ML21300A288

Section 5 - Radioactive Waste, 2021-2022 Information Digest, Vol. 33

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5 RADIOACTIVE WA S T E LOW-LEVEL RADIOACTIVE WASTE DISPOSAL Low-level radioactive waste (LLW) includes items contaminated with radioactive material or exposed to neutron radiation. This waste typically consists of contaminated protective shoe covers and clothing, wiping rags, mops, filters, reactor water treatment residues, equipment and tools, medical waste, and laboratory animal carcasses and tissue. Some LLW is quite low in radioactivityeven as low as just above background levels found in nature. Some licensees, notably hospitals, store such waste on site until it has decayed and lost most of its radioactivity.

Then it can be disposed of as ordinary trash. Other LLW, such as parts of a reactor vessel from a nuclear power plant, is more radioactive and requires special handling.

Waste that does not decay fairly quickly is stored until amounts are large enough for shipment to an LLW disposal site in containers approved by DOT and the NRC. Commercial LLW can be disposed of in facilities licensed by either the NRC or Agreement States. The facilities are designed, constructed, and operated to meet NRC and State safety standards. The facility operator analyzes how the facility will perform in the future based on the environmental characteristics of the site. Current LLW disposal uses shallow land disposal sites with or without concrete vaults (see Figure 33. Low-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal).

Determining the classification of waste can be a complex process. The NRC classifies LLW based on its potential hazards. The NRC has specified disposal and waste requirements for three classes of wasteClass A, B, and Cwith progressively higher concentrations of radioactive material.

Class A waste, the least radioactive, accounts for approximately 96 percent of the total volume of LLW in the United States. A fourth class of LLW, called greater-than-Class-C waste, must be disposed of in a geological repository licensed by the NRC unless the Commission approves an alternative proposal. Under the Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Amendments Act of 1985, DOE is responsible for disposal of greater-than-Class-C waste.

The volume and radioactivity of waste vary from year to year. Waste volumes currently include several million cubic feet each year from operating and decommissioning reactor facilities and from cleanup of contaminated sites.

The Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Amendments Act gave the States responsibility for LLW disposal. The Act authorized States to do the following:

form regional compacts, with each compact to provide for LLW disposal site access manage LLW imported to, and exported from, a compact exclude waste generated outside a compact The States have licensed four active LLW disposal facilities:

EnergySolutions Barnwell facility, located in Barnwell, SCPreviously, Barnwell accepted LLW from all U.S. generators of LLW. Barnwell now accepts waste only from the Atlantic Compact States (Connecticut, New Jersey, and South Carolina). The State of South Carolina licensed Barnwell to receive Class A, B, and C waste.

EnergySolutions Clive facility, located in Clive, UTClive accepts waste from all States of the United States. The State of Utah licensed Clive for Class A waste only.

US Ecologys Richland facility, located in Richland, WA, on the Hanford SiteRichland accepts waste from the Northwest Compact States (Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming) and the Rocky Mountain Compact States (Colorado, Nevada, and New Mexico). The State of Washington licensed Richland to receive Class A, B, and C waste.

Waste Control Specialists Andrews facility, located in Andrews County, TX Andrews accepts waste from the Texas Compact States (Texas and Vermont). It also accepts waste from out-of-compact generators on a case-by-case basis. The State of Texas licensed Andrews to receive Class A, B, and C waste.

58 l RADIOACTIVE WASTE Low-Level Radio active Waste Disp osalFigure 33. Low-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal

Top Soil Impermeable Clay-Reinforced Low-Level Concrete Vaults Waste Impermeable Canisters Backfill

Drainage System

The LLW disposal site accepts waste from States participating in a regional disposal agreement.

See Appendix P for regional compacts and closed LLW sites, Appendices N and O for information about dry spent fuel storage and licensees, and Glossary for information on fuel reprocessing (recycling).

HIGH-LEVEL RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT Spent Nuclear Fuel Storage Commercial spent nuclear fuel, although highly radioactive, is stored safely and securely throughout the United States. Spent fuel is stored in pools and in dry casks at sites with operating nuclear power reactors, decommissioning or decommissioned reactors, and some other sites.

Waste can be stored safely in pools or casks for 100 years or more. The NRC licenses and regulates the storage of spent fuel, both at commercial nuclear power plants and at separate storage facilities.

Most reactor facilities were not designed to store the full amount of spent fuel that the reactors would generate during their operational licenses. Originally planned to store spent fuel temporarily in deep pools of continuously circulating water, which cools the spent fuel assemblies. After a few years, they were expected to send the spent fuel to a reprocessing plant. However, in 1977, the U.S. Government declared a moratorium on reprocessing spent fuel Although the Government later lifted the restriction, reprocessing has not resumed in the United States.

Facilities then expanded their storage capacity by using high-density storage racks in their spent fuel pools. For additional storage, some fuel assemblies are stored in dry casks on site (see Figure

34. Spent Fuel Generation and Storage after Use) in independent spent fuel storage installations (ISFSIs). These large casks are licensed by the NRC and are typically made of leak tight, welded, and bolted steel and concrete surrounded by another layer of steel or concrete.

RADIOACTIVE WASTE l 59 The spent fuel sits in the center of the cask in an inert gas. Dry cask storage shields people and the environment from radiation and keeps the spent fuel inside dry and nonreactive (see Figure 35.

Dry Storage of Spent Nuclear Fuel). Another type of ISFSI is called a consolidated interim storage facility, which would store spent fuel from multiple commercial reactors, including those that have ceased operation, on an interim basis until a permanent disposal option is available. Additional information on consolidated interim storage is available on the NRCs Web site (see the Web Link Index).

Figure 34. Spent Fuel Generation and Storage after Use Sp ent Fuel Generation and Storage after Use 1 A nuclear reactor is powered by enriched uranium-235 fuel. Nuclear Fission (splitting of atoms) Reactor generates heat, which produces steam that turns turbines to produce electricity. A reactor rated at several hundred megawatts may contain 100 or more tons of fuel in the form of Fuel bullet-sized pellets loaded Rods into long metal rods that are bundled together into fuel assemblies. Pressurized-water Coolant Fuel Uranium reactors (PWRs) contain Rod Fuel Pellets between 120 and 200 fuel assemblies. Boiling-water reactors (BWRs) contain between 370 and 800 fuel assemblies.

Fuel After 5-6 years, spent Assembly 2 fuel assemblies (which are typically 14 feet [4.3 meters]

long and which contain nearly 200 fuel rods for PWRs and 80-100 fuel rods for BWRs) are removed from the reactor and allowed to cool in storage pools.

At this point, the 900-pound (409-kilogram) assemblies contain only about one-fifth the original amount of uranium-235.

60 l RADIOACTIVE WASTE Spent Fuel Generation and Storage after Use

3 Commercial light-water nuclear reactors store spent radioactive fuel in a steel-lined, seismically designed concrete pool under about 40 feet (12.2 meters) of water that provides shielding from radiation.

Pumps supply continuously flowing water Bundle of to cool the spent fuel. Extra water for Spent Fuel the pool is provided by other pumps Assemblies that can be powered from an onsite emergency diesel generator. Support features, such as water-level monitors and radiation detectors, are also in the pool.

Spent fuel is stored in the pool until it is transferred to dry casks on site or transported off site for interim storage or disposal.

Canister

Storage Cask

The NRC regulates facilities that store spent fuel in two different ways, either through a specific or general license. Site-specific licenses are issued after a safety review of the technical requirements and operating conditions for an ISFSI.

The agency has issued a general license authorizing nuclear power reactor licensees to store spent fuel on site in dry storage casks that the NRC has certified. Following a similar safety review, the NRC may issue a certificate of compliance and add the cask to a list of approved systems through a rulemaking. The agency issues licenses and certificates for terms not to exceed 40 years, but they can be renewed for up to an additional 40 years (see Figure 36.

Licensed and Operating Independent Spent Fuel Storage Installations by State).

RADIOACTIVE WASTE l 61 Figure 35. Dry Storage of Spent Nuclear Fuel

Dr y Storage of Sp ent Nuclear Fuel

At nuclear reactors across the country, spent fuel is kept on site, typically above ground, in systems basically similar to the ones shown here. The NRC reviews and approves the designs of these spent fuel storage systems before they can be used.

1 Once the spent fuel has sufficiently cooled, it is loaded into special canisters that are designed to hold nuclear fuel assemblies. Water and air are removed. The canister is filled with inert gas, welded shut, and rigorously tested for leaks.

It is then placed in a cask for storage or transportation.

The dry casks are then loaded onto concrete pads.

2 The canisters can also be stored in aboveground concrete bunkers, each of which is about the size of a one-car garage.

62 l RADIOACTIVE WASTE Public Involvement The public can participate in decisions about spent nuclear fuel storage, as it can in many licensing and rulemaking decisions. The Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as amended, and the NRCs own regulations call for public meetings about site-specific licensing actions and allow the public to comment on certificate of compliance rulemakings. Members of the public may also file petitions for rulemaking. Additional information on ISFSIs is available on the NRCs Web site (see the Web Link Index).

Spent Nuclear Fuel Disposal The current U.S. policy governing permanent disposal of high-level radioactive waste is defined by the Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982, as amended, and the Energy Policy Act of 1992. These acts specify that high-level radioactive waste will be disposed of underground in a deep geologic repository licensed by the NRC. Because the timing of repository availability is uncertain, the NRC looked at potential environmental impacts of storing spent fuel over three possible timeframes: the short term, which includes 60 years of continued storage after a reactor s operating license has expired; the medium term, or 160 years after license expiration; and indefinite, which assumes a repository never becomes available. The NRCs findingsthat any environmental impacts can be managedappear in the 2014 report NUREG-2157, Generic Environmental Impact Statement for Continued Storage of Spent Nuclear Fuel.

The NRC adopted those findings into NRC regulations in a continued storage rule. This rule provides an important basis for issuing new or renewed licenses for nuclear power plants and spent fuel storage facilities.

Massive containers hold spent nuclear fuel at safe and secure dry storage facilities. This photo shows, at right, dry cask recently loaded with spent fuel being lifted from a horizontal transporter to be placed vertically on a specially-designed storage pad. Courtesy of Sandia National Laboratories.

RADIOACTIVE WASTE l 63 Figure 36. Licensed and Operating Independent Spent Fuel Storage Licensed and Operating Independent Spent Fuel Storage Installations by State Installations by State

RI

ISFSI site-specific license (16)

ISFSI general license (65) 35 States have at least one ISFSI

ALA BAM AIDAHOMASSACHUSETTSNEW JE RSEYSOUTH CAROLINA Browns Ferry DOE: Three Mile Island 2 Pilgrim Hope Creek Catawba Farley (Fuel Debris) Yankee Rowe Oyster Creek Oconee ARIZONA DOE: Idaho Spent MICHIGAN Salem Robinson Palo Verde Fuel Facility

• NEW YOR KSummer ILLINOIS Big Rock Point FitzPatrick TEN NESSEE ARKAN SASBraidwood Cook Ginna Sequoyah Arkansas Nuclear Byron Fermi 2 Indian Point Watts Bar CALIFOR NIAClinton Palisades Nine Mile Point Diablo Canyon Dresden MINNES OTANOR TH CARO LIN ATEXA S Humboldt Bay GEH Morris (Wet) Monticello WCS Consolidated Interim Rancho Seco LaSalle Prairie Island Brunswick Storage Facility (CISF)

San Onofre Quad Cities McGuire Comanche Peak Zion MISS ISSIPPIOHIO South Texas Project COLORADO Grand Gulf Davis-Besse UTAH Private Fuel Storage*

Fort St. Vrain IOWA Perry CON NECT ICUTDuane ArnoldMISS OURI Haddam Neck Call awayOREGON VERMONT Millstone LOUISIA NANEBRASK ATrojanVermont Yankee FLORIDA River Bend Cooper PENNSYL VANI AVIRGI NIA Crystal River Waterford Ft. Calhoun North Anna St. Lucie MAINE Beaver Valley Surry Maine Yankee NEW HA MPSHI RELimerick Turkey Point Seabrook Peach Bottom WASHINGT ON GEORGIA MAR YLA NDSusquehanna Columbia Hatch Calvert Cliffs Three Mile Island WISC ONS IN Vogtle Kewaunee La Crosse

• Facility licensed only, never built or operated. Point Beach Note: Alaska and Hawaii are not pictured and have no sites. NRC-abbreviated reactor names are listed. Data are current as of Sept.13, 2021.

For the most recent information, go to the NRC facility locator page at https://www.nrc.gov/info-finder/reactors/index.hml.

64 l RADIOACTIVE WASTE TRANSPORTATION The NRC regulates the transportation of spent nuclear fuel. The NRC establishes safety and security requirements in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Transportation, certifies transportation cask designs, and conducts inspections to ensure that requirements are being met. Spent nuclear fuel transportation casks are designed to meet the following safety criteria under both normal and accident conditions:

prevents the loss or dispersion of radioactive contents shields everything outside the cask from the radioactivity of the contents dissipates the heat from the contents prevents nuclear criticality (a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction) from occurring inside the cask Transportation casks must be designed to survive a sequence of tests, including a 30-foot (9.14-meter) drop onto an unyielding surface, a puncture test, a fully engulfing fire at 1,475 degrees Fahrenheit (800 degrees Celsius) for 30 minutes, and immersion under water.

This very severe test sequence, akin to the cask striking a concrete pillar along a highway at high speed and being engulfed in a severe and long-lasting fire and then falling into a river, simulates conditions more severe than 99 percent of vehicle accidents (see Figure 37. Ensuring Safe Spent Fuel Shipping Containers).

Figure 37. Ensuring Safe Spent Fuel Shipping ContainersEnsuring Safe Spent Fuel Shipping Containers

The impact (free drop and puncture), fire, and water immersion tests are considered in sequence to determine their cumulative effects on a given package.

To ensure the safe transportation of spent nuclear fuel and other nuclear materials, each year the NRC takes the following actions:

conducts transportation safety inspections of fuel, reactor, and materials licensees reviews, evaluates, and certifies new, renewed, or amended transportation package design applications inspects cask vendors and manufacturers to ensure the quality of dry cask design and fabrication Additional information on materials transportation is available on the NRCs Web site (see the Web Link Index).

RADIOACTIVE WASTE l 65 DECOMMISSIONING Decommissioning is the safe removal of a nuclear facility from service and the reduction of residual radioactivity to a level that permits release of the property and termination of the license. NRC rules establish site-release criteria and provide for unrestricted and under certain conditions restricted release of a site. The NRC also requires licensees to maintain financial assurance that funds will be available when needed for decommissioning.

The NRC regulates the decontamination and decommissioning of nuclear power plants, materials and fuel cycle facilities, research and test reactors, and uranium recovery facilities, with the ultimate goal of license termination (see Figure 38. Reactor Phases of Decommissioning, and Figure 39.

Power Reactor Decommissioning Status).

Figure 38. Reactor Phases of DecommissioningReactor Phases of D e commissioning

Fuel Removed TRANSITION FROM OPERATION TO DECOMMISSIONING

Shutdown 1. Permanent Cessation of Operations Activities

2. Certification of Permanent Cessation of Operations

3. Certification of Permanent Fuel Removal Decommissioning Plans to the NRC

MAJOR DECOMMISSIONING PSDAR MILESTONES

Public 4. Post Shutdown Decommissioning Meeting Activity Report (PSDAR) Submittal*

SAFSTOR NRC 5. PSDAR Public Meeting*

Inspections 6. Major Decommissioning Activities Preparations for Storage and Dismantlement DECON

• SAFSTOR

• DECON

Dry CasksSafely stored LICENSE TERMINATION and monitored until disposal License ACTIVITIES Termination Plan 7. License Termination Plan (LTP)

Public Submitted License Terminated Meeting 8. LTP Public Meeting Site released for publicNRC Conducts 9. Final Status Survey or other use Survey

10. License Termination LAND REUSE

SAFSTOR Under SAFSTOR, a nuclear power plant is maintained and monitored in a condition that allows the radioactivity to decay; afterwards, the plant shifts to DECON as the facility is dismantled and the property decontaminated.

DECON Under DECON, equipment, structures, and portions of the facility containing radioactive contaminants are removed or decontaminated to a level that permits release of the property and termination of the NRC license.

• Under DECON, some licensees have submitted the PSDAR before shutdown (license transfer model).

66 l RADIOACTIVE WASTE Figure 39. Power Reactor Decommissioning StatusPower Reactor D e commissioning Status

I

I I S D I D D T D S T RI S S I S I S S D S T D S S I D

D

D

S SAFSTOR

D DECON

Decommissioning Completed I Only ISFSI (Independent Spent Fuel Storage Installation)

T License Terminated (no fuel on site)

CALIFOR NIAFLORIDA MASSACHUSETTS NEW YOR KVERMONT S GE EVERSR D Crystal River D Pilgrim S Indian Point 1, 2, and 3 D Vermont Yankee S GE VBWR ILLINOIS I Yankee Rowe T Shoreham WISC ONS IN D Humboldt Bay 3* S Dresden OREGON S Kewaunee I Rancho Seco D Zion 1 and 2* MICHIGAN I Trojan La Crosse*

D San Onofre 1,2, and 3 IOWA I Big Rock Point D S Duane Arnold S Fermi 2 PENNSYL VANI A COLORADO NEBRASK ASPeach Bottom I Fort St. Vrain MAINE D Ft. Calhoun T Saxton CON NECT ICUTIMaine YankeeNEW JE RSEYSThree Mile Island 1 and 2 I Haddam Neck MAR YLA NDSOUTH DAKOTA S Millstone N.S. Savannah Oyster Creek DDTPathfinder

• The NRC is in the final stages of the license termination process with the reviews of the final status survey reports at Zion 1 and 2, La Crosse, and Humboldt Bay.

Notes: Fort St. Vrain ISFSI NRC SNM-2504 license was transferred to the DOE on June 4, 1999. ISFSIs are also located at all sites undergoing decommissioning or in SAFSTOR. GE Bonus, Hallam, and Piqua decommissioned reactor sites are part of the DOE nuclear legacy. For more information, visit DOEs Office of Legacy Management Sites Web page at https://www.energy.gov/lm/sites/. CVTR, Elk River, and Shippingport decommissioned reactor sites were either decommissioned before the formation of the NRC or were not licensed by the NRC. Licensees have announced their intention to permanently cease operations for Byron (2021), Dresden (2021), Palisades (2022), and Diablo Canyon (2024 and 2025).

NRC-abbreviated reactor names are listed. Alaska and Hawaii are not pictured and have no sites.

For the most recent information, go to the NRC facility locator page at https://www.nrc.gov/info-finder/reactors/index.html.

Data are current as of August 2021.

RADIOACTIVE WASTE l 67 Reactor Decommissioning When a nuclear power plant operator decides to cease operations, it must submit to the NRC a post-shutdown decommissioning activities report (PSDAR). This may be submitted before shutting down, or no later than 2 years following permanent cessation of operations. It includes detailed plans for decommissioning the facility, as well as a cost estimate.

The first stage of decommissioning for a nuclear power plant is to transition from operating status to a permanently shutdown condition. The licensee must certify to the NRC that it has permanently ceased operation and that it has permanently removed the fuel from the reactor. At this point, the license no longer authorizes the plant to operate or load fuel in the reactor.

Licensees typically then apply for several exemptions from NRC requirements that apply to operating reactors but are no longer appropriate after permanent shutdown because a reactor accident can no longer occur. The exemptions are implemented through license amendments that change the plants licensing basis to reflect its decommissioning status. These changes are in areas such as personnel, spent fuel management, physical and cybersecurity, emergency preparedness, and incident response. The NRC is developing new regulations to make this transition from operations to decommissioning more efficient.

The NRC allows a licensee up to 60 years to decommission a nuclear power plant. This may include extended periods of inactivity (called SAFSTOR), during which residual radioactivity is allowed to decay, making eventual cleanup easier and more efficient. A facility is said to be in DECON when active demolition and decontamination are underway. Active decommissioning of a nuclear power plant takes about 10 years on average.

NRC oversight and inspection continue throughout the entire process. Two years before cleanup is completed, the plant operator must submit a license termination plan, detailing procedures for the final steps. The NRC inspects and verifies that the site is sufficiently decontaminated before terminating the license and releasing the site for another use.

Public Involvement NEIMA required the NRC to provide a report to Congress identifying best practices for establishing and operating local community advisory boards, including lessons learned from existing boards.

These boards try to foster communication and information exchange between NRC licensees and members of the communities around decommissioning nuclear power plants.

In developing the report, the NRC hosted 11 public meetings in the vicinity of reactors and two webinars to consult with host States, local government organizations, communities within the emergency planning zone of a nuclear power reactor, existing local community advisory boards associated with decommissioning nuclear power plants, and similar external stakeholders. The public meeting locations were selected to ensure geographic diversity across the United States, with priority given to States that have a nuclear power reactor undergoing the decommissioning process.

The report, issued to Congress in July 2020, includes a discussion of the composition of local community advisory boards and best practices, such as logistical considerations, frequency of meetings, and the selection of board members.

See Appendices C, I and Q for licensees undergoing decommissioning

68 l RADIOACTIVE WASTE Decommissioning of Materials Licenses The NRC terminates approximately 100 materials licenses each year. Most of these license terminations are routine, and the sites require little or no cleanup to meet the NRCs criteria for unrestricted access. The decommissioning program focuses on the termination of licenses for research and test reactors, uranium recovery facilities, fuel cycle facilities, and sites involving more complex decommissioning activities.

These facilities typically were manufacturing or industrial sites that processed uranium, radium, or thorium or were military bases. They are required to begin decommissioning within 2 years of ending operations, unless the NRC approves an alternative schedule. (See Figure 40. Locations of NRC-Regulated Sites Undergoing Decommissioning.)

SECY-20-0108, Status of the Decommissioning Program2020 Annual Report, dated November 30, 2020, contains additional information on the decommissioning programs of the NRC and Agreement States. More information is on the NRCs Web site (see the Web Link Index).

Figure 40. Locations of NRC-Regulated Sites Undergoing DecommissioningLocations of NRC-Regulated Sites Undergoing Decommissioning

U 3 RI 2

2

2

U U F U U

3

Power Reactors (26)

Complex Materials (11)

F Fuel Cycle Facilities (1) = 1 unit Research and Test Reactors (3) 2= 2 units

U 3= 3 units Uranium Recovery (5)

Note: Alaska and Hawaii are not pictured and have no sites. The NRC is in the final stages of the licensing termination process with the reviews of the final status survey results at Zion 1 and 2, La Crosse, and Humboldt Bay, and it expects to terminate the two research reactor licenses at General Atomics by the end of 2020. Data are current as of June 2021. For the most recent information, go to the NRC facility locator page at https://www.nrc.gov/info-finder/reactors/index.html.

RADIOACTIVE WASTE l 69