.

CHAPTER 12 JRADIATIONJPROTECTION PLANS AND' PROCEDURES -

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f This chapter provides the course participants:with an overview of:

• The components of a radiation protection plan. )

• - The occupational ALARA program.

* . The operational radiation protection procedures.

• The dosimetry program.

-* The keeping of occupational radiation protection records.

• The quality assurance aspects of the radiation protection plan.

• The integration of health and safety plans.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES :

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Upon completion o. f this chapter, the student should be able to-successfully:- I

• - Describe the fundamentals of operational radiation protection procedures on:

• -instrumentation programs .

• - dosimetry programs and dose limitation -

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• surveying and monitoring l

• posting and labeling.

• Identify the training, recordkeeping, and reporting requirements in a radiation protection plan.

Rev.0595 USNRC Technical Training Center

, ,lotroduct ry Health Phy:ics Ch pt:r 12:' Radiation Pr;tection Plans and Prsecdures 12.0 RADIATION PROTECTION PLANS the RPP. One topic that is general to all areas AND PROCEDURES of an RPP is documentation and records retention. Every area to be discussed requires 12.1 Introduction that sufficient documentation be retained to show that the program is being operated l-A Radiation Protection Plan (RPP) is one part correctly and that worker doses are ALARA

! of every NRC license for radioactive materials and within regulatory limits. Some records or special nuclear materials. This requirement are to be maintained until the license is l serves the purpose of directing activities of the termmated while others need to be retained for licensee such that exposures to the licensee's 75 years. Therefore it is important that a employees and the public are kept as low as licensee have a good document control system reasonably achievable. A RPP is a to support the RPP. t multifaceted program which entails all aspects of radiation protection, ranging from 12.2 Administration administration, to facility assessment, to training, to dose evaluation and control. Each Within the arena of administration lies the i of the inany components of the RPP supports requirement for an ALARA commitment from the philosophy of ALARA. the upper level facility management down to the mid-level managers. Without this >

There is no specified outline for an RPP commitment there cannot be an active and because facilities have various designs, progressive radiadon protection program. The functions, and needs. However, the dommant administration must support the health physics concepts include: programs with the resources (personnel, equipment, space, etc.) needed to fulfill the

• Administration task of radiation protection of the work force

• Occupational ALARA programs and the public. Failure to support health

• Radiation protection program surveys physics will ultimately lead to facility and monitoring conditions that are not conducive to the

• Posting and labeling for radiological principals of ALARA.

control

• Workplace air monitoring More close to home is the need to have a well e Instrument calibration for fixed and tramed Health Physics administrator to ensure portable instruments all aspects of a good health physics program

• Internal dosimetry program are instituted at a level commensurate with the o External dosimetry program potential for exposure to radiation and '

• Evaluation and control of fetal exposure radioactive materials in the workplace and the

• Radiation safety traimng environment. Levels of administration that

• Scaled radioactive source accountability report to the Health Physics administrator will and control be dependant on the complexity of the

• Occupational radiation protection program. For instance a nuclear power record-keeping and reporting generating station will have a far more

• Quality assurance, and complex (both in terms of personnel and

• Emergency response. resources) program than might be found at a facility that has a sealed source only license.

Emphasis may differ among facilities and some facilities may include additional concepts, but this list comprises the core of USNRC Technical Training Center 12-1 Rev.0595

l . Intr ductgry H:alth Physics Cht;tzt 12: Radttion Prctection Pl ns and Proc:dures 1

12.3 Occupational ALARA Proernmc

• implementing a strong contammation control program Occupational ALARA programs vary widely

• posting and identification of radiation dependant on the potential for exposure to areas and radioactive materials radiation and radioactive materials. The basic

• use of administrative dose limits for

, tenant to which these programs operate is that personnel.

there should be a net benefit to justify the exposure to radiation or radioactive materials. The last part of the ALARA program is the The size of the facility and the types of tasks use of protective clothing to minimize worker performed at the facility will affect the size of exposure to direct radiation (e.g., alpha the ALARA program. In the most basic of radiation), contamination and airbome programs should be a review of the current radioactive materials. Clothing can range program to identify opportunities for reducing from simple lab coats and gloves to full total man-rem expended in performing the anticontammation attire, including respiratory facilities task. protection. What type of clothing is used and how much is required is dependant on the ALARA programs should first target potential for exposure to radioactive materials, engineered controls, then administrative controls, and lastly personal protective 12.4 Operational Radiation Protection equipment. Engineered controls consist of Procedures modification of new and existing facility design that reduces the exposure of personnel 12.4.1 m to radiation and radioactive materials. Surveys and Manitorina i

Examples of engineered systems are:

l Every radiation protection program, from very e use of heavy shield walls and labyrinths simple to complex, requires that surveys and

• use of remote handling, use of robotics monitoring be performed in a facility to e use of local ventilation exhaust establish the exposure to radiation and

• use of local shielding and facility layout radioactive materials on surfaces and in the to ensure radiation sources are remote air. A good program will utilize survey from office areas and other locations frequencies that are commensurate with the l

l where personnel tend to congregate. potential for radiation fields to change and for radioactive materials to be found in the Administrative controis are " soft fixes" that workplace. For example in areas where little result in programs for the reduction of worker to no radioactive materials are allowed and exposure. Examples of administrative radiation fields are near background there is controls are: little need to spend valuable personnel and instrument resources in monitoring activities.

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• locking access to high radiation areas In this situation monthly surveys may be e implementing ALARA review boards sufficient. However, in facility areas where for all scheduled maintenance contammation probability is high and known o pre-job mockup maintenance trammg loose contamma. tion levels are routinely

• setting of ALARA man-rem goals elevated, there is good reason to implement

• purchasing control systems that ensure monitoring programs that require frequent air materials brought into the facility are samples, and loose contamination surveys. In compatible with the system components facilities where radiation fields change daily it is important to perform radiation surveys USNRC Technical Training Center 12 2 Rev.0595

. Jntr:ductrry H:alth Phyrics Chrpter 12: Radiation Pr:tection Plans and Procsdur:s 9

daily. Types of surveys and monitoring CAUTION, HIGH RADIATION AREA techniques must be tailored for die radionuclides of concern at the facility. High radiation area is an area, accessible to individuals, in which radiation levels could Although the primary focus of most survey result in an individual receiving a dose and monitoring programs deals with the equivalent in excess of 0.1 rem in I hour at facilities it is imponant to not overlook the 30 cm from the radiation source or from any need to survey personnel and equipment as surface that the radiation penetrates.

they come out of radiologically controlled areas, especially from areas containing loose GRAVE DANGER, VERY HIGH or fixed radioactive contammation. All RADIATION AREA personnel leaving these type of areas should perform a frisk to detect the presence of ' A very high radiation area is an area, contammation on their person or personal accessible to individuals receiving an absorbed articles they may be carrymg out of the area. dose in excess of 500 rads in I hour at 1 meter from the radiation source or from any {

The extent of the frisk, whole or partial body,  ;

should be driven by the potential for exposure. surface that the radiation penetrates. l This is true also for equipment leaving the ]

area. However, all equipment should be CAUTION, AIRBORNE  ;

monitored by a health physics technician or a RADIOACnysti AREA fixed monitoring device to ensure contammation control is affected. An airborne radioactivity area is a room, enclosure, or area in which airborne 12.4.2 Posting and Imbelina for radioactive materials, composed wholly or Radiological Control partly of licensed matenal, exist in concentrations: (1) in excess of the derived A facility possessing radioactive matenals is air concentrations (DACs) specified in required to identify the locations of such Appendix B of 10 CFR 20, or (2) to such a materials and the resultant dose rate or effect degree that an individual present in the area on contanunation levels due to the radioactive without respiratory protective equipment could materials. All postings must bear the exceed, during the hours an individual is .

. internationally accepted symbol of present in a week, an intake of 0.6 percent of radioactivity, the trefoil in the appropriate the annuallimit sa mtake (ALU m I? DAC-colors of magenta, purple, or black on yellow hours.

background. Types of signs and their associated definitions, as defined in 10 CFR CAUTION, RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL 20, are listed below:

A radioactive matenals area is an area where L

CAUTION, RADIATION AREA amounts of stored matenal are _>.10 times Appendix C values in 10 CFR 20.

l A radiation area is an area, accessible to individuals, in which radiation levels could CAUTION, RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS result in an individual receiving a dose ,

equivalent in excess of 0.005 rem in I hour at A radioactive materials area is an area where 30 cm from the radiation source or from any any such matenal whether or not subject to surface that the radiation penetrates. licensing control by the NRC is located.

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.intradectcry H:alth Phycies Chapt r 12: Hgtion Pret:ction Pians and Praccdures Although these postings cover most situations Radiciodine can either be a particulate or take for exposure control from direct radiation many chemical forms such as organic, In or there is suJl the possibility of encountering HOI. Therefore sampling should be loose commination in a facility. Although conducted by pulling air through a paticulate not defined in 10 CFR Part 20, other filter followed by a charcoal cartridge. This appropriate postings may be as follows: combination of filters helps to assure that a representative sample will be collected.

CAU'IION, CONTAMINATION AREA In the category of "other" lies all of the odd A contammation area is an area where ball radionuclides such as tritium and C-14.

contammation > 1 time but _< 100 times Reg.

_. Also included in this category may be Guide 1.86 Table 1 values. specialty radionuclides in specific chemical forms that have specific uses by a licensee.

DANGER, IHGH CONTAMINATION Types of sample collection devices must be AREA tailored to the nuclide and chemical form.

For example tritium can be found as hydrogen A high contamination area is an area where gas, water vapor, or organic vapors. Each contamination > 100 times Reg. Guide 1.86 form will require a different technique to Table 1 values. adequately collect a representative air sample.

12.4.3 Work Place Air Momitoring 12.4.4 Instrument Calibration Monitoring cfinternal dose to workets is Instruments used for the detection of required by 10 CFR Put 20 where the contamination and radiation vary widely potential exists for a worker to exceed 10% of within the nuclear industry. However, there an ALI during the course of a par. To meet is one thing that doesn't vary and that is the this requirement, most licensees perform air need to properly maintain and calibrate the monitoring either continuously or on an instruments to assure proper operation.

intermittent schedule. Due to the large vanety Normally instruments are calibrated every six of contammants that are handled by licensees months to one year depending on the license in the United States there is no one way to requirecients. At these times the instrument obtain air samples. Typically air sampling should also be checked for damage and can be subdivided into four categories: repaired if needed. Every instrument should particulate, noble gas, radioiodines, and other. be returned into the workplace with a sticker attached that gives the date of calibration or Particulate radioactivity is normally associated next due date, and any specific information with small dust particles that are made up of, required by the licensee such as efficiency or have attached to them, radioactive material. factors, initials of calibrator, sertal number of These materials are solid and can be collected meter and probe if two separate units.

as air is passed through a filter material.

Prior to each use the tag should be reviewed Noble gases are kryptons and xenons, fission to ensure the instrument is still within products that are inert and therefore do not calibration. The instrument should be attach to filters or quantitatively collect on inspected and the response checked with a absorbers. The normal method for sampling source. Any instrument that is not in is the use of grab samples, where container calibration or does not pass inspection should volumes are liters or larger.

USNRC Technical Training Center 12-4 Rev.0595

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. + . Introductory H al Phy:ics Chrpt:r 12: Radiation Prstection Pl:ns and Prscedurss be tagged out-of-service and sent for disposal should be addressed in the facility calibration and/or repair, radiation protection plan because failure to do so results in increased radiation exposure to 12.4.5 Staltd. Radioactive Spurce Control workers and potentially even to the public.

1 Proper control of and accountability for sealed The point of waste generation affords the best radioactive sources used in a facility or by a opponunity to control mdiation exposures licensee in field or mobile equipment is very from radioactive waste. The best way to important, and must be addressed within an reduce exposures from radioactive waste is to RPP. There have been many instances where avoid generating the waste in the first place.  ;

sources have been lost and later found by ' The RPP should include a mechanism for members of the public which resulted in death health pnysics review and overzight of all i of individuals, severe radiation injury of operations that generate radioactive wast . so individuals, and extensive contammation of that means to reduce the quantities of waste cities and ti,e environs. can be evaluated. For example, raw materials that become contamia* might be recycled Sources are used by licensees for many through a process operation (e.g. water, purposes such as instrument calibration, residual or scrap intermadi* product),

reactor startup, thickness gauges, level processing operations might be consolidated gauges, well logging, weld inspections, tumor spatially to limit the area requiring irradiation, food irradiation, and many other decontamination, processes might be modified ways. Sources used by licensees can range to involve fewer pm.weeci and pieces of from small sources on the order of micro equipment that handle radioactive matenals.

curies to very high activity sources having thousands of curies. The smaller sources Simple measures can be taken to establish represent significantly less hazard to an procedures for hedling, storage, and disposal individual than the high activi:y sources, but of radioactive waste that minimize dosea, their controlis still important. providmg for greater worker protection and reduced doses to the public. Dose control A well functioning source control program measures can include double lining radiartive will allow for total accountability and control trash disposal bins to reduce the potential for of all sources. Documentation of use and breakage and contamination, short-to-medium custody of sources is required to ensure term storage of radioactive wastes containmg sources do not end up in the hands of a short-lived radionuclides, automation of waste i, member of the public. It is easier to handling operations and use of remote accomplish this at a fixed facility than with handling tools and equipment for higher dose sources that are being used in the field for rate wastes if personnel must be involved.

well logging, weld inspection, and other Radioactive wastes must always be kept remote site uses. containerized to avoid potential releases of radioactive material and consideration should 12.4.6 Man ==ement and Disnacal of be given to waste storage location and the Rndinactive Waste need for shielding to keep doses under control. Radioactive waste disposal should be Operations at licensee facilities generate performed in a timely manner to eliminate radioactive wastes that must be handled and sources of radiation exposure, unless waste is ultimately disposed. All aspects of waste being stored for decay of short-lived generation, handling, storage, ud waste radionuclides.

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i duct:ry Health Physica Chroter 12: Radiation Pr:tiction Plans and Proc:dures 12.4.7 Engruency Resnons deposited radionuclides in that body of j workers; in-vivo body counts and sample  !

l As with several other portions of the RPP, bioassay. In-vivo counting involves the emergency response varies with the needs of detection of gamma ray emitting radionuclides the facility. The appropriate responses for the using detectors that are positioned over the following incidents or emergencies as they body or specific organ. These detectors ate  !

pertain to the safe use of radioactive material desenbed more fully in Chapter 8. j are described in the facility emergency plan: l Bioassay sampling involves the collection of e Electrical power failures urine, feces, blood, saliva, etc. from a worker i e Minor spills (liquid or dry) to identify the presence of a radionuclides and j e Accidents involving radioactive dusts, quantify the rate of excretion from the affected mists, fumes, vapors, or gases individual. More information on detection e Injuries to personnelinvolving and sampling methods is presented in Chapter radioactive contamination 8.

• Fires or other emergencies.  :

The intemal dosimetry program must rely on In addition, radiologicalincidcots mny include the analytical results to estimate the dose to an lost or damaged TLDs or accidental . ogan and the effective dose equivalent to the overexposure. Such a loss or overexposure whole body that a worker is committed to must be reported to the proper authonty, receive. This involves having the staff and usually the RSO. The emergency response co;npmational software to perform these section provides methods for those responding calculations.

to other radiological emergencies.

12.5.2 External Deshnetry Program A second side of emergency response involves handling of emergencies that result in off site Any radiation protection program requires the release of effluents (gaseous or liquids) that assessment of dose to workers from external potentially will impact members of the public. sources of radiation in the workplace. This Response to these type of emergencies program requires that all affected workers be requires a different and more complex monitored both on a routine basis, and in program than that used for on site certam instances on a special basis, to ensure emergencies. It may~be prudent to not handle dose limits are not exceeded. Depending on these emergencies within an RPP but handle the size of the work force this program may

)- within a separate group, be very extensive. At a nuclear power reactor this program represents a total org=Ndanal 12.5 Dach=try Proarimu structure to ensure that dosimetry is properly issued, collected, read, and results recorded 12.5.1 Internal Dosimetry Pronram and doses assigned. Typically the dosimetry program involves the use of montidy issue of It is important to maintain the capability to dosimetry. During outages daily or job task monitor workers for the presence of internally badges may be issued to ensure proper deposited radionuclides where there is the accounting of worker dose, possibility for internal deposition. Internal dosimetry programs are as varied as NRC Not only does a dosimetry program rely on licensees. However, there are two main ways dosimeters such as TLDs or film badges, but for quantifying the amount of internally self readmg dosimeters are frequently used.

USNRC Technical Training Center 12-6 Rev. 0595

, , , introductory Heahh Physics Ch:pt:r 12: fladirtion Prctiction Plans and Procedures l

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. i These dosimeters allow the worker to asses occupational dose limits and ALARA apply as l their dose on a real-time basis as they are for any other worker. l performing their work. Typically the workers  !

are allowed to work in an area until the self Dose records for the embryo / fetus should be l reading dosimeter is at some fraction of the kept with those of the declared pregnant i task allowed dose. For instance if the worker woman, who is still classified as a worker is authorized a dose of 200 mrem for. receiving occupational exposure. The dose disassembly of a contaminated pump, he may records for the embryo / fetus are submitted to j have to stop work and leave the area when the the NRC only in the case of an overexposure self reading dosimeter reads 175 mre n. The of the embryo / fetus.

cushion used depends on the experie ice the health physics department has with .he self All workers should receive trauung on NRC reading dosimeters giving dependrole dose Regulatory Guide 8.13, " Instructions measurements. Concerning Prenatal Rsdiation Exposure".

12.5.3 Radiation Dose to the 12.6 Radiation Safety Trainina Embryo / Fetus All personnel who are going to either work 10 CFR Part 20.1208 requires that each with or work in areas contammg radioactive

. licensee ensure that the dose to an materials or radiation fields must be tramed in embryo / fetus during the entire pregnancy, radiation protection. De amount of training from occupational exposure of a declared required depends largely on the potential for pregnant woman, does not exceed 0.5 rem. exposure and the types of matenal of concern.

De licensee is also required to make efforts Two levels of traming that may be applicable to avoid substantial variation above a uniform are casual workers and radiation workers, monthly exposure rate to a declared pregnant woman that would satisfy the 0.5 rem limit. Casual workers may be personnel who are not nis corresponds to roughly 50 mrem per routinely exposed or do not routinely work month. This is to prevent all of the 0.5 rem with radioactive material. neir level of dose being given at a time when the traming may be directed to a general embryo / fetus is at a particularly radiosensitive understanding of radioactivity and the methods stage of development. used at their facility to control exposure to radioactive matenals and radiation. This The woman must declare her pregnancy in would include information on postings, writing but medical confirmation of pregnancy radiation alarms, reporting, and personal

, is not required nor can it be reqmred. If at frisking. Cenamly the information taught can the time of declaration, the embryo / fetus has be less than that required for a radiation already received 0.5 rem or more, the worker.

!- embryo / fetus is allowed to receive another 50 mrem for operational flexibility. The ALARA A radiation worker requires more knowledge l

principle is to be applied in the case of a about the types of radiations and the methods declared pregnant woman. The declared used to protect them from these radiations pregnant woman can withdraw her declaration than a casual worker. 'Ihe course outline for at any time. a radiation worker could include such things as:

If a woman is pregnant but chooses not to declare her pregnancy, the routine USNRC Technica! Training Conter 12-7 Rev.0595 u - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - . _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .

' - * ' introductory Health Physics Chrptir 12: Radiation Prctoction Plans and Precedures

• defining radioactivity and contamination 12.3 Ouality. Assurance e understanding the affects of time, i

. distance, and shielding on worker dose his vital section of the RPP describes all l

• explaimng postings and worker aspects of the quality assurance program and responsibility for compliance with how they are implemented in connection with postings the facility. Some aspects of this program l

• types of and use of respiratory may be the type and location of training I I

protection' records for all authorized users, frequency and e understanding the use and proper types of audits, and/or frequency of review donning and doffing of protective for safety procedures. This part of the clothing program should rely on both internal reviews e understanding and proper use of and external audits to assure staff and program personnel dosimetry compliance with the RPP requirements.

• forms used to document job tasks Quality assurance activities should be involving radiation or radioactivity and conducted by staff that is independent of any workers performing the tasks, etc. of the licensee's operational organizations in order to be effective.

The training should be performance based using an exam to test worker understanding of 12.9 Other Health and Safety Plans concepts. Each training course should involve a donning and doffing and mock work nere are three other areas of safety concern exercise to verify that the worker understands at every licensee's facility that do not deal the proper methods for the use of protective with radiation safety. These are industrial clothing and proper techniques for keeping safety, fire safety, and hazardous matenal dose ALARA. worker right to know.

12.7 Occupational Radiation Protection Rules governing industnal safety within an Record:Estaina.amLRsontting operatmg facility are found within 29 CFR j 1910. These rules are broad in scope i The regulations are replete with requirements covering virtually all aspects of work place for record keeping and reporting. These safety. There are specific training and safety requirements are applicable for all areas plan requirements within 29 CFR 1910  !

covered by an RPP. Ensuring that records are depending on the physical and chemical maintained and reports are generatexi and hazards that exist within the work place.

transmitted on time requires a dedicated staff Personnel at a facility who deal with the

< and space. The number and variety of report industrial operational aspects are either forms used to document activities covered industrial hygienists and/or industrial safety under the RPP can easily outpace the ability professionals. Rese individuals have been of a small staff to sort, catalog, copy, and trained in the recognition of hazards and file. Not to mention retrieving data to support hazard abatement. Depending on the size of the generation of reports. In addition the data the facility and its complexity the safety retention requirement within the regulations department may consist of one person or further exacerbate the situation involving many. These safety professionals implement records, pmcedmes, perform work place evaluations, and inform workers of geod safety practices.

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, , .intrgduct:ry Heal 2e Physics Ch:pter 12: Radiation Pr:tection Plans and Procedures Fire protection at a facility is guided by 2.9 and temporary storage areas. Implementation CFR 1910 Subpart L and by industry code of these requirements drives a facility to have setting organizations such as the Naticaal Fire program plans and to tiain all employees to Protection Association. These standards guide the plan.

design aspects for a facility as well as l estr.blish specific requirements for operations. If the licensee's site contains outside areas that i Facilities are to have fire protection systems have been contammated by hazardous designed into them so that automatic systems materials the site cleanup may be driven by l will initiate if a fire occurs. Sufficient exits the requirements of 29 CFR 1910.120. These and emergency lighting is to be in place to requirements address specific traming and fe;ilitate worker evacuation. Fire health and safety plan requirements that must extinguishers are placed strategically within a be complied with for personnel worldng at the facility to allow easy access by workers to cleanup site.

l fight smalllocal fires. Fire evacuation signals are to be used at large facilities to alert 12.10 S.ummaII workers to the need to evacuate buildings.

Training is to be provided to all workers so The Radiation Protection Program is designed that they understand what their actions are to to ensure that all operations at a facility using be in case of a fire. If the facility allows . radioactive material and radiation-producing personnel to use fire extinguishers then there equipment are conducted within the scope of are specific traming requirements. By the Radioactive Matenal License and implementing a comprehensive fire protection equipment registrations and in accordance with program at a facility, workers have little risk company policy, and local, state, and federal associated with fire. regulations. The program is also daig =ed to ensure that exposures to personnel and the Within the area of hazardous matenals there environment are maintained below the l are two components. First is what is applicable standards and to a point that is as.

generally called the " worker right to know" low as reasonably achievable (ALARA).

requirements found in 29 CFR 1910.1200.

These regulations require that all personnel be informed about the chemical hazards that exist at a facility. Within these regulations are the requirements for having material safety data sheets (MSDSs) on any hazardous material or chemical that is used on site, and for the MSDSs to be kept on file and readily accessible to the work force. There are requirements for labeling of chemicals and other hazardous substances.

The second component for hazardous materials are the regulations governing the storage and disposal of hazardous waste materials within a facility. . These regulations are found in 40 CFR 264 and 265. These requirements are

( very specific and contain holding times for wastes in either satellite accumulation areas USNRC Technical Training Center 12-9 Rev.0595

introduct:ry H:alth Phy ics Chapt:r 12: Radiation Pr tiction Plans and Prtc:dur:s Chapter 12 Study Questions

1. What are the basic components of a radiation protection plan?

2. Define the criteria that require each of the following posting labels:

• RADIATION AREA

• HIGH RADIATION AREA

• AIRBORNE RADIOACTIVITY AREA

• CONTAMINATION AREA l

USNRC Technical Training Center 12-10 Rev.0595

INTRODUCTORY HE ETH PHYSICS i

CHAPTER 13~ <

COURSE

SUMMARY

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l USNRC Technical Training Center Rev.0595

. , . . intr:ductsry Hraith Physks Chapter 13: Courss Summary 13.0 COURSE

SUMMARY

13.3 Interactions of Radiation with Matter 13,1 Introduction Chapter 3 discusses the various interactions of radiation with matter. It is learned in this This basic health physics course is designed chapter that there are directly ionizing and for the' student seeking a general indirectly ionizmg radiations. Directly understanding of health physics. Subjects ionizing radiations are the charged particles; discussed range from the basic structure of the alphas, betas, and positrons. Alpha panicles atom, ionizing radiation, biological effects of have a very short range in matter due to their ionizing radiation, radiation detection size and electrical charge (plus 2). Betas and instrumentation, sources of radiation, the positrons are equivalent to electrons which nuclear fuel cycle, to operational aspects of have a negative and a positive. charge health physics. ' In discussing these and other respectively. The indirectly ionizing particles related topics, it is illustrated that there are a or rays are neutrons and x- and gamma-rays.

ilarge number of disciplines involved in'the All of these particles and rays, with the science of health physics. exception of x-rays, originate from the nucleus.

The health physicist is tasked by profession to manage the protection of the individual and 13.4 Radiation Units the public from the deleterious effects of-ionizing radiation. However, the large variety Chapter 4 discusses the units of measure that of subject within the science of health physics the health physicist uses when quantifying requires that the professional become radioactivity and the resultant exposure of proficient within sicas of expertise, while persons and things. It is learned that there are maintaining an understanding of the whole. two series of units in use in the world today; This text has been designed to review several SI and special units. The SI units are metric-basic areas within the science of health based while special units are historically-physics with the hope that the students' insight - based. The radiological units most commonly into the whole picture of health physics is encountered in the United States are the broadened. special units of curie, rad, and rem. The curie is a ramasure of radioactivity and is 13.2 Radioactivity equivalent to 2.22 x 10" disintegrations per minute. A rad is a measure of absorbed dose 4 Chapter 2 discusses the basic structure of the to any matter and is equal to the deposition of atom, which is composed of a central nucleus 100 ergs of energy per gram of matter. The of protons and neutrons surrourgied by an rem is defined specifically for living tissue electron cloud. '1he electrons are restricted to and is equal to 100 ergs of energy deposited in

< specific energy bands called shells. The tissue times a quality factor. The quality removal of electrons from the outer shells is factor accounts for the effectiveness of the termed ionization, and results in two ions; a particle or ray to deposit energy along a unit 4

positively charged atom and a negatively path-length. Also described in this chapter is charged electron. These ions are the the method whereby the health physicist fundamental particles that cause damage to accounts for dose to organs and the total l

cells and allow for the detection of iomzmg weighted dose to the whole body due to-radiations. These iomzing radiations are the internally-deposited radioactivity.

l l alpha particles, beta particles, positrons, neutrons, and x- and camma-rays.

USNRC Technical Training Center 13-1 Rev. 0595 l

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' introductory Heahh Physics Chapter 13: Course Summary i

13.5 Biological Effects of Radiation 13.7 Princinles.of Radiation Detection Chapter 5 discusses the biological effects of Chapter 7 discusses many of the basic radiation, startmg with a brief biology primer, principles of radiation detection and provides The basic structure of the cell and cellular examples ofinstrumentation. Each type of growth are discussed. Human development radioactive particle or ray exhibits specific l and organ function of those radiosensitive characteristics that facilitate their detection.

systems are covered. Affects of whole-body Detection equipment must rely on the radiation exposure are discussed for both acute fundamental properties and type of interactions and chronic exposure scenarios. Acute caused by the particle or ray of interest.

exposures, when high enough, cause the Several generic types of detectors are disruption of critical organ systems which can . discussed, such as gas-fdled and solid state.

lead to death of the irradiated individual. Within the gas-filled category are several I Chronic exposures are those that will not different types of detectors operating in the . l cause any outward short-term effects but can ionization, proportional, and Geiger-Mueller .l cause cancers, cataracts, or possibly genetic regions. These type of detectors are used for l changes in off-spring. The goal of the health the detection of all types of radioactive physicist is to restrict radiation exposures well particles and rays. Solid state detectors are below those doses that cauw acute effects, and used primarily for the detection of gamma-minimize workers exposure to chronic and x-rays and for energy quantification of the radiation doses, gamma- or x-ray flux.

13.6 Sources of Badiatlan Ernosure 13.8 Penonnel Desimetry and Dame AsusEment Chapter 6 discusses sources of radiation exposure that are found both in nature and in Omatar 8 discusses the use of prw.ac!

the work place. There are two main sources dosimetry and dose assessment. Pswenc!

of radiation that occur in the environment, dosimetry is used for the quantification of cosmic and terrestrial. - Cosmic radiations are dose due to external rays and particles l

those that are generated in space and interact interacting with the body. ' Die main methods with the earth's atmosphere, causing high for detection rely on the use of film badges or energy particles or rays, and a few radioactive thermoluminescent dosimeters. Dose due to atoms. The most notable of the radioactive the internal deposition of radioactive materials atoms are tritium and carbon 14. Terrestrial in the body is estimated through counters that radiations are the result of the radioactive directly quantify the activity in the body, or decay of the primordial radionuclides, of through indirectly estimatmg the quantity in which uranium-235 and 238, thorium-232, and the body through the measurement of

. potassium-40 dommate. The radionuclides excretion rates. Examples of chl2+ ions for l' uranium-235 and 238, and thorium-232 decay internal dose are presented.

through a series of radioactive elements to l eventually end up as different stable isotopes 13.9 Enrira===*=' R=dialamical L of lead. Artificial sources of radiation are Monitoring those generated by man's activity. Some of

- these sources are nuclear weapons fallout, Chapter 9 discusses the rationale for an medical treatments and diagnostic imagmg, environmental monitoring program and briefiy consumer products, and nuclear electrical discusses the logic and setup of a program.

power generation, The main reason for conducting an tjSNRC Technical Training Center 13-2 Rev.O5 E t

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, . Introductory Health Physics Chapter 13: Course Summary l

environmental monitoring program is that it is 13.11 Radiation Protection Standards and mandated in the code of federal regulations. Regulations However, there are several benefits derived from the operation of a well-planned Chapter 11 discusses the regulatory basis for monitoring program. These vary from public the control of radioactive materials. An good will, obtaining information on a facility's overview of the international and national impact on the environment, and determming organizations that establish guidance for compliance with regulatory dose limits for radiation protection is presented. Chief members of the public. Any program must among these orgamzations are the monitor those pathways whereby radioactive International Commission of Radiation i materials can impact the public. These Protection (ICRP) and the National Congress )

pathways can result from direct radiation from on Radiation Protection (NCRP). National l the facility or from the movement of regulatory agencies within the United States radioactive materials through the environment. are the Nuclear Regulatory Commission Some of these pathways are: inhalation, gass- (NRC) and the Environmental Protection j cow-milk-man, grass-cow-meat-man, drinking Agency (EPA). The NRC regulates the use of i water-man, water-fish-man, and irrigation - source and byproduct materials, while the l water-vegetables-man. EPA regulates the impact on a member of the l public to the emissions from facilities handling 13.10 Querational Aspects of Health radioactive materials. Regulations from the l Physics NRC are codified in the Code of Federal j Regulations (CFR) Title 10, while the EPA i Chapter 10 discuses the operational aspects of regulations are in 40 CFR. Additionally the heahh physics and includes the areas of role of other regulatory bodies such as the external and internal exposure control, Occupational Safety and Health Administration j personnel monitoring, and surveys. ALARA (OSHA) and their regulations in 29 CFR are j (as low as reasonably achievable) is the discussed.

overriding philosophy that governs the operational aspects of radiation protection. 13.12 Badut19.u Protection Plans and This philosophy states that there must be a net Proced m g l

! societal benefit for any radiation exposure, and allows for a cost benefit analysis to be Chapter 12 discusses radiation protection plans performed to quantify the bene 6t. De three and procedures and how these implement and j simple principles of time, distance, and enhance a radiation protection program. One  ;

i shielding for direct exposure control are set of driving requirements is found in a discussed. Methmis for administrative and nuclear power reactor's technical engineering controls to reduce worker specifications. These specifications put exposure are covered. The need for surveys limiting conditions for operation on a facility.

to quantify radiological conditions in a facility Some of these are the requirements for are emphasized. These surveys consist of effluent monitoring and operation of an direct radiation measurements for the environmental monitoring program. Other i

determmation of dose rates and smear virveys documents that can exist at any nuclear facility l are operating procedures, administrative

) to quantify the amoums of !oose radioactre materials on floors, walls, and other surfaces guidelines, and operating instructions. Other with which a worker may come in contact. health and safety procedules and plans fall within the areas of fire protection, industrial safety, and control of hazardous materials.

USNRC Terdical Training Center 13-3 hv.0595 I

. . Introductory Health Physics Ch:pttr 13: Cours Summ:ry Finally, information is presented on emergency preparedness.

Table 13-1 lists some usefe! equations l included in this text. NRC staff may find this

( a convenient tool for determining activity, exposure rates, etc.

USNRC Technical Training Center 13-4 Rev. 0595

, , , Introductory Hialth Physics Chipttr 13: C urs; Summ:ry

. i Table 13-1. Useful Equations

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The activity of a set of radioactive atoms is given in a simplified method by:

A = AN = [In(2)/Tiy ,,, N where A = activity AN = the number of atoms which will disintegrate in a small period of time (disintegrations /sec)

A = the decay constant (sec 2)

N = the nurnber of radioactive atoms present in the sample at time t Tn i

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half-life (sec) and Ti n = In(2)/A 1

Range fbr beta particles:

Range, = 12 ft/MeV Range (any medium) = E/2 g/cm2, E the maximum beta energy in MeV Range or alpha particles:

Range (cm) = 0.56E where (E < 4 MeV) and E is the alpha energy in MeV Range (cm) = 1.24E - 2.62 where (4 < E < 8 MeV) and E is the alpha energy in MeV For a thick shield, the crposure rate is calculated using the buildup factor (which is found in a table) as follows:

X i = B*Xg*

where Xi = Exposure rate with shielding B = Buildup factor Xo = Exposure rate with no shielding (same location as Xi )

g = Linear absorption coefficient x = Shield thickness USNRC Technical Training Center 13-5 Rev.0595

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