ML20214M964
| ML20214M964 | |
| Person / Time | |
|---|---|
| Issue date: | 12/06/1976 |
| From: | NRC, SUDAN |
| To: | |
| Shared Package | |
| ML20214M958 | List: |
| References | |
| FOIA-86-336 NUDOCS 8609150191 | |
| Download: ML20214M964 (56) | |
Text
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4 FOURTH US-USSR JOINT COMMITTEE MEETING ON ATOMIC ENERGY 1
DECEMBER 6-14, 1976 II
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TABLE OF CONTENTS dlh i k
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A: OVERVIEW .
B: KEY SOVIET ATOMIC ENERGY OFFICIALS C: AGENDA FOR THE FOURTH US-USSR JOINT
( COMMITTEE MEETING ON ATOMIC ENERGY l
D: FAST BREEDER REACTORS : POSITION P APER l AND PROPOSED PROGRAM OF COOPERATION t" FOR 1977 AND 1978 E: CONTROLLED THERMONUCLEAR RESEARCH:
POSITION PAPER AND PROPOSED PROGRAM OF COOPERATION FOR 1977 F: FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER:
POSITION P APER AND PROPOSED PROGRAM OF COOPERATION FOR 1977 G: LIGHT WATER REACTORS: POSITION P APER H: THERMIONICS: POSITION PAPER I: INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY : POSITION PAPER J: FIFTH MEETING OF THE US-USSR JOINT COMMITTEE ON ATOMIC ENERGY : POSITION PAPER K: RECORD OF THE THIRD MEETING OF THE US-USSR JOINT COMMITTEE ON ATOMIC ENERGY L: DESCRIPTION OF SOVIET NUCLEAR FACILITIES AND INSTITUTIONS, BACKGROUND P APER ON US-USSR COOPERATION IN MHD M: STATE DEPARTMENT AND PASSPORT OFFICE NOTES INCLUDING A MAP OF THE SOVIET UNION WITH SITES TO BE VISITED C. ,
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US-USSR Atomic Energy Agreement - Overview The Agreement between the US and the USSR on Scientific and Technical Cooperation in the. Field of Peaceful Uses of Atomic
- Energy was signed in Washing?" June 21, 1973, by President Nixon and General Secretary Brezhnev.;This Agreement raised the cooperation of the previous fourteen years between the US and USSR in atomic energy to a-Government-to-Government level and extended the initial. cooperation under the Agree-ment to a period of ten years. Previously, cooperation between the US and the USSR in atomic energy was conducted according to two-year Memoranda on Cooperation which were periodically renewed. The Atomic Energy Agreement specifically delineates cooperation in the three areas of controlled thermonuclear research (CTR), fast breeder reactors (FBR) and basic research in fundamental properties of matter (FPM).
To date, there'have been three US-USSR Joint Committee Meetings under this Agreement - February 1974 in Washington, October 1974 in Moscow and December 1975 in Washington. The Fourth Joint Committee Meeting is. scheduled for December 6-8, 1976, in Erevan. Joint Coordinating. Committees have been established for each of the three areas of cooperation; these Joint Co-I ordinating Committees meet once a year in alternate countries.
Three Joint Coordinating Committee Meetings have been held regarding cooperation in the field of CTR and FBR; the first meeting of the Joint Coordinating Committee for FPM was held at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in September 1976.
Formal protocols for cooperation are in effect for the three areas of CTR, FBR and FPM as well as annual specific plans of cooperation for all thr6e areas. Possible cooperation in thermionic conversion of energy is also under consideration with the visit of an eight-member Soviet delegation to the US in September 1976. A US delegation is scheduled to visit the USSR in June 1977.
In addition, at the Third US-USSR Joint Committee Meeting,
, both sides agreed to an exchange of delegations during 1976 in l several areas of light water reactors including safety. However, no visits have yet taken place. The Soviets have thus far been reluctant to proceed stating that substantive cooperation i in light water reactor safety depends upon US agreement to hold l the~Second Energy Joint Committee Meeting.
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t The following briefly summarizes major trends in the three main areas of cooperation:
FBR The exchanges in FBR continue to include two seminars each year, one in each country and a number of joint projects.
These' include an exchange of tube samples of steam generators and intermediate heat exchangers unexposed to sodium was completed in June-July of this year with the US side sending the tube samples by air to Moscow and the USSR sending the tube samples via Aeroflot to Dulles for transshipment to Argonne National Laboratory. The two sides will complete an exchange of samples of fuel cladding materials unexposed to sodium early next' year. An exchange of information will
, also be effected in a number of areas for fast breeder reactors. Discussions on the possibility of testing a Clinch River Breeder Reactor (CRBR) prototype steam generator evaporator at CRBR pressure and temperature conditions in
( the BN-350 spare loop at Shevehencko continue to be of major interest to both sides.
CTR
- The exchanges in CTR shifted from orientation studies, as in'
! 1974 and 1975, to specialist meetings and joint projects in CY 1976. The CTR exchange program for CY 1976 included a total of 462 manweeks in 27 separate exchanges. The 1977 exchange program includes a total of approximately 430 manweeks of exchanges with US specialists visiting the USSR for a total of approximately 240 manweeks and USSR specialists coming to the US for a total of approximately 190 manweeks. During the 1977 exchange the working sessions will continue to include long and short term exchanges with most being of comparatively I short duration of less than one month. The CTR 1977 program will continue to include plasma physics research, both theo-retical and experimental, and related fusion technology and systems studies.
FPM ,
Cooperation in this field has been primarily in high. energy
. physics with major joint research projects centered at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory. At present, there are nine USSR scientists with wives and a number of' children
(( on long-term stays at Fermilab. During 1976, several US
g t physicists with families completed long-term stays in the .
USSR. These included stays 'at Dubna, Serpukhov and the Erevan Physics Institute. Thirty separate items of US-USSR cooperation in FPM are projected for Calendar pear 1977, includ-ing areas in nuclear and materials sciences.
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DRAFT AGENDA FOURTH US-USSR MEETING ON ATOMIC ENERGY DECEMBER 6-8 EREVAN, USSR
- 1. Welcoming Remarks by Professor A. M. Petrosyants Response by Dr. Seamans
- 2. Reports by both Sides on results of cooperation for 1976:
A. Fast Breeder Reactors Professor 0. D. Kazachkovskiy USSR Mr. Eric Beckjord US B. Controlled Thermonuclear Research Academician E. P. Velikhov USSR Dr. Robert L. Hirsch JS i (
j C. Fundamental Properties of Matter Professor I. V. Chuvilo USSR Dr. Robert L. Hirsch or .
US
- Dr. Maurice Kati
- 3. Approval of programs of cooperation for 1977 in the above areas i A. Fast Breeder Reactors l
, ', Professor O. D. Kazachkovskiy USSR i
- Mr. Eric Beckjord US l B. Controlled Thermonuclear Research Academician E. P. Velikhov USSR
'. Dr. Robert L. Hirsch US o
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AGENDA C. Fundamental Properties of Matter Professor I. V. Chuvilo -USSR Dr. Robert L. Hirsch or US Dr. Maurice Katz
- 4. Discussions on testing a CRBR steam generator evaporator in Soviet BN-350 Professor I. G. Morozov or USSR Professor 0. D. Knzachkovskiy Mr. Eric Beckjord US
- 5. Approval of the Rules and Regulations for the Joint Coordinating Committee for Fast Breeder Reactors Professor O. D. Kazachkovskiy USSR Mr. Eric Beckjord US k 6. Exchange of delegations in Light Water Reactors i Mr. Nelson F. Sievering US Commissioner Edward Mason US USSR i
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- 7. Setting of Date for Fifth Meeting of US-USSR Joint Committee Meeting
- 8. Signing of Record of Fourth Meeting D
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Position Paper: Fast Breeder :.eactors
Background
Cooperation in this area is directed toward finding solutions to mutually agreed upon basic and applied problems connected with the design, development, construction and operation of nucicar power plants utilizing fast breeder reactors. Cooper-ative activities for 1976 consisted of 1) Fast Breeder Reactor Safety Joint Seminar at Argonne in January; 2) Steam Generator Joint Seminar at Dimitrovgrad in July; 3) Exchange of heat i exchanger tubing, June-July; 4) Visit by U.S. cladding specialists i to USSR, July; and 5) Fast Breeder Reactor Joint Coordinating I
Committee Meeting at Tbilisi, C:tober.
Assessment
' US and Soviet RSD approaches in fast breeder reactors have differed significantly. Until recently, the Soviet approach has been to construct the reactor as quickly as possible and correct defects later. The US spproach, on the other hand, i
.; has been to emphasize perfecting the requisite technologies before building.
1 The Director, Division of React:r Development and Demonstration has advised that there has been no obvious programmatic benefit to ERDA in the FBR exchanges. :ndirect benefits have been
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ortained by visits leading to a better insight to Soviet LMFER construction and operation.
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2-During 1976, ERDA foreign travel costs to the USSR under the FBR project totalled approximately $36,000 and it is anticipated that costs for 1977 will be approximately $40,000.
Issues One of the major items under discussion in FBR cooperation has been the feasibility of testing a CRBRP steam generator evaporator and its auxiliaries in the Soviet BN-350 spare loop.
On October 4,-the Deputy Chairman of the State Committee, I. G. Morozov, wrote the' AANE requesting, among other things,
( a commitment that ERDA will provide the Soviets the evaporator.
,' In addition, our Embassy in Moscow has advised that the Soviets wish to have substantive discussions on this item with a view toward obtaining the above commitment.
t On the other hand, the Soviets have been reluctant to furnish additional information on the BN-350 which ERDA has requested on several occasions. In addition, the US side of the Joint Coordinating Committee on Breeder Reactors requested a visit-to the BN-350 site during the Joint Coordinating Committee Meeting held in Tbilisi in October. The Soviets denied the visit on the grounds that the US side of the Joint Committee would visit the facility during the December US-USSR Joint g{ '
Committee Meeting.
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i Recommended Position No firm commitment should be given the Soviets regarding the furnishing of a CRBRP steam ger.erator evaporator until the following conditions are met:
A. Receipt of all information we have requested from the Soviets.
B. The securing of internal ERDA and other US Government approvals that will be necessary prior to the transfer of the evaporator and auxiliary systems.
If the Soviets should press for a US assurance concerning the I evaporator, a consitment could be made in principle subjec't to Soviet understanding that the sbove conditions still must be
. met before any transfer takes place.
Propose that the US-USSR Cooperative Program in Fast Breeder Reactors for 1977 - 1978 as agreed to by the JCC FBR be formally approved.
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- 1.rrt l' dayr. L:s ! ! cd everation for L"JTT.s' 1975
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- 2. Comparoti e testin;; of 1978
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a) Excl.41p e e of preliniur.ry 1976 ncsults,
'b) Conic rr.ar.ce of r et hods e f' .
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> calcule.t lone and constonts of decarburization,
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d) Exchci.ne of tested s. mples 19i7
- 3. Clarification of r,uostions l'irst half of 1977 concerning the cxchange of
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- 3. 1.u.e.uch n v.toi 1.' ly.< hanne of inf or[a tion on cr'all 1978 t o redim rr.m i l les1.s of t;.tce i nt o r.odi o-r.
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- 3. ides t ect.rdi n to l he , prtl,rs.ia of rai boa 1 r:i'.: ( or c 1 chtc ri h. ,
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- 3. Lxchange of t a r.ted sm.ylc.; of 1977-l'J 73 Ite c 2. .
- 4. l.csect h cf vetor 1. 'l:xch::nge of inf erc..;t ion on la rge 1977 to r,r:d ba. la rge lests. Icahs:
i a) f rom the U.S. Sitte: .
- on modular type r t een genera-t or re t t he L1'II: nig;
- on INrico Termi ter.ctor ste m generator;
- en the redel of ALCO steau generater.
b) from ti.e USSR Side: -
-- on 19 tube nodel of EM-350 o steep gtnerator
- (n l'b 350 stesra gener.-tor.
- 2. Diccussion of inferr:otion on 1973 Item 1.
- 3. Developent of the progran for 1978 co:garing calculat ten.11 onalysis uith teal procerses during Iceks.
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i I POSITIn!I PAPEP: C0!!TROI.I.ED tiler!!O!!UCI. EAR RESEARCH llackground:
Cooperation in this area is directed toward the eventual devel-opment of prototype and demonstration-scale thermonuclear reactors.
Cooperation includes theoretical, calculational, experinental and der ign-construction studies at all stages up to industrial-scale operations. While joint projects are provided for, joint construction is not covered by the agreement. Full scale cooperation in fusion research began in 1974 when 36 U.S. specialists visited the. Soviet Union for a total of 68 nan-weeks and when 14 Soviet specialists visited the i
United States for a total of 44 man-weeks. Since that time cooperation in this field has greatly expanded and is ncv among the nost' active
,. ( U.S.-U.S.S.R. scientific exchange prograns. Exchanges under this program cover al1 aapects of science and technology in magnetic confinement R&D I
- in the two countries.
I
- During 1976, 51 U.S. specialists were scheduled to visit the Soviet s
Union for a total of 191 man-weeks. The approxiraate cost in foreign i travel funding for these trips was $143,400. Twenty-nine Soviet I
{ specialists wre scheduled to visit the United States during 1976 for k a total of 142 man-weeks. It is anticipated that cooperation will expand in 1977 with 61 U.S. specialists visiting the U.S.S.R. for a total of 242 man-weeks and with 51 Soviet cpecialists visiting the United States for a total of 189 man-weeks. The approximate U.S. foreign travel expenditure for 1977 will,be.$176,000. .
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Assessment:
The Soviet fusion R&D cffort is larger'than the U.S. program and
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differs somewhat in emphasis. 'A reasonable estimate of Soviet man-power employed in the najor fusion laboratories is 3,500'-4000 which is about two times the U.S. total. However, despite the fact the Soviet program is larger than ours, and in some respects emphasizes'different aspects of fusion research, both programs are roughly at the same stage of overall development. ,
It is the dif ference in emphasis in the two programq that has
, of t.cn provided benefits to both sidos because duplication of , effort can be reduced. The Division of tbgoet'ic Fusion Energy notes that
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particular benefits to the ERDA fusion R&D program have been provided s
i by participation in or ' access to such large Soviet programs, as im- -
ploding liner systens and btellarat. ors, programs which receive little
- or no support in the Unitus States. Exposure to the Soviet stellarator i
progran has been particularly beneficial because Soviet stellarators
! have recently achieved plasma perfonaance similar to tokgnaks. The
! Soviet T-7 superconducting magnet tok9 mak, which is expected to be i
operational ~this spring, will be the world's first and vill provide the j first U.S. access to a superconducting tokamak.
4 The Soviets have likewise gained a great deal through access to U.S. computing capabilities and the on-line data taking and analysis
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, systems now used on major U.S. experiments. U.S. work in computer sin-ilation of plasna behavior is ahead of Soviet efforts in this field and has provided them with insight for further theoretical studies.
The Soviets have also gained from exposure to U.S. technology in such areas as superconducting magnet materiald, neutral beam sources, and experimental control systems.
Issues:
We have encountered sone problens relating to Soviet demands to alter the previously agreed upon work itinerary af ter their arrival in the United States. U.S. visitors to the U.S.S.R. under the fusion llg exchange program do not nake such demands and it is doubtful that they would be accommodated if they did. This matter will be discussed with the Soviets at the staff Icvel.
U.S. Positions:
Recomme nd that the 1977 progran of cooperation agreed to at the May 1976 Joint Fusion Power coordinating Committee Meeting by Drs. Kintner and Velikhov be approved. Recommend no additional programs at this time.
U.S. Reactionn to Possible Soviet Initiatives:
Should the Soviets again suggest that proposed EPRI-Kurchatov cooperation in the fusion / fission field be placed under the U.S.-
U.S.S.R. Atomic Energy Agreement, it should be noted that CRR\ is not currently seeking to develop this technology domestically and that only 9
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I 4 analytic studies of hybrid systems are being performed. We are therefore not prepared to make direct commitments to the development of this technology on an intergovernmental basis.
FYI:
The Soviets brought up this issue in July with EPRI. The above response was connunicated to EPRI in a July 15, 1976 letter from the Assistant Administrator for International Affairs to James Lande, EPRI.
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P R'O G R A M ,
OF THE US - t[SSR SCIlWPIFIC AND TECHNICAL C00PERA1' ION IN THE FIELD OF CONfROLLED FUSION FOR 1977 , ,
i LOCATION DURATIQN PARTICIPAtlTS RW3AWYR TOPIC QUARfER (weeks)
Experimental and Theoretical Resea'rch in donfine:sent '
}andHeabingofPlasmainClosedandOpenI.h6netic Systems -
- 1. PIE Experiments ~ PPL P 'Il - III 12 3 ' '
2a) T-10 2:rperime'nts . Kurchatov
~
I - II 8 2 -
2b) T-10 Er.periments Kurchatov III - 1V' 8 -
2 * -
- 3. Hign Power Neutral OHtIL III -- IV 3+3 . 2 Bean Injection t:rperi- PPPL - -
ment . '
- 4. Plassa Heating in T-11 Kurchatov III - 1V -
8 .
'2 '
with Beam Injection at .
~
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High Power Levels 3-4 .-
l S. i.11rror Eevices (FSperi- LLL ' '
. III'- 1V 3 e .
l ment and Tueury) , ,
> 6* 11irror . Theory Kurchatov June- 16 . 1 (joint work) September -
s
- 7. Erperiments on Scyllac LASL September- 3 -
3
. October -
_2
- 8. Impirding Liner Exp;ric2nta - 1;fremov -
II-III 16 1 *
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- 9. Worksnop: "Analysos of Chco- Kurchatov I-II 2 4 Topic -
rotical L'odels of Plasma Produc-
' to t'e tion ind Heating by Ne;/.trai specified Ecant" -
- 10. norP%pp: "I.licrottict . - e - ..
OHNL III-IV 5: -
,2 4 Topic to be .
bil: . s in Tu stattk:J' .'
spec W N. f. Unive:.'sity .
(Tra;._ :-a Part:icle Instail- -
liticL,- Tranarort Process 3, ~.. , -
Anom .1*>tts Conudebivity) -
- 11. raai.tiarizatiori Trip: Kurcuatov II-III . 3 . 5
" Plasma viagnostics" Iorfe KnArzov ,
12, worF:ing Session: " Initial PPPL January' .3~ 3' Including Stage of vischar6e Formation f.!d University - -
t.ia conIe ana the Problem or Ranaway Electrons"
, rence
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- 13. Tucan Experiments' Iorfe 1V 2-3 .2,,
- 14. T-12 Experimente h rchatov- ,
II 4 2' -
- 15. Working ;3essign i t'eglyseg or - I.ghoqev -
III -
2 . 8- -
Results or Tokamak and.Miel= hrchatov -
larator Experiments" -
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16, Experiments on Ir-2 - . I,ebedev , II 16' .
2 .
(Studies or 'Iokamsk add. . '
Stellarator Regi::i'es) - -
- 17. Working Session: " Data on El.e- ORNL 2
mentary Processes" II - III 3 . .
s
- Desighn ehd Testing of demonstration .
. j ~,3 . . Tokamak 7Uactor Cocoonents
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- 19. Testing of Supdrconduca Kurchatov -
II
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ting Solenoid for T-7 -
.Tokamak 20.~Worzshop: " Conceptual Efremov III-1V 3 *4-e Design of Blanket ahd Test Kurchatov " - -
Components of Demonstration ,
Reactor (or T-20 scale)"
- 21. Viorking Session: " Fission /
Efremov .
I - II 3 5-7 From the 1976 Program Fusion" ,
Kurchatov ,
22 WGPk@0pi " Concepm1 , Noyoa1Megg . ,
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4 Design of Injector with Earchatov. .
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-23. YTor'Ishop : NDevd1';p ad. bf LBL III 6 3 Pro:a thQ 10~6 Prog:6aN3 ,,
Hit Powar Keutral E:s a ORNL e Injector Working Proje :t" BHL . -
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- 24. Woring Session' : "FaedBaht '. L W L 1V 3
4--5 Including APS Stabilization Methods Ln Meeting LarSe Systems" .
Nigineering Problems in CTR and Choice -
,g , , .
of Fusion Henctor Designs -
- 25. VIorkchop: "Sysbeys Anr2yses Wisconsin 1Y
- 2 :
.: 3--7 Including ANS Heating
- of f ?!. ort Po;;ft- f Urit?? :)
- 26. Worishop: "S*.It?.tes 6f A f e- Hanford *
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rinia techanib.11 Pr6pobb'.es ORNL
- After Hetttion Irt'adiation " -
LLL -
- 27. Working Session : " Interaction Novosibirsk II 2 2 -
of Relativistic Electron Beam .Kurchatov with H.tgn Density Plasmas" . .
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- 28. Familiarization Trip: "Relati- Cornell 1V 3 -
vistic Electron Beams" ,
NRL - -
- 29. Working Session: "HF Plasma Sukhumi May '
2 ~
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Heating in Toroidal Systems" ,
- 30. Workshop 8 : "Surfggg Effegts Kyrehatov II-III 2 4 -
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- 31. Tokamar Wall Sa'rrace St'udies .
ORNL- IF 3 3 ,
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- 32. I.htually Complimentary Erperiments ANL--Kurchatov - - - Starueu on Studying ~ Foils Irradiated in in 19/5
.Lon Accelerators (Excnange or .
ATposed Samples) -
JFFCC fleeting 2 10
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. E. E. KIIETER
- - / E. P. VELIIGIOV.
Chairman ,
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US Side of the JFPCO USSR Side of the JFPCC.
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E Position Paper: Fundamental Properties of Matter
Background
US-USSR Cooperation in Fundamental Properties of Matter has been primarily in the field of high energy physics. Prior to the signing of the. US-USSR Atomic Energy Agreement in June 1973, there had been considerable conference partici-pation and visits to laboratories in the US and the USSR, particularly in elementary particle physics. The first US-USSR joint project in high~ energy physics began in 1970 under the Memorandum on Cooperation between the USSR State Ccm:ittee and the former US Atomic Energy Commission when seven US physicists and their families spent nine months at Serpukhov. This was followed by seven Soviet high energy physicists and their wives who came to Fermilab for a long-term stay.in 1972. In the two successive years, up to six USSR physicists with families came to Fermilab for extended stays to participate in joint experiments. Presently, at Fermi'ab, there are nine USSR physicists with wives and young children. Several US high energy physicists have recently completed long-term stays with their families at Soviet laboratories at Dubna, Serpukhov and at the Erevan
- Ins:itute of Physics.
Assessment USSR research in high-energy physics is concentrated at eight accelerator facilities. The highest energy accelerator, the 76 GeV proton accelerator, is located at Serpukhov. There
! are also lower energy accelerators located at Novosibirsk,
! Kharkov, Erevan, Tomsk and Dubna and two in Moscow. During the past two decades, until the 1972 start-up of the 200 GeV accelerator at Fermilab, the US and the USSR have alter-nately had the highest energy accelerator. The number of active high energy physicists, including theoretists, machine builders and experimentalists is roughly comparable for both j countries.
The principal programmatic benefits to ERDA from US-USSR cooperative efforts have been in ERDA's High Energy Physics Program. Soviet scientists have participated with US collabora-tors during 1976 in ten different major experiments at Fermilab.
The Soviet scientists have typically been highly competent and have worked effectively with their US collaborators at Fermilab.
In severa] instances the USSR scientists have brought with them
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valuable Soviet-made equipment for use in the joint experiments at Fermilab. In addition, during 1976, there have been several exchanges'of theoreticians and visits involving US universities and other ERDA laboratories which have been considered worth-while from the US point of view.
The program of cooperation during 1976 has enabled the Soviet scientists to become familiar with instrumentation and facility designs, which they would.be able to use to improve their own capabilities for carrying out experimental work in medium and high energy physics.
The direct costs to the US in this cooperative program for 1976~
were: $130,000 total, including $39,000 for housing at Fermilab, $41,000 cost of foreign travel to the Tbilisi Con-ference, $50,000 for cost of other USSR tra' vel. The direct cost to the US associated with the US-USSR cooperative program for 1977 is projected as follows: $229,000, total, including
$46,000 for hou;ing at Fernilab, possible $8,000 cost of other housing costs and per dien under the '77 exchange, $75,000 cost of foreign travel to the International Accelerator Con-i ference to be held at Serpukhov, $100,000 cost of other USSR travel, includir.g the Second Joint Coordinating Meeting to be held in the USSR.
Issues Most of the itens in the 1977 program involve continuation of experiments underway in 1976. From the US standpoint, less activity than considered desirable has been developed in nuclear.and materials sciences. However, these topics will be included in a list covering specific subjects and institutes which will shortly be sent to the Soviet side of the Joint Coordinating Committee'. During the first meeting of the Joint Coordinating Committee, Fundamental properties of Matter (JCC FPM) in September 1976, it was proposed by the Soviet Delegation that per diem (housing and subsistence) be provided by the receiving side for some exchanges on a reciprocal basis. The US side agreed to study this matter and advise.the Soviets of its decision.
The issue in the FPM exchanges concerning the necessity of more effective communications between the two sides may have been ameliorated by the telex link set up at the Institute of
, Theoretical and Experimental Piysics (ITEP) headed by I. Chuvilo L , in Mascow. During the final preparations for the First Meeting of the J.CC FpM, this telex was used in messages between ITEp and ERDA, Germantown.
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Recommended Positions Propose that at Second JCC FPM meeting in USSR in 1977, Soviet side have representatives who can discuss cooperation in materials sciences and nuclear sciences as well as represent-atives from Novosibirsk, the Siberian Department of the Academy of Sciences. At the First JCC FPM meeting in'Batavia in September of this year, the US side had representatives from the full range of US institutions,-including representatives for nuclear science, materials science, high energy and medium energy physics.
Propose that the US-USSR Cooperative Program in FPM for 1977 as agreed to at the First JCC FPM Meeting be formally approved by the US-USSR Joint Committee, i
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US-USSR COOPERATIVE PROGRAM - FUNDAhENTAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER -
Calendar Y. 1977
- ~'
Visits from USSR to USA Visits from USA to USSR Receiving Duration No. of ,
Receiving Duration No. ch Laloratory (wecks) Partic. Laboratory (Weeks) Parti
. Meating of the Joint Coordinating 2 12 C:mmittec on Research in the Fun-l drmantal Properties of Matter. -
. Nsutrino a'nd antineutrino experi- Fermilab 52 2 IHEP/ITEP 3 3 monts with 15-ft bubble chamber. 6 4 Fermilab Nos. E-45 and E-180. 2 2 Collaboration involving Fermilab, IIIEP, ITEP, Michigan.
. Total photoabsorption cross sec- Fermilab 26 2 tions of nucleons and nuclei. - -
Fermilab No. E-25. Collaboration
- involving Formilab, Leb PI, UCSB.
Pcssibly completed in 1976.
. Proton-proton scattering at large Fermilab 13 2 momentum transfers. Fcrmilab .
- No. E-177. Collaboration in-volving Cornell, Permilah, Lcb PI.
Particlo detectors using tran- Fermilab 14 . 2 Yorty .r.
sition radiation. Collaboration ~.
involving BNL, Fermilab, Maryland, .
Yerevan.
. Proton diffraction dissociation Fermilab 4 1 JINR 2 2 on hydrogen and deutcrium. Fermi- -
1ab No. E-317. Collaboration involving JINR, Fermilab, Arizona, ,
Rochester, and Rockefeller. .
Coulomb scattering region in pp, Fermilab 52 5 Jinn 2 I pd, and pHe scattering. Fcrmilab 26 2 Nos. E-289 and E-381. Collabora- -
tion involving JINR, Fermilab,
- Arizena, ar.d Rcchcatcr.
US-USSR COOPEPATIVE PRCORAM - FUN %V. ENTAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER Calendar Year 1977 '
Visits from USSR to USA Visits from USA to USSR dIceiving Duration No. of Rccciving Duration No. o L:0oratcrv (wceks) Partic. Laboratory (Weck's) Parti
- l. Cryogenic apparatus for nuclear
- Formilab 52 1 research. Collaboration involving 26 1 JINR, Fermilab
- l. Kaon-electron interactions. Fermi- Fermilab 12 3 JINR 4 2 lab No. E-456. Collaboration in-volving JINR, Fermilab, and UCLA.
1.E Proton and deuteron. interactions Argonne 4 1 at 200 GeV using a bubble chamber. -
Fermilab No. E-200. Collaboration
- involving JINR, AML, U. Moscow, Can. Inst. Part. Phys.
l . Theoretical studies. Collabora- Fermilab' 26 3 tion involving Fermilab,I.Theor.P.
ITEP, Len-INP.
. Particle theorist collaborations. Fermilab 52 1 Involves Formilab and JINR.
. Visits by particic theorists. LDL, SLAC at 2 ITEP , Len-INP 4 0 l Exchange of visits involving LBL, .
l SLAC, ITEP, and Lcn-INP. . .
~
j . Neutrino bursts from extraterres- Pennsylvania 2 2 INR, Moscow 2 .~.
j trial sources. Exchange.of visits i involving Pennsylvania, and INR, ,'
Moscow.
. Experience in development of high Los Alamos 3 2 .INP SEAS 3 2 current and high energy linear accclcrators._ Exchange of visits .
invslving Los Alamos and IUP SEAS.
US-USSR COOPERATIVE PROGRAM - FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
~ .
Calendar x 1977 -
Vicits from USSR to USA Visits from USA to USSR Rccciving Duration No. of Rccciving Duration No.
La! oratory (wceks) Partie. Laboratory (Wecks) Part L6. Synthesis and study of properties ORNL 8 2 ,
of heavy elements. Collaboration involving ORNL and JINR.
L7. Rascarch at VEPP-2M facility. INP SBAS 2G 2 Collaboration involving North-castern and IUP SBAS.
5 L8. Conference on physics and tech- , INP SEAS 1 15 nology of high energy electron-
- positron storage rings.
L9. Parity non-conservation in . Len-INP 4' I radiative capture of neutrons by protons. Collaboration involving ANL and Len-INP.
l l0. Exchange of delegations on syn- Amos, ANL, BNL, '4 6 INP SBAS, 2 6 j chrotrcn radiation and the LDL, ORNL, Stan- Inst. Phys. Prob.,
l physics and chemistry of curfaces. ford, Wisconsin Lebedev Inst.,
Moscow State U.,
JINR, othora *
, 3. Exchango of delegations covering Amen, ANL, BNL, 2 6 JINR, Kurchatov, 2- 6 (a) neutron scattering -with cm- LBL, Loc Alamos, Moscow Stato U.,
phasis on pulsed neutron research ORNL Phys.-Eng. Inst.,
(b)+use of acccicrated' ions in
- others materials research.
[.*VisitsandstudiesonH~ sources. ANL, LBL, 5 1 INP SBAS S 1-Exchange involving INP SEAS, ANL, Los Alamos 2G 1 26 1 LDL, LAtiPF
US-USSR COOPERATIVE PROGRAM - FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF PATTER ,
Calendar Y 1977 '
Vicits from USSR to USA Visits from USA to USSR Receiving Duration No. of Rccciving. Duration ~ No. o Ia'. oratory (wceks) Partic. Laboratory (Weeks) Parti
- 3. Vieits and studies on electron ENL, Fermilab, 5 1 INP SBAS < 12 4
t cooling. Exchange involving LBL INF SBAS, Fermilab, BNL, LBL, Wisc.
4 Chemistry of mcndelevium. Col- LDL 16 1 laboration involving LDL, LLL, - -
and Inst. for Physical Chemistry.
- 3. Particle Accelerator Conference, 2 7 Chicago, Illinois, March, 1977.
- 6. 1977 Summer Institute on Particle SLAC ,
2 4 Physics. Stanford, California, August 1977. .
- 7. International Accelerator Con- IHEP . 2 65 ference,Serpukhov, July 1977
- 3. Participation in IUPAP studies 3 3 of superhigh energy accelerator ,
projects. Location of meetings ,
undecided.
1st working group ecetings still .
to be planned. Probably summer 1977 .
e .
- l. Atomic Theory visitation Fermilab, 3 1 SLAC, Wash., Fcrailab, INP-SDAS SLAC, Wash.
). Participation in the experiments SLAC 26 . 2 with high energy cicctrons and photons at SLAC. Yerevan, ITEP. .
M Position Paper: Light Water Reactors Background .
The issue of initiating a US-USSR program of cooperation in the field of Light Water Reactors was brought up by the Soviets in a September 30, 1975 letter from Professor Petrosyants to the Administrator. Professor Petrosyants. proposed that discussions take place in this matter at the Third Joint Com-mittee Meeting in Washington, December 1975. 'Although the US side was_not enthusiastic about cooperation with the Soviets in this area, both sides were able to agree to the general desirability of cooperation in light water reactors. The following topics were identified for possible information exchanges.
Reactor Safety Regulat' ion, including in-service inspection.
1)
- 2) Peak load management.
- 3) Utilization of waste heat.
^
- 4) Reactor Safety Research.
- 5) Reactor Safety Confirmatory Research.
- 6) Reactor Materials and in-pile testing.
- 7) Operation of Atomic Power Stations and Water Chemistry.
The Soviets also identified problems of design, fabrication of components and construction and operation of atomic power plants utilizing light water reactors as areas of desirable cooperation. The US side responded that these activities were carried out mainly by private industry.
Both sides agreed to exchange specialists in the above seven areas during 1976 and report to the Joint Committee with recommendations for future cooperative projects. However, due to lack of Soviet response, these exchanges did not take place. We have recently been advised that the Soviets will not enter into substantive cooperation in light water reactor
- safety .until the Second US-USSR Joint Committee on Energy is rescheduled. .
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Assessment -
With respect to design construction and -operation of Light Water Reactor nuclear power stations, it should be not'd e that the Soviets place high priority on overcoming their poor construction-management techniques and inadequate manufacturing technology by obtaining a large variety of Western nuclear technology and equipment. .
The Soviets have emphasized the acquisition of machinery and technology for heavy fabrication and for nuclear welding, and of large and precision machine tools. They are also actively seeking to. acquire technology in the area of quality control and non-destructive testing, areas in which they are particularly weak. If the Soviets are able to acquire the equipment they are seeking, they probably will use itato equip their huge new Volgodonsk plant for the fabrication of reactor components.
Some of the equipment could also be used to augment the capacity of the Izhorskiy plant. -
It is generally acknowledged that most Western countries are ahead of the Soviets in the field of Light Water Reactor technology and component manufacturing and that the US could i
not expect to obtain significant benefits from cooperation with the Soviets in this area.
On the other hand, NRC is' interested in cooperating with the Soviets in light water reactor safety, particularly in the areas of Reactor Safety, Regulation, and Reactor Safety Confirmatory Research.
Recommended Position Propose that the exchange of specialists, agreed to at the Third US-USSR Joint Committee Meeting, take place during 1977.
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t Position Paper: Thermionics 4
Background
i At the 3rd US-USSR Joint Committee Meeting, it'was agreed
- that an exchange of experts in :hermionic research take place during 1976, to determine if there is a mutually agreeable basis for further cooperation in this area. In September 1976, an eight-member Soviet delegation visited the'US to partic-i ipate in the lith Intersociety inergy Conversion Engineering Conference held at State Line, ::evada. Following the conference, the Soviets visited the major E?.DA and NASA thermionic contractors i
as well as the Ames Research Center, the Jet Propulsion Labora-j tory and Lewis Research Center. The Soviets have agreed that I a return. visit by a US ' dele;cti:n will take place -in June 1977.
- i
- Assessnent i
The Soviets are conducting' a vigorous R6D program in the field ,
i j
of thermionic conversion of het: to electricity. Soviet. interest i
l parallels US interest in that, in addition to developing this k
l technology to be applicable to space, the-USSR is also consider-t
! ing its potential application :: t'errestrial programs such as topping of electric generating s tations.
! The direct costs to ERDA associated'with this cooperation in 1977 are expected to be approxinately $8,000, the cost of the i
foreign travel to the USSR by ':e ERDA contingent for the return visit. The remaining f: .:: members will come from and
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- be funded by NASA. .
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1 2-i Recommended Position: ,
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State that we were pleased that the Soviet delegatio~n was ,
t l abic to visit all of our major thermionic facilities and that
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we look forward to the reciprocal visit by the US delegation i
in June 1977.
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, Position Paper: Intellectual Property t
Background
At the 3rd US-USSR Joint Committee Meeting, the US delegation presented the Soviets our comments on a Soviet draft text on-patents. Thus far, We have received no response from the Soviets on our draft.
- Recommended Position If the Soviets present the US delegation with their comments,
-state that our patent lawyers will review them and we will forward our comments upon completion.
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sk Position Paper: Fifth Meeting of the US-USSR Joint Committee on Atomic Energy i
Background
Under the terms of the US-USSR Atomic Energy Agreement, Joint Committee meetings will be convened once a year in the US
, and USSR alternately unless otherwise mutually agreed.
t Recommended Position Propose that the Fifth Joint Committee Meeting be held in l
Washington, D. C. during the fourth quarter.of 1977.
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RECORD OF Tile RD ME. ' NE OF Tile US ' .
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JOINT COMMITTEE ON COOPERATI N 1:; Tile PEAC -JL ;SEs s.
j ATOMIC EN.iRGY The 3rd Meeting of the US-USSR Joint Ca.a.. tee on Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energ,. s11shed in accordance with the Agreement between the Unite: -
of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republ.c .. June 21, 1973 was held in h'ashington, D.C. , December 3 ; 275. The US delegation was headed by Dr. Robert C. Seamans, Jc., Administrator, Energy Research and Development Administrati:n, and the USSR delegation was neaded by A. M..Petrosyants, Chairr .- of the USSR State Comy. ittee on the Utili;ation of Atomic E .urgy. A list of
} ,
nembers of both delegations who partic:;.ted in the meeting andthe.$gendawhichwasfolloweda. re
.;f.nded hereto.
Review of Joint Prop. rams ir .md-Upon Areas or Looper;. .
Representatives of the two sides report:.: on the results of cooperation during 1975 in the areas c f .:.: trolled Thermonucicar Research, Fast Breeder Reactors, and Tc., arch in the Fundamental Pioperties of Matter. The Joint Conmi t. approved the work done by the two sides in the above are. ... ratified the joint programs of cooperation in the a:, :f Controlled Thermonuclear Research and Fast Ereede. retors for 1976 (appended hereto) . A Program on coopc *:n in Fundamental Proporties of Matter for 1976 is now un. re consideration and will be completed before the visit o." S..u/ict Delegation to the i
US is over. * '
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r Protocol on Cooperation and Regulatica: and Procedures of the Joint Coordinating Commilyue 4.n Fundamental Properties of i.o.tcr A Protocol on Coc eration and Regulations and. Procedures of the US-USSR J er. Coordinating Committee on Fundamental Properties of .V 'r developed by the Working Group were discussed and ratified. The Protocol and Regulations and Procedures are appended hereto.
Cooperation in Thermionic Ccr.v:r;icn of Energy The Committee discussed and approved an exchange of delegations of specialists in Thermionic Research to take place during calendar year 1976. The composition o f the delegations and installations to be visited will be cgreed to by separate correspondence. The purpose of these visits is to determine if there is a mutually agreeabic basi.i fer exploring the possibility of further cooperation in this area.
Communications s-The two sides considered the possibility e t" establishing a tele-communications link between ERDA. ': 3hington and the SCAE, Moscow, which would facilitate eer:munications regar.:ing questions of cooperation. The Soviet si.k will inform the !5 .
side in the near future regarding meas. ires taken for E
.nstallation of such a link.
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- ( . Patent Rights in order to develop the details of patent problems connected i with cooperation in the peaceful uses of atomic energy, the U US side presented to the Soviet side, for its consideration, a draft of a proposal on patent rights. The situation on patent rights will be discussed at the fourth Joint Committee Meeting.
Light-Water Reactor Atomic Power Stations Each side agreed to,the desirability of cooperation in light water reactors. With,'his in mind, the following were identified as subjects to be considered for information exchanges:
- 1. ' Reactor Safety Regulation, including in-service inspection.
- 2. Peak load management.
- 3. Utilization of waste heat. -
- 4. Reactor Safety Research.
- 5. Reactor Safety Confirmatory research.
- 6. Reactor Materials and in-pile testing. -
7.. Operation of Atomic Power Stations and Water Chemistry.J! d In addition, the Soviet side identified problems of desigr.,
fabrication of components and construction and operation c f atomic power stations utilizing light-water reactors. The 4
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US side noted that these activities are- p'i arily carried .
out by US industry. ,
Both sides actsei to an exchange of ; i? .iithin the next six to eight .-nihs in order to outl_. .. .ics and forms of cooperation 1.a whese subjects and r.it recommendations at the next meeting of the Joint Comni:..:e.
Date of the Fourth Mec_!.._c.
The Joint Cor_m.ittee agreed to hold its i.urth Meeting in the USSR in October 1976.
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For the Energy Research and For the USSR State Committee l
' Development Administration for the Utilization of Atomic l
Encrgy December 5, 1975 December 5, 1975 b
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USSR PARTICIPANTS
~
Andronik M. Periasyants, Chairman of USSR State Committee on Atomic "ar: gy Ivan G. Mor -ov Deputy Chairman of USSR State Committee on Atomic . u rgy Anatoliy I. 12v tmov, Deputy Minister of Power and Electrificatio.
Aleksandr G. Meshkov, Deputy Chairman of USSR State ,
Committee on Atomic Energy Ivan V. Chuvilo, Director, Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Physics Yevgeniy P. Velikhov, Deputy Director, I. V. Kurchatov Institutc of Atomic Energy Viktor P. Lobanov, Deputy Minister of Power Machine Building -
Gennadiy B. Myakinkov Deputy Chief of Administration, USSR State Committee on Atomic Energy Arkadiy S. Veselovskiy, Deputy Department Chief, USSR State C6mmittee on Atomic Energy Vlad imir P. Astakhov, Reviewer, USSR State Committee on A.omic Energy i
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US PARTICIPA.:':' .
Dr. Robert C. Seamans, Administrat- ,.rator for Nuclear Dr. Richard W. Roberts, Assistant Energy .
Dr. John M. Teem, Assistant Adminis ;r for Solar, Geothermal and Advanced Energy 5; _
Mr. Nelson F. Sievering, Jr., Assist . .vlministrator for International Affairs 2 Universities, Inc.
Dr. Gerald F. Tape, President, Assoc Dr. Chauncy Starr, President, Elect: . : ster Research Institute Dr. Robert L. Hirsch, Director, Dir- of Controlled Thermonuclear Research :r for Development Dr. George W. Cunningham, Deputy Di:
and Technology, Division of React:. - ..earch and Developnent Mr. B. D. Hill, Chief, East-West A.7 : 3 ranch, Office of
- dxecutive Secretary International Program Implementatt e
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1 Description of Facilities A. Armenian Nuclear Power Statien Located at Oktembryan, near Erevan The Armenian Nuclear Power' Station will be comprised of two 440 MWe units - pressure vessel, water-moderated, water-cooled thermal reactors like those at the Novoyoronezh Nuclear Power Station. Construction of this plant began in 1968.and the first unit was expected to be operational in late 1976 or early 1977 with the second unit operational about one year later. US delegations have not previously visited this site.
The February 1976 issue of the Soviet publication Atomic Energy stated the following re this installation: "At the Armenian Atomic Power Station all the basic construction work on the sites of the start-up complex have be,en completed and the start-up and laying operations are proceeding at full speeed.
The auxiliary shops and structures have been put into operation and also chemistry-water-cleaning, power switchboard cct. In the near future, the first unit will be put into operation -- ."
Major characteristics of the two 440 MWe Pressurized Water Reactors at the Armenian Nuclear Power Station:
Thermal Capacity 1375 MW, thermal Electric Capacity 440 MW, electrical Pressure in the 1:5 armsopheres Primary Loop Steam Pressure at 44 atmospheres Turbine Type of Fuel UO 3.3 percent Enrichment of Fuel 28,000 MW days / metric ton Design Burnup Level Fuel Load 42 metric tons Director - R. Galechyan Deputy Chief Engineer - A. Babakhyan
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B. Erevan Institute of Physics (EIPl ,
Location - Erevan Hasa6GeVelectronacceleratorinoperationforpastth((
This accelerator has advertised intensity of 3x10 teen years.
electrons per pulse with 50 pulses per second. As a support facility for the accelerator there is a sizeable machine shop and also a cryogenics laboratory. The support facilities and housing for all the people who work at EIP as well as a computing center are all. located on the Institute grounds. A new computing center office building and two new apartment dwellings are presently under construction. Additionally, EIP has two cosmic ray stations - one located at 2,000 meters elevation called the Nor Ambert and the other at 3,000 meter altitude, at Mount Aragatz.
The major effort at EIP during the past five years has been in the development of wide-gap spark chambers and, more recently, development in the field'of transition radiation detectors to determine the composition' of cosmic rays at very high energies t by separating protons from pions. The theoreticians also work actively in the field of transition radiation.
Present Director (for past three years) - Dr. Andre Amatuni.
Dr. Amatuni was preceded by Dr. Alikhanyan, the founder of
' EIP, who is now at the Lebedev Physics Institute, Moscow.
Associate Director - Dr. Matinyan. Dr. Natinyan is a theoretician, Head of Theoretic'al Physics at EIP as well as Head of the two cosmic ray stations and of the Nuclear Emulsion Group.
Associate Director - Dr. Hamlet Vartabetian. Dr. Vartabetian is in charge of the experimental groups at EIP and also in charge of the Computing Center.
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C. BN-350 Reactor Station, Shevchenko Location - on the Mangyshlak Peninsula at the northeast corner of the Caspian Sea, near a new town called Shevchenko which is south of the old town of Fort Shevchenko.
The Shevchenko Power Station is the world's first nuclear power i station utilizing a commercial-scale liquid metal fast breeder t reactor, which went into operation in 1973. This reactor has ;
generally been limited to 650 MW(th) nominal power helping to provide electric power and desalinated water to a city of ap-proximately 105,000 inhabitants established in the desert a decade ago.
BN-350 is a fast neutron, sodium cooled reactor of pressure vessel and six loop design located in a complex known as the Mangyshlak Power Station. This includes an oilfired station that supplies steam to turbines and desalting facilities inter-changeably with the reactor.
Director of Project - D. S. Yurchenko Administrative Assistant - A. B. Yegoryants Administrative Assistant - A. B. Akamanov Technical Information Division Engineer - N. F. Cherednichenko Director 35-350 Reactor - A. E. Timofeev Chief Engineer, BN-350 - K. T. Vasilenko Deputy Chief Engineer for. Science - G. B. Pomerantsev j Director, Water Supply Installations - I. G. Vakhnin Deputy Director - A. A. Samarkin i
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D. Lebedev Physics Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow This Institute employs approximatly 3,500 people including about 2,000 researchers in 17 different laboratories.
Fourteen of these laboratories are under the direction of a single Administrator and include a wide range of topics includ-ing many forms of optics, nucicar and particle physics, space physics, astronomy, particle accelerators and plasma physics -
specifically plasma heating with ciectron beams and lasers.
The fifteenth laboratory, under Academician N. G. Basov, employ-ing about 500 peopic, including 150 scientists, is devoted to the study of lasers. This includes the use of semiconductor lasers for communication, television and computation; chemical lasers for isotope separation and stimulation of chemical reactions, and lasers for fusion applications. The first laser fusion experiments utilizing multiple intense laser beams focused on a solid pellet of deuterium and tritium to achieve a more uniform irradiation of the pellet were carried out at the Lebedev Institute by Academican Basov. Nine-beam and twenty-beam systems have been constructed; the nine-beam system yicids a measured thirty-fold compression in the volume of a 100-micron deuterium pellet. A nominal 1 KJ Nd: glass laser is used to study target behavior and develop diagnostics. Typically the e output is 300-400J in 1 nsec. A large 20 KJ Nd: glass laser is now being assembled. It uses 45mm diameter rods with 12 beam lines in groups of 6 channel 3 stage beams. Work is also progressing on CO , I and D-F lasers. These efforts are accompaniedbyco$sid$ rabic theoretical activity.
The sixteenth and seventeenth laboratories at the Lebedev Institute are under the supervision of A. M. Prokhorov and include laser fusion with a large slab laser system and M. S.
Rabinovich's work on magnetic confinement with the L-2 stel-larator. The output of the slab laser consists of 32 channels with three beam passes through each slab. First experiments are aimed at one sided illumination of disc and ball targets.
Later experiments will give spherical illumination using eight beams with the hope of achieving significant thermonuclear burn. Nominal laser power is 35KJ The in one psec and they ho,e L-2 stellarator, faaricat-to achieve 3KJ in one nanosecond.
ed by the staff at the Institute, is about the size of the T-4 tokamak with a toroidal field of 20 KG. In this device the plasna is generated by laser irradiation of frozen pellets of deuterium.
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E. Kurchatov Atomic Energy Ins-itute, Moscow r
This Institute is comprised of seven Departments with 1,000 -
- 1,500 people in each Department. The largest Department is i headed by Dr. Sidorenko and. dea *.s with nuclear pow 6r design and safety questions. The Department concerned with Controlled i i Thermonucicar Research development is headed by E. Velikhov and represents nearly half of the total Soviet fusion effort.
! This Institute was the first scientific center for fission i related research, and analytica". and experimental work in
- almost all phases of nuclear energy is conducted here. Accel-erators, research reactors, shc
- s and other facilities are located at the Kurchatov Institute. Presently, the principal '
research efforts are directed t: ward development of secondary uses of nucicar power including: study of Boiling Water Reactors ,
as district heat source, study cf a new High Temperature Gas Reactor as an industrial heat scurce, study of gas cooled fast i breeder. systems.
Major personnel at this Institu e who have frequently met with US visitors are:
Director - A. P. Alexandrov - (Alexandrov, " elder-statesman" of Soviet science is still Dire: tor although also recently
- ' appointed President of the USiR Academy of Sciences succeeding
. M. V. Keldysh) i i Deputy Director for CTR work .;:ademician E. P. Velikhov. ;
j Velikhov is expected to succeed Aleksandrov as Director I
Head of Tokamak Division.- Academician B. Kadomtsev :
Deputy Dirr : tor for Reactors and Physics - V. A. Legasov
- Director, General and Nuc1 car Physics Programs, Superconductivity j Studies - N. A. Chernopickhov a
i Director, huc1 car Reactor Progrens - V. A. Sidoren'ko I
- Deputy Director of Reactor Programs for High Temperature Systems -
N. N. Ponomarev-Stepnoy Director, Research Reactors and Materials Research - P. A. Platonot l
Director of Tokamak Insta11ntio..s - V. S. Streikov l i
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4 F. Institute of High Temperatures of the_ USSR Academy of Sciences This Institute was founded in 1962 based on the Laboratory of liigh Temperatures of the USSR Academy of Sciences which was established in 1960. presently, the Institute of High Tem-peratures includes scientific-research branches and laboratories, a construction bureau, testing facilities, the basic research installations U-02 and U-25 and the experimental complex.
The Institute of High Temperatures engages in scientific research in the following four areas:
- 1. Research in the thermo-physical and electro-physical pro-perties of substances at high temperatures;
- 2. Research in the processes of heat-exchange, mass- exchange and the physical dynamics of gas;
- 3. Development and research into new construction materials which retain mechanical strength at high temperature;
- 4. Research into the building of installations for the direct transformation of thermal energy into electrical energy with the help of MHD generators, and also other new types of power installations.
It should be noted, however, that approximately 80% of the activity at this Institute is devoted to Mild with the other three areas working in support of MHD development.
US-USSR MHD Cooperation The US-USSR Mild cooperation between ERDA's Mild Division and the Institute of liigh Temperatures, under the US-USSR USSREnergy personnel Agreement, is a major item for this Institute.
at the Institute directly involved in this cooperation are:
Director of the Institute - Academician A. Sheyndlin Senior Deputy Director - Dr. A. E. Shelkov Deputy Director - Dr. S. Tischikov Deputy Director - Dr. Daybuz I
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US-USSR Cooperation in MHD US-USSR cooperation in Mild was initiated in 1972 under the US-USSR Agreement for Cooperation in Science and Technology and has as its goal the design, construction and initial operation of commercial scale, open-cycle MHD power plants.
The project was transferred to the US-USSR Energy Agreement in 1974. ERDA's Division of MHD, under Dr. William Jackson, heads the U.S. side of the working group; the Institute for High Temperatures of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, under Academician Ye, Sheyndlin, leads the Soviet side of the cooperative activity.
The Mild project has been the most active and mutually beneficial of the projects under the Energy Agreement. The Steering Committee meets twice yearly, alternately in the U.S.
and the U.S.S.R., to review progress and occasionally to adjust goals. The US-USSR Colloquium on MHD Power Generation, held each year in alternate countries, serves as the forum for the exchange of information on current technical develop-ments in each country. In addition, four sub-working groups have been established in technical areas important to the development of the MHD program. An evaluation of activities in these four areas is given below.
MHD Materials Development Two 100+ hour tests of US-built electrode modules (Phases I and II) have been completed in the Soviet U-02 MHD facility at the Institute for High Temperatures. Phase III of the materials program, scheduled for late 1977 or early 1978, will involve cicetrode replenishment testing. The completed tests have resulted in (1) identification of the critical electrode wall phenomena, (2) pinpointing of specific RGD areas critical to electrode development and MHD channel design, and (3) development of new electrode materials, system structures, and bonding techniques.
In this area, the Soviets have also tested some of the materials at the University of Tennessee Space Institute's coal-fired facility and the small Westinghouse facility in Waltz Mill, Pa.
Mild Channel Development The USSR has given the US access to the U-25 Mild Pilot Plant to test US-built channels. Although the U-25 facility currently e
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uses natural gas as a fuel, man; of the technical problems arising in the design of a U-25 channel are the same as those for a coal burning system. It is planned that a US duct'will be tested in the U-25 in early 1978. This decision has forced a detailed investigation of engineering problems and economics considerations related to the ;;tential commercialization of MHD power generator systems.
Also under this program, the Scvies have tested diagnostic irstrumentation'in US facilities, notably the AVC0 Mark VI facility in Boston.
Superconducting Magnet Systems ;evelopment In exchange for access to Sovie: MHD facilities described above, the US has agreed to provide, on a loan basis, a superconducting magnet with an tssociated cryostat system that will be used with Soviet-built channels in the U-25 Bypass facility to jointly investigate high-field MHD phenomena. The design and nanufacture of the dipole, saddle-coil superconducting magnet (average field of 4 T i
and fully stabilized NbTi super::nductor) has furthered U.S. technology in this ares. he magnet will be built by Argonne National Laboratory and will be delivered to the Institute for High Temperaturas in early 1977. The Department of State,'on behalf of ERDA, has requested the use of a C-5 military transport plane from D:3 for delivery of the magnet.
It is expected that the U-25 ByFass high-field MHD facility will be available for joint experimental work in the second quarter of FY 77. Since both US and USiR hardware will be used in this facility, the US will be given 1: cess to the facility and all test data generated at this site will be considered as the common property of both countries.
The activity at this facility wi;l be three-pronged: (1) development of high performance :hannels, (2) study of high-field phenomena, including inte: electrode breakdown, and (3) testing of MHD materials under realistic generator conditions.
The data generated at this faci;ity will impact directly on the development of th,e US CDIF and ETF facilities.
Information Exchange The work of this group will cul-inate in the publication (January 1977) of a joint status report en open-cycle MHD technology which will organize and augment the information which has been disseminated to c2te through technical publications and conferences. Chapters in the report have
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Proposal for Future Work The Soviets have proposed expansion of the cooperative program to include the sharing of design experience for construction of commercial scale MHD power plants in each country. The Soviets have begun a project to construct a 500 MW natural gas-fired plant (U-500) , cur-rently plc.nned for initial start-up in 1982, and have in--
dicated that US participation in the design for such a plant'could be arranged in principle. The Soviets have also' expressed great interest in participating in US test facility (CDIF) design efforts. The proposed program repre-sents an opportunity for both countries to become familiar with each others' design philosophies. However, a decision to expand cooperation into joint design will require an assessment by interested USG agencies of desirable quid-pro-que, possible financial limitations, and technical problems associated with such a large undertaking.
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departmentof state september '975
( OFFICIAL NAME: Union of Soviet Socialist Republics GEOGRAPHY from the Baltic Sea across the north- from an island that is part of Alsska.
ern Eurasian landmass to the Bering Most of the U.S.S.R. is above 50*
The U.S.S.R. is the largest country Strait, where an island belonging to north latitude (that of Winnipeg, Can-in the world. Its territory stretches the Soviet Union lies only 3 miles ada). The latitude of Moscow is the same as that of southern Alaska.
In the west, from the Pripet PROFILE FLAG: Red with a yellow hammer and Marshes near the Polish border to the sickle below a yellow star in the upper left Ural Mountains, Soviet territory Geography corner.
stretches over a broad plain broken by AREA: 8,649,490 sq. mi. (about 2% occasional low hills. Crossing this plain Economy times the size of U.S.). CAPITAL: Moscow a MhM (pop. 7.5 million). 0111ER CITIES: Lenin- GNP: $710 billion (1974, in 1974 U.S. which the most important are the
( grad (3.6 million), Kiev (1.8 million),
peopg ,
dollars). ANNUAL GRO%Til RATE: 3.2% Dnieper, which empties into the Black (1974). PER CAPITA INCOME: $2,800(in Sea, and the Volga, which empties into 1974 U.S. douars). PER CAP;TA GROWIll the Caspian Sea. Between the. Black POP UL ATION: 253.3 million (Jan. RATE: 2.2% (1974). and Caspian Seas lie the scenic Cau-1975). ANNUAL GRO%Til RATE: Less AGRICULTURE: Land 9.3%. Labor than 1% (1975). DENSITY: 84 per sq. mi. 27%. Products-wheat, rye, corn, oats, casus Mountains.
(European part), 4 per sq. mi. (Eastern p ot a to es, sugarbeets, linseed, sunflower The low Urals mark the traditional Siberia and Soviet Far East). ETilNIC seed, cotton and flax, cattle, pigs, sheep. division between European and Asiatic GROCPS: 53% Russian,17% Ukrainian,4% INDUSTRY: Labor 73%. Products- Russia. To the east are the vast Sibe-Uzbek, 4% Belorussian (1970). RELI- mining, ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy, rian lowlands and the deserts of cen-GIONS: 70% atheist; 18% Russian Ortho- fuels and power, building materials, chemi- tral Asia. Beyond are the barren dox; 9% Moslem: Jewish, Protestant, Geor- cals, machine-building. Siberian highlands and the mountain gian Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Armenian NATURAL RESOURCES: Fuel, water- ranges of the Soviet Far East. Farther Gregorian. LANGUAGES: Russian (offi- power, timber, manganese, lead, zinc, nic- to the east lie higher mountain ranges, cial), 76% Slavic,11% Altaic, 8% other kel mercury potash phosphate. including the Pamirs, Altai, and Tien Indo-European, 3% Uralian, 2% Caucasian. TR ADE (1974, U.S.S.R. figures):
f LITERACY: 98.5% (between 9-49) yrs. of Exports-527.4 billion: fuel, raw materials, . .
,l The climate of the Soviet Union is
( age). LIFE EXPECTANCY: 70 yrs. (1974). machinery and equipment, semifinished pro-
' ducts. Imports-524.9 billion: machinery varied but for the most part has long, Government and equipment, foodstuffs, crude materials, cold winters and brief summers. In TYPE: Federal Union (est. Dec. 30, chemicals. Partners-G.D.R., Poland, parts of the eastern Siberian tundra p
1922). DATE OF CONSTITI.TIION: 1936. Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, flungary F.R.G., temperatures of -90 F have been re-l B RANCllES: Exeutive-U.S.S.R. Coun. Japan, Cuba, Finland, Romania, Italy, corded, and the January average is cil of Ministers. legislatire-bicameral France. about -60 F. South of the tundra is a U. S. S. R. Supreme Soviet (767-member OFFICI AL EXCil ANGE RATE: I large forest belt covering more than Counci! of the Union,750 member Council ruble =US$1.45 (June 1975). half the country.
of Nationalities). Judicial-Supreme Court MEMBERSillP IN INTERNATIONAL g g g of U.S.S.R. ORGANIZATIONS: Council of Mutual Eco- .. .
POLITICAL PAR 1Y: Communist Party nomic Assistance (CEMA), Geneva Disarma. (praines) where the soil a.s nch and
' of the Soviet Union (CPSU). SUFFRAGE: ment Conference, U.N. and several of its dark and rainfall as abundant. The i
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oblasts,8 autonomous oblasts. Copyright Convention. A small subtropical zone lies south
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3 rency and valuables must be declared. munizations beyond those i,cmr,any kept
-( TR AVEL NOTES The declaration, stamped by Soviet c:arrent in the Unied States are required
\ customs authorities, must be retained by for travelers to the U.S.S.R.
Gimate ami Clothing-The climate of De U.S. Public Health Service has the traveler and presented again on the Soviet Union is as varial as that of departure. Understating or not declaring noted that many American visitors to the United States. Winter travelers to currency or valuables can lead to con- the U.S.S.R., and particularly to I~uropean areas of the U.S.S.R. should leningrad, have returned to the United fiscation. Currency exchange may only bring their warmest clothes, boots, and be carried out by official Soviet Govern. States infected with the intestinal
. hats. (Public buildings, hotels, and parasite giardia tamblia. He infection is rnent agencies and all receipta should be homes are weu heated.) Hot weather probably contracted by consuming tap kept by the traveler. All offers to ex.
generally occurs from June through water or ice or drinks made from tap change money on the street or to buy Augustt Moscow summer temperatures water. It is also possible that it may be Personal clothing or other items should often range into the 90's, and light. be refused: they are in violation of transmitted by cold foods, such as weight clothing is usually in order. salads. It is likely that botded water is S viet law.
Spring arid cady fau are unpredictable fra from infection.
with snow flurries and temperatures in S W customs summities often com
{ the 80's both possible in May and fiscate reugious obhets a publications. Telecom nunications-International tele-5 particularly if more than one item is phone and wiegraph he is avaHe September.
imported. Pornography, anti-Soviet troughout the U.S.S.R.
Gestoms ond l'isas- A valid Soviet entry / publications, and the like may also be cut visa is required of all Ammican Transportation -Daily international confiscated. Soviet authorities are ex.
travelers to the U.S.S.R. Tourists, busi- trernely sensitive to attempts to bringin flights are available from Moscow, nessmen, and persons attending co* teningrad, and some other major Soviet marijuana or narcotic drugs or to take cities to major cities in Europe. Direct ferences or conventions in the U.S.S.R. out correspondence or other items for should arrange their travel through one mnnections are available to New York Soviet citizens.
of the many U.S. or European travel and Washington, D.C. A U.S. flag carrier agencies accredited by Intourist, the flies to Moscow from New York several i oiticial Soviet travel agency. In addition hith-Adequate medical care is avail- times a week.
able in the larger cities, although some Internalintercity transport is usuaHy to arranging all travel and hotel accom.
' modations (which must be paid for in mmmon medications are not. Methods by plane (the Soviet Government akline, advance), the travel agent makes arrange- of treatment and facilities often differ Aeroflot) or train. Trains are com-
' ments for visas as well.
from those to which Americans are fortable and clean on the wee-traveled accustomed.Travelersin need of medical routes. The major Soviet cities
. A customs declaration must be mmpleted on arrival, and baggage and care should ask their hotel service burceu (Leningrad, Moscow, Kiev, among personal effects are often examined or their intourist guide to direct them to others) have subways as wen as bus closely by customsinspectors. No Soviet the proper facGity. Medical treatment is transportation. Taxis are difficult to currency may be brought into or taken provided to foreigners without charge obtain, and tud drivers generaHy do not out of the U.S.S.R., and aR other cut- under most circumstances. No im, understand foreignlanguages.
of the steppes along the shores of the in the southwestern and western sec- School programs are governed by
! Black and Caspian Seas. To the south- tors of the European part of the ministries of education in the various i east in the deserts of central Asia rain- U.S.S.R. The remainder of the popula- Republics under the control and guid-fall amounts in some places to only 4 tion includes peoples belongmg to ance of the national Ministry of Edu-f inches per year. Turkic, Finno-Ugric, Caucasian, other cation established in July 1966. The Indo-European, and less numerous programs show heavy emphasis on ethnic groups, including Eskimos. science, include the study of at least PEOPLE More than 200 dialects and lan- one foreign language, often English, The Soviet Union ranks thi-d in the guages are spoken in the Soviet Union. and are permeated with political
- f world in population (after the People's Russian is the major one and is taught indoctrination. A limited number of I %
! Republic of China and India). Moscow as a second language in areas where it elective subjects are being introduced and Leningrad are its most populous is not primarily spoken. on a trial basis for outstanding stu-
! cities; and Kiev, Tashkent, Baku, Khar- Soviet children normally begin ele- dents in secondary schools. Otherwise, kov, Gorky, Novosibirsk, Kuibyshev, mentary school at age 7, following 1 all students are expected to follow the I and Sverdlovsk each have more than a or 2 (or more) years in state-operated same curriculum.
million inhabitants. nursery schools and kindergartens. The The Soviet Union also maintains an M ore than 170 separate ethnic current goal is to provide compulsory extensive network of vocational and groups live within the borders of the 10-year schooling for all children professional schools with classes last-U.S.S.R. Almost 75 percent of the between the ages of 7 and 17. Ten- ing from 6 months to 2 years. These total population are Eastern Slavs. year schooling is already the rule for schools are designed to supply indus-More than two-thirds of the Slavs most children, but in some smaller try and agriculture with semiskilled (slightly more than half the total pop- cities and particularly in rural areas and skilled labor. In most cases stu-ulation) are Russians; the rest are only 7 to 8 years of general schooling dents enter vocational schools after 7 Ukrainians and Belorussians who live are offered. to 8 years of general school; present
4 READING LIST Kennan, George F. Russia and the Washington: IIEW, Office of g West Under Lenin and Stalin. Education Bulletin No. 15, i Thew titles are prosided as a Feneral Boston: Little Brown and Co., 1965.
indication of the material published on 1961. Salisbury, liarrison (ed.). The
- this country. The Department of State Kochan, Lionel. 77:e Jews in Soviet Soviet Union: Fifty Years. New u off[c al publicat ons pre n ing Russia Since 1917. London: York: liarcourt Brace,1967.
the position of the U.S. Government. Oxford University Press,1970. Shapiro, Leonard. Communist Kohler, Foy D. Understanding the Party of the Soviet Union. New Allilueva, Svetlana. Only One }'cer. Russians: A Citizen 's Primer. York: Random flouse,1971.
New York: liarper and Row, New York: Harper and Row, Soviet Economic Prospects for the 1969. 1970. Se renties. Washington, D.C.:
Allworth, Edward (ed.). Soviet Nenarokov, Albert P. Russia in the U.S. Government Printing Na tionality Problems. New Twentieth Century: An Official office,1973.
York: Colu mbia University So viet //istory. Trans. . by Strong, John W. The Soriet Union g Press,1971. Leonard Fox. New York: Under Brezhner and Kosygin. J' American University. Area Hand- hlorrow,1968. New York: Van Nostrand-book for the Soviet Union. " Observes." Message from Moscow.
Reinhold,1971.
Washmgton, D.C.: U.S. Govern- Ulam, Adam B. Expansion and New York: Random House, ment Printing office,1971. y* Coexistence: The History of Billington, James 11. The Icon and So riet Foreign Policy, the Axc. New York: Knopf, Pisar, Samuel. Coexistence and 1917-1967. New York: Praeger, 1966. Co m m erce: G uidelines for 1968.
Conquest, Robett. Religion in the _ Transactions Between East and Ula m , Adam B. The Rivals:
U.S.S.R. New York: Praeger, h'es t. New York: hicGraw-liill, America and Russia Since World 1968. 1970. War II. New York: Viking Press, Field, h! ark G. Sorict Socialized Reddaway, Peter. Uncensored 1971.
Medicme: An Introduction. New Russia: Protest and Dissent in Wiles, P.1. D. Communist Inter-York: Free Press,1967, the Sorier Union. New York: national Economics. New York:
Gregory, Paul R. -and Robert C. The American fleritage Press, Praeger,1968.
Stuart. Soriet Economic Struc. 1972. Wilson, Edmund. To the Finland }
/
ture and Performance. New Rosen, Seymour hf. Significant Station. New York: Praeger, York: liarper and Row,1974. Aspects of Soviet Education. 1968.
policy envisions eventually providing and political indoctrination courses are popular discontent. On November 7, all vocational students with a general required. The costs of higher educa- 1917, the government was overthrown secondary education as well. In addi- tion are paid by the state, and students by 6 revolutionary group known as the tion, schools and institutes providing are given small monthly stipends. Bolshevik wing of the Russian Social se m ip ro f e ssio n al and professional Upon completion of a university or Democratic Labor Party.
training are avadable. These last from institute course of study, most stu- Vladimir Ilyich Lenir,, leader of the 2 to 5 years, are designed to produce dents go to work in areas and jobs Bolsheviks, was named head of the
" middle-grade specialists." and gener- specified by national planning author- first Soviet government. The new re-ally require complete secondary edu- i!ies. Eventually, a small percentage of gime concluded the treaty of Brest-cation for admission. them may return to do postgraduate Litovsk with Germany and the other A small proportion of 10-year. work ir} preparation for the advanced Central Powers on hfarch 3,1918.
}
s school graduates may enroll in an insti- degrees of candidate of sciences or All land was declared the property tution of higher learning. Admission is doctor of sciences. of the state, and a rapid succession of highly competitive and is based on decrees nationalized factories, banks, academic record, entrance examina- HISTORY railroads,and othersectors of the econ-tion scores, and, to some extent, on omy. A bitter civil war ensued and social and political background. A hiodern Russian history dates from lasted until 1921. The United King-higher educational institucion may be klarch 1917 when Czar Nicholas 11 dom, France, Japan, and the United either a universitf, which is a center of abdicated under pressure from repre. States sent military forces to Russia gener:pl studies normally with a 5-year sentatives of the national legislature, for a variety of reasons but withdrew program, or a more specialized insti- who formed a provisional government. them after it became apparent that the tute, where the course may last from 4 Like the Czarist regime, the new gov- Bolshevik government would survive.
to 6 years. In either case the currie- ernment continued its participation in Lenin's death in 1924 intensified an T ulum is only slightly less rigid than World War I, which led to widespread intraparty struggle between groups led .)
that of the general secondary schools, economic and social dislocation and by Joseph Stalin, General Secretary of
~
5 the party, and his opponents, notably Soviet Union was a temporary expe- TASS, announced that Khrushchev
( Leori Trotsky, Gregory Zinoviev, Lev dient designed to give him a free hand had resigned because of poor health Kamenev, and Nikolai Bukharin. Stalin in the West. In September 1940, after and advanced age. Later press com-defeated these and other rivals in the British resistance led Germany to sus- ment condemr.ed his style of rule and late 1920's and later had them exe- pend plans for invasion of the British confirmed the fact that his former cuted or assassinated. Untold numbers Isles, liitler secretly prepared for an associates had opposed the way in of other Soviet political, military, eco- attack on the U.S.S.R. German forces which he had exercised power.
, nomic, and cultural leaders were im- attacked before dawn on June 22, Leonid I. Brezhnev assumed the prisoned, and many died in the purges 1941. post of First Secretary of the party of the 1930's. German troops advanced as far as (changed to " General Secretary" at in the interwar years the Soviet Moscow, and 4 years of fighting with the 23rd Party Congress in 1966) and government tried to gain acceptance heavy casualties left widespread devas- Aleksei N. Kosygin became Chairman by other European countries. It suc- tation in the Eurcpean part of the of the Council of Ministers. The new ceeded only partially, however, be- Soviet Union. During the war Stalin leaders took immediate steps to undo cause of activities of the Soviet-led permitted certain noncommunist ele- Khrushchev's more radical programs,
( Third Communist Int ernational ments of Russia's prerevolutionary such as the establishment of parallel (Comintern), founded in March 1919, past (e.g., the church) to play a larger party and government hierarchies for which attempted through local com- role in society in an appeal to tradition agricultural and industrial matters, and m unist organizations to undermine and nationalism designed to engender took pains to reassure the badly de-West European governments. Although patriotic support for the conduct of moralized bureaucracy of its contin-Soviet Russia was recognized by a the war. Postwar reconstruction, how- ued importance.
number of European countries in 1924 ever, brought a return to the oppres-and by the United States in 1933, rela- sive policies of the 1930's. The Present Leadership tions with these countries were Brezhnev emerged from the 24th strained. Stalin's Death Party Congress (March-April 1971) as In the spring of 1939 Stalin made Stalin died on March 5,1953. As clearly the first among equals in a still r tentative ov'ertures to Nazi Germany, his successors maneuvered for power, collective leadership. Desire to build a and in August of that year the they modified some of the more re- more solid, institutional consensus for Molotov Ribbentrop pact was signed pressive aspects of his regime without, the policy decisions of this leadership i
(' at Moscow. This 10-year nonaggression however, significantly altering its total- was shown in April 1973 when heads treaty included secret provisions for itarian structure. Nikita S. Khrush- of the army, secret police, and foreign the diusion of Poland, Romania, and chev, installed as First Secretary of the ministry were given full membership in
, the Baltic States. commumst party in September 1953, the ruling Politburo. Official actions consolidated his power when he de- under this leadership reflect the shar-World War ll and its Aftermath feated an attempt by G. M. Malenkov, ing of power among leaders reluctant Nazi Germany invaded Poland on V. M. Molotov, Lazar Kaganovich, and to permit significant changes in the September 1,1939, and the Soviets others to unscat him as party leader in internal or external political status i followed on September 17. By the end June 1957. quo. While there has been some of that month Poland had been di- At the 20th Party Congress in attempt to repair the damage inflicted vided -once again by Berlin and February 1956 Khrushchev. in a secret on the image of Stalin during the Moscow. speech, had denounced Stalin as a Khrushchev era, there has been no On No> ember 28,1939, the Soviet despot who had sacrificed much of the return to the mass terror of the Stalin government abrogated its non- party's best talent through misdirected period. Indeed, the 24th Party Con-
[ aggression pact with Finland, attacking purges and mistaken military tactics. gress condemned both liberals, who i 5 it 2 days later. Bitter Finnish resist- "De-Stalinization" was accompanied would insist on further de-Staliniza-ance was unable to stem the Soviet by rehabilitation of some political tion, and neo-Stalinists, who would advance, and peace negotiations con- figures who had been purged, resubor- return to his style of rule.
I cluded on March 12,1940, resulted in dination of the secret police to the I the cession of a large part of eastern part y, and encouragement of con- GOVERNMENT Finland to the U.S.S.R. trolled contacts with countries outside in June 1940 Soviet troops occu- the Soviet bloc. Party rule remained In the Soviet system ultimate pied Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, supreme, but some discussion and con- power is exercised by the leaders of and in July the territory of the Baltic troversy within the party was per- the communist party. The party im-States was forcibly incorporated into mitted poses its will through a government the Soviet Union. In July the U.S.S.R. apparatus patterned superficially after also forcibly annexed two eastern Fall of Khrushchev Western political democracies but
( Provinces of Romania-Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina.
On October 14, 1964, Khrushchev which has little real separation of was suddenly removed from power by p o w ers. Government functions are Ilitter's collaboration with the his associates. The Soviet news agency, dictated by the party, whose hege-
_.m. . _ ,___ _ _ - .~- -~
. , 6 meny is explicitly acknowledged by iat constitute the real seat of power in Between the biennial sessions of the -
the Caratitution promulgated in 1936. the Soviet government. The General Supreme Soviet, which last less than 5 I The p.irty makes state policy and Secretary (head of the Secretariat) days, formal power is vested in the mmruses its implementation, and traditionally holds the top position in Presidium of the Supreme Soviet rely influence and power pervade all the Soviet Communist Party. In Octo- which currently has 36 members. Its phases of life.
One of the major tools at the dis- ber 1965 General Secretary Brezhnev. chairman, Nikolai V, Podgorny, is was also appointed to the Presidium of ceremonial Chief of State. The posal of the party to maintain its hege-the Supreme Soviet, a position which Supreme Soviet names the highest many is the secret political police or enables him to deal formally with. executive organ of the government KGB (Committee for State Security). members of foreign governments, apparatus, the Council of Ministers.
his organization not only conducts In theory the Politburo and Secre- The Council, which at present has irit elligence operations abroad but tariat are accountable to the party's a bout 100 members, is the most also, through networks of agents and Central Committee. In fact, however, important part of the government informers, keeps careful check on the the Central Committee is largely a structure. Under party direction, it
~
political reliabihty of Soviet citizens at forum for presenting party policy to supervises the work of the ministries %g )
home and abroad. The KGB has de- the most important members. Nor- and other governmental bodies. The chned in importance since the death of mally, it gives party pohcies unani- Chairman of the Council of Ministers.
Stalin. but its persasive presence is still mousapproval. Itis not in a position to equivalent to Prime Minister, is A. N.
felt by all Sosiet citizens.
initiate policy, although on rare occa- Kosygin.
Since the death of Stalin. many of sions the Central Committee has been .
the most infamous forced labor camps called on to mediate a serious dead- met Repubh.cs have been closed, and the number of lock which has developed within the political prisoners sigmficantly re- Politburo. According to party statutes, in Party and government organizations each of the 15 constituent Union duced. Nesertheless, the camps con-tinue to function. Sins - 966, more- the Central Committee should meet Republics are patterned after the twice a year. It met rarely in Stalin's central party and government organ-over, to gnen increased publisit) political trials andhas been time but more frequently under izations and are subject to policies and the sen-Khrushchev and under the Brezhnev administrative direction from Moscow.
tencing of prominent dissident intel- leadership. The membership includes They are: Armenia, Azerbaijan,
- lectuals and representatives of disad- 241 full members and 155 candidates. Belorussia, G eorgia, Kazakhstan, v antaged national minority grou ps. g The Party Congress is, in theory, Kirgizia, Moldavia, Russian Soviet 4 The regime his been especially sensi- the highest authority of the party. The Federated Socialist Re pu blic, tise to problems of intellectual and party statutes call for a congress to be Tadzhikstan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, nationah ty dissidence in view of the held every 5 years. The 24th Congress Uz be kistan, Estonia, Latvia, and threat to disciplinary bonds raised by met in March and April 1971. The Lithuania. The United States does not East West d6tente, demands for emi- 25th is set for February 1976.. Like recognize the forcible incorporation of gration, and Soviet citizens' increased the role of the Central Committee, the the last three into the U.S.S.R. It contact witt. foreigners.
real role of the Party Congress is to continues to maintain diplomatic rela-The Party give approval to policies set by the tions with representatives of the last party leaders and to provide these free governments of each of the Baltic
'the Communist Party of the Soviet policies with an aura of legitimacy. States.
Union has'a membership of about 15 The Party Congress is also a forum for million or about 6 percent of the total assessing achievements and describing adult population. Party membership is future tasks. Prm, c,i pal Government Officials the main asenue to positions of real Commumsr Party Pohrburo authority in the Soviet system. Bound Government Apparatus Yuri V. Andropov }
/
by rigid discipline, party members are The party operates through a gov- Leonid I. Brezhnev expected to carry out faithfully those ernment apparatus which has little Andrei A. Grechko policies set by the party leaders. independent authority. The legislative Viktor D. Grishin The most powerful policymaking organ is the Supreme Soviet, which,in Andrei A.Gromyko organ in the communist party is the theory, is the highest authority in the Andrei P. Kirilenko Politburo of the party's Central Com- Soviet Union. It has two coequal Aleksei N. Kosygin I
mittee. The Politburo at present has houses-the Councilof the Union, pres- Fedor D. Kulakov 15 members, 7 candidate members, ently with 767 members elected on Dinmukhamed A. Kunayev and 3 nonmember secretaries. The the basis of population, and the Coun- Kirill T. Mazurov 10-member Secretariat of the party's cil ni Nationalith with 750 members Arvid Ya. Pelshe Central Committee provides day-to- elected on the basis of territorial units. Nikolai V. Podgorny day executive and administrative direc- Elections are called for every 4 years. Dmitry S. Polyansky A
tion for the entire party machine. Only one deputy, approved by the Vladimir V. Shcherbitsky Together, the Politburo and Secretar- party, runs from each constituency.
,) i Mikhail A. Suslov L
o .
7 Candidate Members self sufficient economy with a broad of planned growth over the long term
( Pett N. Demichev industrial base and a largely self- are not favorable. Low labor produc-Pett h!. h1asherov developed technology. Except for such tivity, wasteful resource allocation, Boris N. Ponomarev top-priority sectors as defense and and difficulties in applying research Sharaf R. Rashidov space, however, Soviet technology still and development in production remain Grigory V. Romanov lags considerably behind developed major problems. There are indications Mikhail S. Soldaentsev Western countries. Current problems that shortfalls in the plan resulted in Dmitry F. Ustinov include the need to improve the cutbacks in consumer sector produc-Communht Party Secretariat system of planning and management, tion. The Tenth 5 Year Plan is being Leonid I. Brezh nev (General Secretary) increase productivity and efficiency, drafted for presentation at the 25th Vladimir I. Dolgikh continue to modernize the economy, Party Congress in early 1976. Indica-Ivan V. Kapitonov and, in particular, increase agricultural tions are that the new plan will Konstantin F. Katushev production. emphasize a higher standard of living Andrei P. Kirilenko h1ajor economic decisions in the and increased productivity.
Fedor D. Kulakov U.S.S.R. are incorporated into annual Boris N. Ponomarev and long-range plans. These plans Resources hiikhail A. Suslov cover all aspects of economic activity. Because of the great size of the Dmitry F. Ustinov Industrial and commercial enterprises U.S.S.R., some supplies of virtually are wned and operated by the state. every natural resource are available in Gorernment Officials Chairman, Presidium of Supreme State control of the economic the country. Energy resources, fuel Soviet-Nikolai V. Podgorny system is reinforced by financial and and waterpower, are estimated to be at Ch airman, Council of hlinisters- acc unting controls. As sole effective least 25 percent of the world's total.
Aleksei N. Kosygin proprietor m the economy, the state Timber and manganese rescurces are First ' Deputy Chairman, Council of c ntrols the budget, the banking the largest in the world. The U.S.S.R.
- hlinisters-Kirill T. h!azurov system, and the accounting and statis- also has more than adequate supplies
, Chairman, State Planning Committee tical systems. The only . source of of lead, zinc, nickel, mercury, potash,
, -Nikolai K. Baibakov credit is the state bank. The two and phosphate. It lacks a large known hiinister of Foreign Affairs-Andrei A. largest sources of budget revenue are domestic reserve of only two minerals,
( Gromyko hiiniste r of Defense-Andrei A.
the profits of production enterprises, tin and uranium.
the bulk of which are appropriated by the state, and the " turnover tax," a Trade Grechko Ambassador to the U.S.--Anatoly F. levy on all transactions involving the Total Soviet foreign trade (exports Dobrynin sale f c nsumer goods and the pro-
' plus imports) amounted to an esti-Ambassador to the U.N.-Yakov A. 7i si n f consumer services. Direct mated $52.3 billion in 1974 (U.3.S.R.
hlalik inc me taxation provides less than 10 figures). Soviet imports accounted for percent of the state's total revenue.
about 3.5 percent of the Soviet GNP.
The Soviet Union maintains an A significant reorientation of About three-fifths of Soviet trade is Embassy in the U.S. at 112516th St., economic policy- followed Stalin's conducted with other communist I
NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. The death. The traditional priority given countries, predominantly the other six Embassy's consular office is located at heavy industry was not abandoned, East European members of the 1609 Decatur St., NW., Washington, but the regime devoted somewhat Council of Mutual Economic Assist-
. D.C. 200l l. more of the country's resources to ance (CEh! A)-Romania, Bulgaria, consumer goods, housing, and agri- Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and j
( ECONOMY culture. the German Democratic Republic.
The 24th Party Congress in April This trade centers around Soviet pro-
{' The Soviet Union is the world's 1971 approved the Ninth 5-Year Plan vision of most East European needs of second-ranking industrial power. which will be completed this year. The fuel and raw materials-although Western observers estimate Soviet plan calls for increases in agricultural Soviet machinery exports are increas-
[ gross national product (GNP) for 1973 production of 21 percent over the ing-in return for East European at the equivalent of about US$661.4 average of the preceding 5 years,47 machinery and equipment. Soviet billion (in 1972 U.S. prices) and per percent in industrial production, and trade with the People's Republic of capita GNP at $2,650. The U.S.S.R. an increase of 39 percent in national China, which exceeded 52 billion in has achieved considerable economic inccme. Increased emphasis was placed 1959 and fell to less than $50 million progress in the past 58 years by on consumer goods production. After in 1970, increased to about $150 forcing the pace of basic industrializa- a poor performance in 1972, mainly million in 1971 and rose to abour tion which, until recent years, had due to a disastrous grain harvest, the $270 million in 1973.
( been pursued at the expense of agri- Soviet economy recovered sharply in culture and consumer goods and serv.
Another 15 percent of Soviet trade 1973 and continued growth in 1974, is conducted with the noncommunist, ices. Today the U.S.S.R. has a largely but prospects for achieving high rates developing countries and typically
8 con ists of Soviet machineryand equip. In March 1965 a new agricultural Military ment esports, usually associated with program was promulgated which called '
Sositt economic aid projects,in return The maintenance of a large military for sharply increased investment in the for agneultural raw materials, food- agricultural sector as well as higher establishment places a heavy burden on the economy and limits potential stuffs, and some light manufactured prices and stable state procurement goods. targets for agricultural commodities, growth of both the standard of living and the economy as a whole. It is The rest of the trade, about 511.4 The improved agricultural perform-billion, is with the deseloped nations ance during 1966-71 is attributable estimated that the Soviet defense of the % cst and is important to the largely to these measures combmed effort of 25 billion rublesin 1973 was the equivalent of about 580 billion, U.S.S.R. as the source of equipment with favorable weather. But improve.
and technology not available else- ment is by no means guaranteed, as The armed forces of the U.S.S.R.
where. The leading trading partners are was amply demonstrated by the near number more than 4 million members. t the W est European countries and crop failure in 1972 which neces- In addition to modern mechanized ground forces, the Sov. yts possess an Japan. Total U.S. Sosiet trade in 1974 sitated unprecedentedly large food and amounted to 5959 million and con. feed grain imports from the West, air f rce equipped with supersonic sisted pnmarily of U.S. esports (5609 mainly from the United States, causing snurcepton and Inggange strategic ,
mdlion) of crude materials, chemicals, a temporary but severe strain on the n en an a navy wim cMsers, l and nonelectric machinery in return Soviet balance of payments. Ilarvests destroyers, and submarines, many of l for imports from the U.S.S.R. (5350 in subsequent years have been at them nuclear powered and armed with !
miss les. The Soviets also possess a full t million) of raw materials tchrome ore. record levels but the balance of diamonds, and palladium) and semi- climate and technology is delicate and rangy r ets including inter- l finished products, the Soviet Union remains a potential c ntinenta1 and intermedate range large-scale importer of grain.
- fv' et str e'gic doctrine envisions Agriculture that an'y major war with the West will l The U.S.S.R. has at i t 2 million be fought with strategic atomic square mdes of arable land and industrial Growth weapons, although since the overthrow pasture. Because of its northern lati. A deceleration in the rate of of Khrushchev the doctrine of the tude, however, much of the arable industrial growth which began in the flexible response seems to be increas- l land would be considered marginal by late 1950's has been a major source of ingly popular.
3 Western standards. The actual sown concern for the Soviet leadership. The Warsaw Pact, established in V area is about 10 percent of the total After having expanded at an average 1955, is a Sosiet-dominated military land area. rate of more than 10 percent from alliance joining the U.S.S.R. and its In the countryside agriculture is 1950 to 1958, the rate of industrial East European communist allies-organized into collective farms output growth gradually declined to Polar d. Czechoslovakia, flungary,
( A olk h ury) and state farms about 7 percent in 1969 and to 6.5 Bulgaria, Romania, and the German (sur Ahozy ). State farms are run as percent by 1974. Contributing to the Democratic Republic. The pact has a
" agricultural factories" on which farm general decline were the slow progress joint command, headed by a Soviet workers are paid wages. Collective of the technological modernization officer, which coordinates war plans farms, however,' are still the dominant program, which is the main factor and carries out joint maneuvers.
, form of agricultural organization. On behind the sluggish growth of labor In peacetime, operational control collective farms ' the peasants are productivity; shortfalls in investment; of the Soviet Armed Forces is in the guaranteed the personal use (but not and slow rates of retirement of hands of the Minister of Defense, who ownership) of " private plots." These obsolete machinery and equipment. is a military officer. Pohtical controlis plots comprise only about 4 percent of Additional problems include low exercised by the party Secretariat }
the total sown arer but account for product quality; wasteful use of through its main political administra- /
almost 33 percent of gross agricultural productive resources; hoarding exces- tion. Party control extends downward production. They are particularly sive inventories of materials and throughout the military organization important in the production of milk, machinery by enterprises; resistance to through a parallel system of command.
meat, eggs, and vegetables. change and innovation, which has Commanders at each echelon have Under the "new lands" program acted as a brake on the regime's large. " political" deputies responsible for the initiated in 1954 by Khrushchev,100 scale t echnological modernization indoctrination and political loyalty of million . acres of new grain-growing program; and delays in completing and the men in command.
areas were opened to cultivation, activating new investment projects, mainly in Kazakhstan. Although the resulting in unproductne " freezing" of FOREIGN RELATIONS new lands have produced good crops, resources for long seriods of time. The the generally low rainfall and short Soviet leadership hopes that the cur- Soviet foreign policy has undergone growing season in Kazakhstan make it rent economic reform program and an evolutionary process in the post- 3 ,
risky to depend upon a good crop imports of Western technology will World War 11 period. This process has /
from that area. solve these and other problems. been manifested in the three major
9 fields of Soviet foreign policy: agsd these countries to a more introduced by Stalin's sus r, sors not
- l. Within the communist world, assertive manifestation of their to its liking, and differences between
( the monolithic character of interna- national interests and aspirations. The the two communist giants began to be tional communism has dissipated as formation of the Warsaw Pact in May discernible in the late 1950's. In April nationalism gained ground over 1955 as a security and control 1960 their differences broke into the ideology. Communist-ruled countries mechanism did not halt this trend. In open with a thinly veiled Chinese have become more resistant to, and in addition to the expulsion of Yugo- theoretical attack on the new inter-some cases defiant of, Soviet authority slavia from the Soviet-controlled national communist strategy form-and control, and nonruling communist system of East European states in ulated by the Khrushchev regime at the
{ parties are less subservient to 1948, Moscow has been confronted Soviet 20th Party Congress in 1956.
Moscow's direction. At the same time, with a series of incidents of national Throughout the rest of the decade f in this d6tente era, Moscow has been disaffection, alienation, or domestic there was open and intense rivalry successful in pressing for closer turbulence in Eastern Europe: the between Moscow and Peking for political, economic, and military ties Berlin uprising on June 17, 1953 influence throughout the world, with socialist countries. (suppressed by Soviet troops); the rise particularly in communist-ruled coun-( 2. In the Third World. Moscow has to power of the Polish nationalist tries, national communist parties, and moderated its adsocacy of com- leader Gomulka in 1956; the llun- in the Third World. Sino Soviet rela-munist-led revolutionary struggles and garian uprising in October-Nosember tions reached a nadir in March 1969 attempted to establish and maintain 1956 (suppressed by Soviet troops); when the two countries clashed on a good state-to-state relations with the the defection of Albania from the disputed island on their common governments of the individual coun- Warsaw Pact in 1960-61; Romania's border. Efforts to negotiate disagree-t ries. assertions of national independence ments over demarcation of the
- 3. In relations with the West, from 1962 on; the Czechoslovak 4,200-mile Sino-Soviet border, begun including the United States and Japan, " spring" of 1968 led by nationalist as early as 1964, have made novisible the Soviet . Union has . mitigated its leader Dubcek (suppressed by Soviet progress in the decade since.
attitude of hostility and sought to troops); and the Polish " worker's In the 1970's a new dimension was normalize relations with the highly revolt" of December 1970. added to the Sino-Soviet conniet when industrialized countries and gain access As the record shows, the Soviets both began to compete for improve-to their trade and technology. have not hesitated, when feasible, to ment of relations with the _ highly Moscow's major objectives remain use armed force to contain what they industrialized countries of the West
( largely unchanged: they are the max. regarded as extreme manifestations of and Japan. President Nixon's visit to imization of the power of the Soviet nationalism in Eastern Europe, but Peking in February 1972 stimulated state at home and espansion of its they have reacted with less harsh this trend.
influence and authority abroad. But if measures either when expressions of The Sino-Soviet conflict has had the objectives remain the same, nationalism were less dramatic or far-reaching ramifications for the important changes of strategy and when constrained by circumstances. Soviet Union's international position tactics hase occurred.
The Soviet Union has two principal and further weakened the cohesion of concerns with the maintenance of the communist ruled countries and the The Communist World loyal communist regimes in Eastern international communist movement.
Eastern Europe. In the years Europe: the security of the approaches to the U.S.S.R.'s borders in the West; international Commum,sm immediately following World War II, the Soviet Union established com. and the ideological compulsion to Since Stalin's dissolution of the 1 munist regimes subordinate to its demonstrate that the communist Comintern in 1943 to placate allied control in the East European countries system is viable and the wave of the fears, the international communist l ,
hberated by the Red Army and in future. movement has become an increasingly
{
Creelosakia with the - help of a ' Sino Soviet Relations. Moscow amorphous and progressively less Soviet mspired coup d' etat in Feb- hailed the advent of the Chinese com- pliable instrument in the hands of the l ruary 1948. Yugoslasia, which was munists to power in October 1949 as a Soviet leadership for the promotion of liberat ed by indigenous communist major accretion to the strength of its policies, forces, resisted M oscow's control, international communism and moved Traditionally an important symbol i
maintained its independence, and was . quickly to cement relations with the of Soviet revolutionary legitimacy, the isolated from the Soviet-led bloc with new regime in Peking with the con- international communist movement l clusion on February 14,1950, of a extended its influence throughout the
(
its expulsion from the Cominform in late 194S. treaty of alliance and friendship for a world in the years since 1945, but at The death of Stalin in March 1953 period of 30 years. flowever, the the cost of ideological and organiza-l and his successors' efforts to find a newly formed alliance, although never tional cohesion. This growth period formally abrogated, was, in practice, reached its peak in the late 1960's
[ more 11exible and productive relation-ship with the communist ruled coun- relatively short-lived. The regime in when Moscow claimed for the move-tries of Eastern Europe only encour- Peking found the policy modifications ment a membership of 89 parties
10 comprising close to 50 million targets of communist struggle and sub- ec:nomic and military assistance. But members. This expansion, however, version. This doctrine justified the major thrust of Soviet policy has was largely due to increases in Moscow's advocacy of communist turned to the establishment of /y membership in the 14 ruling com- armed struggle in the Third World political and economic relations, in munist parties while membership in countries, including the use of guerrilla many cases buttressed with shipment the remainder (75 nonruling parties) warfare, by the liuks in the Philippines of military assistance, with established has remained virtua!!y stationary for and by communist forces in governments almost regardless of their almost a decade. Indochina, and the Indonesian Com- political leanings. Cumulative Soviet The n u m erical and territorial munist Party's abortive attempt at a economic and military aid programs expansion of the international com- coup d' etat in 1948. The culminating actually delivered to Third World munist movement has not increased its point of this phase was reached during countries from 1954 through 1974 e f fe c tiv e n e ss. Protracted conflict the launching of the Korean war in had amounted to an estimated $21 between Moscow and a number of June 1950. The successful U.N. billion, divided about evenly between communist parties, ruling and non- defense of South Korea became a military and economic assistance.
ruling, has characterized interparty major factor prompting the sub- The Middle East i relations now for over a decade. sequent Soviet change of strategy. J Initially sparked by the Sino-Soviet Moscow during this period (through Middle East is an example of trends in Soviet Third World pohcies.
dispute, this quarrel has pitted the 1953) did not even maintain Yugoslavs, R o m a nia ns, Italians, diplomatic relations with most Third The region is of major political, Spanish, Japanese, and British among World countries, and the formal rela- ec n mic, and strategic importance to others against Moscow as they resist tions it did have with a few were Moscow since it lies close to the U.S.S. R.'s southern border, flanks adamantly persistent Soviet attempts strained and cool.
c untries of NATO, and has the at hegemony in the world communist Stalin's successors chant d these movement. policies almost immediate They w rid's largest proven reserves of oil.
M o sc o w's repeated efforts at chose the Third World the area The Arab-Israeli conflict provided tightening organizational ideological where the U.S.S.R. could break out of the opportunity for Soviet entry into discipline in the international com- the isolation imposed on it by Stalin's the area, which Moscow took munist movement have shown declin- policies. Before the year of his death advantage of in the mid-1950's by ing success as is evident from the was over, his successors had an- inaugurating a military and economic world communist meetings that con- nounced Soviet readiness to render assistance program to Egypt. Exploita-vened in 1960 and 1969. The 1960 economic assistance to the developing tion of this regional conflict has )
meeting barely managed to contain the countries. Moscow began recognizing remained the key element in Moscow's incipient Sino-Soviet dispute, and the and establishing diplomatic relations growing presence and influence in the 1969 conclave p rovided ample with the newly emerging nations, and area throughout the three Arab-Israeli evidence of the deep fissures that had in November-December 1955 Soviet wars of 1956,1967, and 1973. The plagued the movement in the inter- party and government leaders traveled S viet Union has been the major vening years. Seventeen communist in India for their first post-World War supplier of arms and economic assist-parties, including five ruling parties, 11 state visit outside the communist ance to the major Arab belligerents, as absented themselves, and 14 partici- bloc. well as to other states in the area,and pating parties 41issented from parts of has when necessary ignored the anti-The 20th Soviet Party Congress in the fmal conference document. 1956 laid the theoretical justification c mmunist propensities of many of Nevertheless, Moscow apparently for this policy: Now, instead of seeing the Arab governments there.
has not been deterred from endeavor- the Third World states as natural allies While Soviet policy has been one-ing to organize another world meeting of the Western " imperialists," Moscow sided in support of the Arab cause, in the hope of reasserting its pre- perceived the Third World as a " zone Moscow has maintained an important g eminence in what has become a rather of peace" and the political leaders basic balance by insisting on Israel's J truncated movement and in the face of there as " progressives" deserving of right to exist as a state within its 1967 increasingly assertive communist Soviet support, especially in encour- boundaries. The Soviets also urge a parties' intent in pursuing their own aging radical, nationalist, anti-Western neg tiated settlement of the Arab-interests. sentiment. Communist parties were Israeli conflict, and their support of The Third World advised to direct their efforts into the the Arabs has been characterized by Outside the communist sphere, political arena in order to avoid embar- some restraint m the types of arma-post-Stalin foreign policy changes were rassing Moscow in its efforts to estab- ments they have been willing to deliver ,
most readily apparent in the Third lish good relations with Third World and by caution when an escalation of World, the developing countries and governments. the conflict seemed to threaten to nations emerging from colonial rule. Moscow has never ceased to give at inv Ive the great powers.
Under Stalin and the "t wxa m p" least vocal support to "nationallibeta-philosophy that prevailed in his time, tion struggles" and in certain cases, Cuba these countries were lumped with the m ost notably in Indochina, has The Cuban question deserves sepa-
" imperialist" powers of the West as rendered them substantial amounts of rate mention because of the special i
~ .
11 role it has played in U.S.-Soviet rela- tion, with U.S. help, of strong, Although, implementat'on of the tions. The well-known surreptitious independent political / economic Berlin agreement has not been without
( Soviet effort in 1962 to install offen- systems in Western Europe and Japan difficulties and disagreements,it has to sive weapons in Cuba (missiles, after World War 11 contributed to date resulted in containment of Berlin bombers, and almost certainly naclear Moscow's adjustment to a more pro- as a crisis issue and thus served as a weapons) represented an attempt to ductive relationship. major contribution to the East-West gain a quick and. quantum improve- d6tente relationship of the 1970's.
Berkn/ Germany. No problem has ment m Moscow's strategic position more bedeviled East-West relations Relations With Japan. Soviet rela-
[
vis-a-vis the United States. This most than the division of Germany and the tions with Japan have improved serious confrontation since World War Four-Power control arrangement in despite failure of efforts to conclude a II was not resolved until the Soviets, at Berlin, located over 100 miles inside Soviet-Japanese peace treaty. Moscow f President Kennedy's insistence and the communist-controlled portion of participated in the San Francisco con-under pressure of a U.S. naval block- Germany. Berlin has been a constant ference in September 1951 but refused ade of the island, withdrew the focal point of East West crises because to agree to the Japanese peace treaty weapons from Cuba. Moscow's sub- of Soviet attempts to use it for concluded there by other allied sequent achievement of relative parity political pressure against the West. powers. Soviet efforts to negotiate a with the United States in strategic These crises have included Stalin's bilateral peace treaty with Japan in weapons development has largely almost I-year blockade of the Western 1956 readied an impasse over the obviated any strategic advantage it powers' ground access to Berlin in Northern Territories issue: Japan might derive from emplacing such 1948-49; Khrushchev's threats in the insisted that the treaty provide for the w eapons ir. Cuba. late 1950's and early 1960's to con- return of the southernmost islands of Politically the Cuban issue as an clude a separate peace treaty with the the Kurile chain. Renewed talks on the irritant in U.S.-Soviet relations has also East German Communist regime, the subject begun in 1971 have remained declined in importance. Moscow German Democratic Republic stalemated because of this issue, initially supported, or at least (G.D.R.), which would terminate the The Japanese have nevertheless acquiesced in, Castro's subversive West's rights in Berlin; and intermit- been willing to separate economic rela-activities against other Latin American tent Soviet harassment and inter- tions from the peace treaty / Northern regimes. But as Moscow's normal ruption of Western traffic on access Territories issues, and it is the
' political / economic relations with roads to Berlin, economic field that has witnessed the By the late 1960's both sides were biggest improvemtit in Soviet-( established governments began to develop throughout Latin America, ready to make efforts to defuse this Japanese relations. In parucular, the and Castro-supported subversion failed area of crisis and confrontation. In Soviets achieved considerable success to produce results, the two communist mid-1969 the three Western powers, in securing large-scale Japanese
, powers seemed to have agreed on a with the Federal Republic of involvement in the' exploitation and 6 more restrained, conventional political G e r m a ny's ( F. R.G.) support, consumption of Siberian natural i effort to promote the communist approached the Soviet Government resources.
cause in the southern half of the with a proposal for negotiations to Westcrn llemisphere, alleviate the situation. The negotia- European Security Conference tions, begun in March 1970, resulted The U.S.S.R. has long been inter-
' ' in a Quadripartite Agreement on ested in an "all-European" conference.
The industrialized Countries Berlin in September 1971 which was Progress in East-West relations, partic-
- c. The normalization and improve- brought into effect in, tune 1972.This ularly the Four-Power Berlin Agree-ment of Soviet rdations with the agreement embodied Soviet commit- ment and the F.R.G.-U.S.S.R. Non-highly industrialized countries,includ- ments to permit unhindered access to Aggression Treaty, opened the way to j 4 ing Japan, proceeded more gradually Berlin, to provide for improved travel the convening in 1973 of the Con-I and perhaps with less dramatic and communications within the city, ference on Security ard Cooperation developments than those which and to acknowledge F.R.C. ties with in Europe (CSCE). The final act was L i characterized the evolution of Soviet West Berlin and the F.R.G.'s right to signed by the heads of all European policy within international communism represent West Berlin abroad. The countries except Albania, as well as and toward the Third World.The trend Quadripartite Agreement on Berlin the United States and Canada, on l
has nevertheless been a steady one was supplemented by other agree- August 1,1975, in llelsinki, Finland.
' since Stahn's death, despite occasional ments between the F.R.G. and the Among the subjects covered by the setbacks. Soviet Union, the F.R.G. and the document which are of particular The post-Stalin leaders of the G.D.R., and the F.R.G. and Poland. interest to the West are " confidence Soviet Union recognized the necessity These a gree ments acknowledged building measures" c oncerning of restraint in the nuclear age, as well border changes in Central Europe military maneuvers; cooperation in the economic, scientific, technical, and /
as the advantages of gaining access to which had been brought about by We< tern technology and trade in order World War 11 and began the process of environmental areas; and freer human to stimulate the sluggish pace of Soviet regularizing relations between the two contacts and exchanges of informa-domestic deeclopment. Th: restora- German states. tion. If carried into practice, it is
[
_m. _ _._.
12 hoped that the recommendations in General Secretary Brezhnev's visit As a result of U.S.-Soviet agree- '
these dc.cuments will contribute to the to the United States in 1973 led to the ment, several multilateral arms control i further progress of df tente. conclusion of an agreement on pre- measures have been adopted by the vention of nuclear war; guidelines for international community: the 1961 U.S. SOVIET RELATIONS negotiations on strategic offensive Antarctic Treaty which provides for weapons; and specific accords on use of that area for peaceful purposes Overall U.S. policy toward the peaceful uses of atomic energy, ag- only and for inspection to insure the U.S.S.R., which has come to ' be riculture, civil aviation, cultural ex- treaty is being observed; the 1963 labeled " detente" or " relaxation of changes, ocea nograrhy, transportation, Limited Test Ban ~ Treaty which tensions," is to minimize the risk of and tax questions. prohibits tests of nuclear weapons in confrontation by cooperating with the During the Moscow summit in the the atmosphere, outer space, and Soviet Union where our interests summer of 1974, agreement was underwater; an October 1963 U.N.
coincide and by fostering consultation reached on limiting anti-ballistic resolution which prohibits the and negotiation' where our interests missile systems and nuclear weapons stationing in outer space of any g differ. tests, and bilateral exchanges were objects carrying nuclear weapons and .
D6tente is a continuing and some- expanded to include such fields as which was elaborated in treaty form in times uneven process of easing energy, housing, and artificial heart January 1967; a Nuclear Nonprolifera-tensions and expanding our relations research. The November 1974 working tion Treaty which was signed on July to the benefit of both countries. It is meeting in Vladivostok provided an 1,1968 and entered into force on not based upon some newly discovered opportunity for President Ford to March 5,1970; a treaty which bans compatibility between our system and discuss the full range of U.S.-Soviet emplacement of weapons of mass that of the U.S.S.R. Improvement in relations with General Secretary destruction on the seabeds, entered U.S.-Somt relations is necessary pre- Brezhnev and gave essentialimpetus to into force in May 1972; and an inter-cisely because in the nuclear age, when our strategic arms limitation negotia- national convention which bars the
! both we and the Soviet Union possess tions. development, production, and stock-the military capability to obliterate In short, the current phase of U.S.- piling of bacteriological weapons and each other and a good part of the rest Soviet relations is characterized by toxins which was signed in April 1972 of mankind, we remain divided on unprecedented consultation be tween and entered into force in March 1975.
m:my fundamental issues. It is these leaders and a wide spectrum of con-I very differences which compel any tacts and negotiations aimed at dealing U.S.-Soviet Strategic Arms Accords .
responsible U.S. administration to w th the dangers of the nuclear age Efforts to contain the U.S.-U.S.S.R.
Indke a major effort to Create a more and expanding bilateral cooperation to strategic arms buildup did not bear stable and constructive relationship. our mutual benefit. These accomplish- fruit until the early 1970's. Through-We judge U.S.-Soviet relations not ments do not guarantee peace, but out the post-World War 11 period, by atmosphetics but by progress in they have served to diminish the beginning with the "Baruch plan" in resolving concrete problems and by tensions of the past and offer hope for 1946, U.S. arms limitation proposals evidence of responsible international a better future. had been designed to freeze the exist-
! conduct. We recognize that the process ing situation. It became clear that the j of df tente is not without risk and Anns Control and msannament Sov et Union would not agree to such t therefore requires that the United The spiraling arms buildup which proposals, and after the failure of their States maintain an effective military developed during the cold war period Cuban missile deployment, the capability. We are convinced, however, has presented one of the greatest U.S.S.R. launched a strategic weapons
, that the risks inherent in a return to dangers and the most compellingchal- program which brought the Soviet
- confrontation, high tension, and an lenges to the normalization of East- . Union to a position of rough parity c' ?'
3 unlimited and unstable arms race West relations. It is an area where with the United States by 1970. This j would be vastly greater. concrete progress has been made new situation paved the way for the Proceeding from these considera- despite the sensitivity of the issues, first strategic arms limitation talks tions, we have worked to normalize which directly concern the national (SALT One), which began in Novem-U.S.-Soviet relations in many ways. security of the states involved. The ber 1969 in fielsinki at the initiative of The May 1972 Moscow summit strategic arms race between the United the United States.
resulted in the Anti-Ballistic Missile States and the U.S.S.R.-two powers These talks resulted in the signing Treaty and the Interim Agreement on in a class by themselves since no other of the first two strategic arms limita-Strate, tic Offensive Arms. It produced country has the prospect of matching tion agreements on May 26, 1972, a declaration of basic principles of their strategic weapons development- during President Nixon's visit to relations between the United States has been the crux of the problem. Moscow; a treaty limiting anti-ballistic and the Soviet Union, as well as a Efforts to prevent the spread of this missile systems of both sides and an number of specialized agreements in competition and to contain it bi- interim agreement limiting certain , y such fields as outer space cooperation laterally began to bear fruit in the strategic offensive arms for a period of and protection of the environment. 1960's. 5 years. These agreements set the stage l
I l
a .
13 for the second round of SAIT, which exchanges of graduate students, re- consider . approved projects for' the l began in November 1972 in Geneva. search scholars, exhibits, performing coming year.-In addition to the joint At the Vladivostok summit meeting arts groups, and education seminars, committees, working groups of in November 1974, President Ford and rather than maximum targets as in the specialists meet periodically to work General Secretary Brezhnev provided past. Although the 1973 agreement out the details of the projects. Partic-further impetus for the . phase two provides for the exchange of at least ipants both in the working groups and SALT talks when they reached agree- 40 graduate students, in the 1974-75 joint committees on the U.S. side ment in principle on an overall academic year 50 graduate students include government officials and repre-numerical ceiling to be placed on all were exchanged. The agreement also sentatives of private industry or the the existing strategic arms systems of provides for the exchange of senior academic world. In 1974 some 900 both sides for a 10-year period. These scholars and, for the first time, persons from each side took part in guidelines, when embodied in a final university lecturers. The current agree- the exchanges of visits in connection agreement including key provisions on ment also provides for the reciprocal with implementing the agreements.
verification, are to be followed by distribution of 62,000 copies of Sorict further negotiations aimed at reducing Life and Amerika magazines with the Principal U.S. Officials strategic armaments. understanding t hat both sides will Ambassador-Walter J. Stoessel, Jr.
A SALT Two agreement will be a examine the possibility of increasing Minister / Counselor-Jack F. Matlock major milestone in strategic arms the reciprocal distribution of the Cou nselor for Political Affairs-limitation between the United States magazines to 82,000 copies by the end Marshall Brement and U.S.S.R. since it will place a cap of 1976. Counselor for Economic and Com-on the strategie weapons program of At the 1972 Moscow summit, and mercial Affairs-Noble Melencamp each side on the basis of equality and growing out of the exchanges con- Counselor for A d ministration-give impetus to efforts to reduce, as ducted earlier under the 2-year Thomas Train
' pposed to only limiting, their stra- cultural agreements, it was agreed to Coanselor for Cultural Affairs-o tegic armaments. expand mutual contacts in scientific Raymond Benson Exchanges and Cooperative and technical areas. As a result since Defense Attach 6-Brig. Gen. James W.
. Agreements 1972 we have signed agreements to Wold l
'I he numerous exchange and co- cooperate in science and technology, Army Attach 6-Col. Graham Vernon operative agreements we have signed outer space, medical science and Naval Attach 6-Capt. Ronald J. Kurth
' f with the Soviet Union are an impor. public health, environmental protec- Cou nselor for Consular Affairs-tant element in relations between the tion, a tomic energy, agriculture, Clifford Gross two countries. Beginning in 1958, we oceanography, transportation, energy. Counselor for Scientific Affairs-Egon have signed 2-year, cultural exchange housing and other construction, and in Loebner agreements which provide for the the research and development of an Director, Commercial Office-Thomas i' distnbution of official magazines, artificial heart. At the present time M. T. Niles elmerila and Sorief Life, and ex. approximately 140 projects hase been
' Leningrad changes of many graduate students, selected as topics forjoint work.
The agreements are being carried C nsul General-Joseph W. Neubert performing arts groups, exhibits, and ,
Deputy Principal O f ficer-Gary athletic g rou ps. The most recent out through a structure of joint com-Mathews cultural exchanges agreement, signed mittees of policy-level officials from at the June 1973 Washington summit both sides which meet once a year in The U.S. Embassy in the Soviet meeting, is valid for 4 y ears,instead of each other's countries to review the Union is located at Ulitsa 2, and estabhsh(s minimum levels for work of the preceding year and to Chaikovskovo 19/21/23, Moscow.
DEPARTMENT OF STATE PUBLICATION 7842, Revised September 1975 Office of Media Services, Bureau of Public Affairs c U.S. Government Printing Offke: 1975 0 -21o 847(1623)
. =_
I or sale tiy the Superintendent of Docurnents. U.S. Gosernment Printing Orrice, Washington, D.C. 2o402 Price Jo cents (single copy). Subuription Price: $23.1o per yeare $5.6o additional for foreign vn.iiling.
, M 360 11-75 U
$)
P SSPOR U.S. DEPARTMENT OF STATE _mWASHINGTON, D.C.
FFI E PASSPORT PAT
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TRAVEL TO THE SOVIET UNION Garatal The United States Government encourages contact between Americans and the peoples of the Soviet Union, and favors two-way tourist traffic between the United States and the USSR. Tens of thousands of American tourists visit the USSR annually without serious difficulty, but all prospective American visitors to the USSR should be aware of the considerations described in this pamphlet.
Every American who travels to the Soviet Union is subject to Soviet laws, regulations, and restrictions. Some activities which are legal in the United States and in most other countries may be illegal in the Soviet Union. Persons violating Soviet law, even un-knowingly, run the risk of arrest or expulsion, including the forfeiture of the unused part of a pre-purchased tour.
Article 12 of the 1968 Consular Convention between the United States and the Soviet Unior. states that Americans traveling or re-siding in the Soviet Union have the right to communicate with an American consular officer. Americans in difficulties should insist, therefore, upon their right to telephone the American Embassy in Moscow (252 00-11 through 252-00-19), or the United States Consu-late General in Leningrad (72-45-49 and 72-52-17).
( ie American traveler to the Soviet Union should give particular attention to the following D0's and DON'T's which are in greater detail later:
DO
~
DO NOT 1.
Strictly obserte Soviet currency controls and customs regulations.: Bring rubles into the U. S. from abroad; buy or sell rubles pri-
- vately or attempt to sell anything.
Bring a substantial reserve of money and declare all the funds -
you have with you, including travelers checks. Keep all currency : Steal " souvenirs" from Soviet hotels or institutions, however exchange receipts. : insignificant in value they may appear to you.
Think before taking photographs. : Attempt to take photos: of slums, the poor, military installa-
- tions; from aircraft; or of border areas. When in doubt, ask.
llave confirmed hotel accommodations before traveling.
- Attempt to mail exposed camera film out of the Soviet Union.
Follow approved travel plans. .
- Attempt to deviate from approved itineraries.
Write down passport number and keep it separate from your pass-port; do the same with the address and telephone number of the : Bring in pornography or narcotics.
American Embassy in Moscow. *
- Arrive without a valid visa.
Avoid peddlers and black marketeers.
Check date of entry and exit on Soviet visa; make sure passport number listed on Soviet visa is correct; be sure you are not arriving in the Soviet Union before the date on which the visa -
becomes valid for entry.
Travel Arrantements Tourists, businessmen and persons attending conferences or conventions in the USSR will usually have to arrange for their travel with one of the many U. S. travel agencies accredited by Intourist. Travelers coming from the United States and Western Europe do
(
- cinations.
e require smallpox or cholera vaccinations at this time. Those coming from Asia of Africa should have cho Do not arrive without a valid Soviet visa. This can result in considerable delay, temporary confinement, or expulsion. Soviet visas are only valid between specific dates. Before starting your trip be sure your visa will be valid on the dates of your planned ent y into and departure from the USSR.
Tourist travel is normally limited to standard itineraries. All travel, hotel accommodations, meals, etc., should be arranged and paid for in advance. By storking through intourist or an accredited U. S. travel agent, "special-interest" tours can sometimes be
4 I
ar anged encompassing visits to areas of professionalinterest to the Traveler and appointments with Soviet specialists in the
' traveler's field. Because arrangements between the traveler and Intourist are based on private contract, the traveler who is dis-
! satisfied with services provided or seeks a refund for unused travel coupons must make a claim to intourist or through his travel agent as provided for in the contract. . If the claim for a refur/. cannot be resolved directly, the traveler may institute legal acti j
in the city or state where the contract was entered into, iniourist regulations permit refunds for full unused days of intourist ser-vices only if the traveler obtains a certifica'e (spravka) from intourist while in the USSR stating that the services were not used.
i.
Soviet Laws and Regulations Soviet laws and regulations are often very different from those in the United States. Travelers should comply scrupulously with Soviet laws and regulations. They should observe currency and customs controls. They should refuse all offers to change money
- on the street, sell clothing, or buy objects offered for sale on street corners. Soviet law is extremely severe about the importation l
of undeclared weapons or narcotics. Cases of " disrespect" toward the Soviet flag, portraits of past and present Soviet leaders, l or monuments, often have led to the detention and expulsion of the traveler. Travelers should bring into or take out of the USSR j
i only routine letters and normal gifts to relatives. Bringing in any sizable quantity of religious materials or !!terature may cause difficulties, although travelers apptrently may bring individual items into the USSR for their own personal use.
Currency Customs Laws, Commercial Transactions Understating or neglecting to declare currency and valuables is the most common error of Americans visiting the USSR. Soviet currency laws are strictly enforced and the traveler should comply with them meticulously. He should find out what he can bring to the USSR as gifts to relatives and what he can take out. He should make an accurate and complete declaration of money and v.luables on entry. Under Soviet law, undeclared cash and such valuables as watches, rings and other jewelry may be confiscated i as " contraband." The traveler should have his customs declaration stamped by Soviet authorities and should keep it without fail j
i until he leaves. Soviet customs officials may confiscate all cash and valuables upon departure if the visitor cannot produce the i
declaration. Visiting students and scholars should make special arrangements with their Soviet sponsors if they wish to bring re-search materials into the USSR. Experience has shown that such materials may be confiscated upon departure unless prior permis-sion has been obtained from Soviet authorities.
Keep copies of receipts of currency exchange. Rubles may not be brought into or taken out of the USSR. All offers to change ru l on the street or to purchase clothing and personal items should be refused. The traveler should bring with him all the money h need for his trip, as well as a reserve, because the receipt of funds in the Soviet Union is time-consuming and complicated. Re j
objects or publications, particularly when more than one item is imported, are sometimes confiscated by the Soviet custom l
Do not bring in pornography, marijuana, or narcotic drugs. Magazines with photos of nudes which are generally considered ino I
in Western countries are regarded as pornographic by Soviet standards.
i a
Travel bv Automobile Automobile travel along certain specified routes is permitted, with or without intoutist guides. Driving conditions, however, are more rugged than in Western Europe and service stations are often scarce. Soviet driving regulations are strictly enforced i drivers who violate them are subject to Soviet legal penalties.
Automobile travelers should be fully insured under policies valid for the USSR. Such insurance may be placed with a number of Western firms or with Ingosstrakh, Kuybyshev Street 11/10, Moscow, the Soviet organization which insures foreigners.
i Upon entering the Soviet Union, all auto tourists are required to sign an obligation guaranteeing the re-export of their auto this guarantee also applies to damaged vehicles. American tourists have been required to pay up to $400 to ship their dam
' mobiles out of the Soviet Union to neighboring countries for repair because necessary repairs could not be made in the USSR.
Deviation From Approved Itinerary i
4 Foreigners are not permitted to travel in many areas of the Soviet Union. About one quarter of the USSR is officially closed to foreigners and a greater area is in effect barred because intourist declines ,to arrange travel there. Any marked deviation from a scheduled itinerary will draw immediate reaction from Soviet authorities. A law of July 23,1966, provides penalties for foreigners who " maliciously" violate Soviet travel regulations," visiting places not. mentioned in their USSR entry visas or deviating from the itinerary indicated in the travel documents without special permission." This applies to entries into forbidden areas, departure
] from approved motor routes, and failure to adhere to prearrar:ged itineraries, whether traveling by automobile or other mea i
transportation. Soviet policemen'have the right to assess fines for violation of these rules without recourse to local autho
- Foreigners may also be expelled or, in some cases, even imprisoned for deviation from established itineraries.
Photography American tourists have on occasion been temporarily detained, interrogated, and asked to leave the USSR because of alleged violations l
i of Soviet regulations on photography. A summary of the regulations taken from a February 11,1954, note to the American Embass i at Moscow follows:
i
- 1. Photographs are permitted of architectural monuments; culture, educational, and medical buildings; theaters; l museums; parks; stadiums; streets and squares; living quarters; landscape scenes not having objects listed below
,1 (under 3)in the background.
i l !
1
.- - ----_ .. _. . . . _ . . _. _ _ _ --,__- , --- - .- _ ~ _ _ _ _ ____ _ _ ,_ -,_ ._ _ _ ___ _
3-f
- 2. If permission is first obtained from the officials of the institution concerned, photographs may be taken of industrial enterprises manufacturing civilian products; state farms; collective farms; railroad stations; airports; river ports, and governmental, educational, and social organizations.
- 3. Photography is forbidden within 2S-kilometer border zones except in those portions not closed to foreigners.
Photographs of the following are forbidden: all military objects, institutions, and personnel; storage facilities for comi bustibles; seaports; hydroelectric installations (sluices); pumping stations (dams); railroad junctions; tunnels; railroad and highway bridges; industrial, scientific, and research establishments; electric, telephone, and telegraph stations; radio facilities. Photographs from airplanes and surface and panoranic shots of industrial cities are prohibited.
- 4. Foreigners may not mail exposed film out of the Soviet Union.
Taking pictures of slums or of the poor, or other potentially embarrassing subjects, has sometimes resulted in confiscation of cemeras, unpleasantness, and even detention. When in doubt, the traveler should ask his Intourist guide or the subject before taking a picture. Sometimes old wooden houses which Americans find quaint and charming are regarded as hovels by Soviets, and they sometimes resent foreigners photographing such structures.
Soviet Citizenship The Department of State cannot determine whether a naturalized American citizen or resident alien who was once a resident of 1 Imperial Russia, the Soviet Union, or territory now under Soviet centrol, may be considered by the Soviet Government to be a citizen of the USSR. The possibility cannot be excluded that an American may be detained in the Soviet Union on the claim that he is also a Soviet citizen. Naturalized American citizens or resident aliens who may be regarded by the Soviet Government as still possessing Soviet citizenship can clarify their status before leaving the U. S. by renouncing Soviet citizenship through an expatriation application to the USSR Embassy in Washington.
A decision as to whether a former resident of the USSR or territories now under Soviet administration should travel there can only be made by the individual himself in the light of his background and all other pertinent factors. Former Soviet citizens with a record of what Soviet authorities construe as " anti-Soviet activity" on USSR territory have on occasion been harassed, expe!!ed, or im-prisoned.
3rmanent Resident Aliens: Requirements for Departure and Reentry
[
A permanent resident alien contemplating travel to the Soviet Union, as well as to most Eastern European countries, is required to apply to the Immigration and Naturalization Service for a reentry permit. Although an Alien Registration Receipt Card (Form 1-151)is valid as a reentry document after travel to most countries, it is not valid as a reentry document after travel to the Soviet Union and certain other countries.
A permanent resident alien having doubt as to the validity of Form I-151 for reentry because of the contemplated itinerary abroad, should consult with the nearest immigration and Naturalization Service office before commencing travel.
Permanent resident aliens of the United States, including stateless persons, who plan to visit the USSR, are cautioned that the Soviet Government might not recognize that the U. S. Government may have a valid interest in their welfare while they are in the Soviet Union. Permanent resident aliens planning to visit the USSR should therefore bear in ralad that the U. S. Government may be unable to assist them if they should be arrested or detained in the USSR for acts allegedly committed during their sojourn or while they were residents of the USSR in the past. The Soviet Govercment has been particularly severe in punishing those whom it considers to have committed " war crimes" against the USSR.
Visiting Relatives in the USSR ,
Sometimes Americans traveling to the USSR as tourists under Intourist auspices are able to meet Soviet relatives at a place on the American's regular Intourist itinerary. Sometimes American tourists are able to make arrangements through Intourist for a short-individual excursion to places off the regular itinerary where relatives live or ancestors lived, but such special excursions are gen-erally difficult to arrange and permission is often refused. Persons traveling to the USSR as tourists who hope to make such side excursions should alert intourist through their U. S. travel agent as early as possible, and seek if possible to arrange permission before departure from the U. S. Any Soviet relatives the traveler hopes to see should be mentioned in the Soviet visa application.
A traveler who cannot arrange such a desired side excursion before departure must understand that he may not be able to make arrangements after arrival, and Intourist assumes no responsibility for any failure to meet relatives.
Visas for " private trips" as " private visitors" to a relative's place of residence in the USSR for a specified period of time are issued by the Consular Division, Soviet Embassy,1609 Decatur Street, N. W., Washington, D. C 20011, telephone area code 202 882-5829.
Applicationi forms may be requested by mail from the Embassy. The completed application form is sent by air mail to the relative in the Soviet Union, who submits it to the local Soviet Visa Office (0VIR: Otdel Viz i Registratsii). Applications must be submitted 1
[ s.1The in advance. Sovietinconsideration Soviet Embassy Washington willofinform thesethe applications is often applicant when a very slow authorization process to issue and the visa hasthey may been be denied or not acted granted.
Americans passing, through Moscow on their way to visit relatives living outside the capital may wish to stay overnight in Moscow on arrival or departure. In such cases, travelers are cautioned to purchase intourist vouchers for this purpose before arrivalin the USSR.
Unless prior arrangements have been made with Intaurist, hotel rooms may prove difficult or irnpossible to obtain. In case the traveler has not been able to make arrargements for a hotel in Moscow through intourist, the office of Pan American Airways in room 239 of the Metropo! Hotel (phone: 223-51-83)in the center of Moscow can often be of assistance in obtaining a room. The office of American Express in room 384 of the Metropo! Hotel (phone: 225-63-84)also may be of assistance.
, s Registration at American Embassy e
Americans not traveling in group tours and Americans born in territory now under the contol of the USSR should notify the Consular Section, American Embassy, Ulitsa Chaykovskovo 21, Moscow, or the United States Consulate General, Ulitsa Petra-Lavrova 15, Leningrad, of their full name, passport number, date and place of birth, occupation, hotel and room number, purpose and dates of visit to the USSR, home address, and the names and add esses of any relatives to be visited in the USSR. The leaders of group tours should provide the Consular Section with the same information concerning American members of the groep. If the leader is reluctant to do so, the individual American should notify the Consular Section himself. Registration may be accomplished in person or by mail before arrival. The information provided by registration has proven extremely useful to the Embassy in making inquiries when the Americans have encountered difficulties which required the intervention of the United States Government.
Travelers should keep a record of their passnort numbers since hotels normally keep the passport for the purpose of registration.
The Embassy's address and telephone numbers should also be written down. The telephone numbers are 252-00-11 through 252-00-19.
Loss of Passport Loss of a passport is particularly inconvenient in the USSR, as the traveler needs his passport to check into hotels and change money.
Also, a traveler cannot depart the USSR without a passport, and if he loses his Soviet visa, he must obtain a replacement valid Soviet eut visa in order to leave the USSR by submitting a passport with his application for a replacement visa.
American citizens who lose their passports must apply in person to the U. S. Embassy in Moscow or Consulate General in Leningrad for emergency replacement passports. Travelers who have unused spare passport photographs may wish to carry them separately from their passports for use in applying for emergency replacement passports in the event of passport loss.
The best way for the traveler to asoid inconvenience and possible extra expense is to safeguard his passport.
Helpful Hints.
Normal courtesy and a good supply of patierice are extremely uwful in the Soviet Union. So, too, is some knowledge of the Russian language. Travel to the Soviet Union can often be strenuous, particularly for older persons and for individuals with special health problems. (A traveler should bring with him an adequate supply of any special medicine required). However, most Soviet citizens g of all nationalities are friendly toward and curious about Americans. When in doubt about how to behave in a given situation, act W in a reasonable and open manner. The overwhelming majority of Soviet citizens who approach a traveler do so from motives of friendliness and hospitality and the traveler should not feel impelled to icok for ulterior motives behind such signs of friendship.
Instant coffee, bathroom stoppers, and English. language guidebooks (easier to obtain in the West than in the USSR), are useful items to bring along. Dollars can be exchanged for rubles at most intourist hotels.
Examples of Difficulties Encountered by Son e Travelers Exarrples of difficulties which have been encountered by some tourists are:
Concealei Prohibited Items: One American woman was detained and then expelled from the country for bringing more than a dozen Bibles for friends and relatives. Another was arrested and convicted by a provincial Soviet court for concealing iin her luggage jewelry, religious medals, and " dental" gold intended as gifts to her relatives. Her sentence of three years in a Soviet labor camp was reduced by an appeals court and she was expelled from the country after three months detention.
A third American, attempting to bring a pistol into the Soviet Union, was immediately detained at Moscow airport, arrested, and then held two months in prison in Moscow before she was released. In each of these cases, the American unsuccessfully pleaded ignorance of the Soviet law.
Concealed Drugs: The sensitivity of Soviet authorities to drugs and drug traffic is well known. The last of three young Americans arrested in August 1968 in Tashkent for attempting to transit tt.e USSR with quantities of hashish, waste '
%ased only in February 1971. The three spent their prison terms in a Soviet labor camp.
Carried " Anti-Soviet Literature" American visitors have noted that Soviet customs officials carefully inspect the literature they bring with them. Groups traveling by car have reported extensive searches of vehicles and baggage at border points and confiscation of literature. In one instance, Soviet autherities were particularly nasty to the leader of an American student group when, during a summary search of his baggage, they found a paper wiitten by a Soviet emigrant. The American probably avoided being expelled only because he was scheduled to leave shortly.
Failed to Mention Relatives in Soviet Visa Application: An American hoping to visit his relatives in Riga concealed their existence from the Soviet Consul in applying f or nas visa. As soon as he made contact with the relatives, he was closely followed and subjected to harassment and provocations. Nervous and fearful for his safety, he departed the USSR ahead of schedule. His relatives were left behind to take the brunt of the displeasure of the Soviet authorities.
Arrived Without a Visa: Every year a few Americans arrive in Moscow by. plane without a visa, or without a valid visa.
A traveler without a visa will usually be detained in the airport " transit hotel," while intourist applies for and secures the visa for him. This slow process and the meager comforts of the transit hotel are trying for even the most patient of visitors.
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