ML12338A672

Official Exhibit - ENT000362-00-BD01 - Unscear, Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, Report to the General Assembly, Vol. I, Annex C (2000) (Exposures to the Public from Man-made Sources of Radiation) (2000)

ML12338A672
Person / Time
Site:	Indian Point
Issue date:	03/29/2012
From:	United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
To:	Atomic Safety and Licensing Board Panel
SECY RAS
References
RAS 22135, 50-247-LR, 50-286-LR, ASLBP 07-858-03-LR-BD01
Download: ML12338A672 (134)

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ANNEX C Exposures to the public from man-made sources of radiation CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION................................................... 158 I.

TESTING AND PRODUCTION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS.............. 158 A.

ATMOSPHERIC TESTS..................................... 159 1.

Number and yields of tests................................ 159 2.

Dispersion and deposition of radioactive debris................ 160 3.

Annual doses from global fallout........................... 168 4.

Local and regional exposures.............................. 172 B.

UNDERGROUND TESTS.................................... 176 C.

PRODUCTION OF WEAPONS MATERIALS.................... 177 1.

United States.......................................... 177 2.

Russian Federation..................................... 177 3.

United Kingdom....................................... 179 4.

France............................................... 179 5.

China............................................... 180 II.

NUCLEAR POWER PRODUCTION................................ 180 A.

MINING AND MILLING.................................... 180 1.

Effluents............................................. 181 2.

Dose estimates......................................... 181 B.

URANIUM ENRICHMENT AND FUEL FABRICATION............ 182 C.

NUCLEAR REACTOR OPERATION........................... 182 1.

Effluents............................................. 183 2.

Local and regional dose estimates.......................... 186 D.

FUEL REPROCESSING..................................... 188 1.

Effluents............................................. 188 2.

Local and regional dose estimates.......................... 188 E.

GLOBALLY DISPERSED RADIONUCLIDES.................... 189 F.

SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL AND TRANSPORT.................. 190 G.

SUMMARY

OF DOSE ESTIMATES........................... 190 III.

OTHER EXPOSURES........................................... 191 A.

RADIOISOTOPE PRODUCTION AND USE..................... 191 B.

RESEARCH REACTORS.................................... 192 C.

ACCIDENTS.............................................. 192 CONCLUSIONS.................................................... 193 ENT000362 Submitted: March 29, 2012 United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission Official Hearing Exhibit In the Matter of:

Entergy Nuclear Operations, Inc.

(Indian Point Nuclear Generating Units 2 and 3)

ASLBP #: 07-858-03-LR-BD01 Docket #: 05000247 l 05000286 Exhibit #:

Identified:

Admitted:

Withdrawn:

Rejected:

Stricken:

Other:

ENT000362-00-BD01 10/15/2012 10/15/2012

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION Page Tables............................................................ 195 References......................................................... 287 INTRODUCTION 1.

The Committee has continually kept under review the exposures of the world population resulting from releases to the environment of radioactive materials from man-made sources. Exposures from such sources reviewed in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3] included atmospheric nuclear testing,undergroundnucleartesting,nuclearweaponsfabrica-tion, nuclear power production, radioisotope production and uses, and accidents at various locations. New information on man-made environmental exposures is considered in this Annex.

2.

The testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere was the most significant cause of exposure of the world popula-tion to man-made environmental sources of radiation. The practice continued from 1945 to 1980. Although the testing has ceased and the Committee's assessment of global doses based on measured 90Sr deposition remains an accurate evaluation of the resulting exposures, particularly for long-lived radionuclides, new data on the yields of individual tests have been made available. These allow more detailed calculations of the dispersal of radionuclides throughout the world following the injection of debris into the atmosphere.

Estimates oftotal deposition and doses from individual radio-nuclides are re-evaluated in this Annex, which also considers exposurestoindividualswholived near the test sites. Previous estimatesofexposuresfromatmospherictestingwerebasedon accumulated average doses (dose commitments), but there is interest as well in the annual doses received by individuals.

Annual dose estimates are derived in this Annex.

3.

Following the cessation of atmospheric testing, nuclear weapons continued to be tested underground. Several further underground tests were conducted in 1998. Underground testing results only infrequently in releases of radionuclides to the environment and the exposure of individuals. Beyond the testing of nuclear weapons, the military fuel cycle, involving the production of weapons materials and the fabrication of the weapons, has also resulted in releases of radioactive materials to the environment. Information on exposures in areas surrounding the industrial sites of nuclear materials production and weapons fabrication are considered in this Annex. Both historical and contemporary data not previously reviewed by the Committee are presented.

4.

Nuclear power production continues in a number of countries, where it is an important component of electrical energygeneration. Rather complete monitoringand reporting of radionuclides released, especially from nuclear reactors, provide adequate data to allow analysing exposures from this source. Data on annual releases for 19901997 and analysis of longer-term trends are included in this Annex. Another continuing practice, radioisotope production and uses, involvesat the production stage rather trivial doses that can be only roughly estimated from the total size of the industry worldwide and some approximate figures on fractional releases of the radionuclides produced. The Committee previously assessed these exposures. The exposures of family membersofpatients whoreceived therapeutic treatmentswith 131I are considered in this Annex.

5.

Another source of exposures that may be considered to be man-made is the use of fuels or materials containing naturally occurring radionuclides. These are referred to as enhanced natural radiation exposures. It has been the practice of the Committee to evaluate these along with other exposures from natural radiation. These evaluations are included in Annex B, Exposures from natural radiation sources.

I.

TESTING AND PRODUCTION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS 6.

The testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, which took place from 1945 until 1980, involved un-restrained releases of radioactive materials directly to the environment and caused the largest collective dose thus far from man-made sources ofradiation. Previous assessments by the Committee of the total collective dose to the world population in the UNSCEAR 1982 and 1993 Reports [U3, U6] are complete and still valid. In the latter Report [U3],

transfer coefficients are given for the dose per unit release or per unit deposition density for over 20 radionuclides for the inhalation, ingestion, and external exposure pathways.

7.

The evaluation of doses to the hemispheric and world populations from this practice has been based on the 158

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 159 measured global deposition density of

90Sr, limited measurements of 95Zr deposition, and on estimated ratios of the deposition of other radionuclides to these. The annual depositions of 90Sr were measured in some detail during the years when testing in the atmosphere took place. This has meant that the collective doses could be evaluated more directly and with less uncertainty than would be the case if uncertain estimates of the amounts of radionuclides produced in the tests and their dispersion in the environment had to be relied on. However, lack of sufficient data for other, and especiallythe shorter-lived, radionuclides limitsthereliability of the estimated ratios to 95Zr and 90Sr.

8.

In recent years some further details of atmospheric nuclear testing have become available. In particular, the numbers and total yields of the explosions have been officially reported, providing reliable basic input data, and estimates are being made of the local doses to populations living in the vicinities of the test sites. This information is taken note of by the Committee to complete the historical record of this practice.

9.

In its previous assessments, the Committee emphasized the estimation of the collective doses from atmospheric nuclear testing and did not evaluate annual doses in detail.

Approximate magnitudes of annual doses were presented in the UNSCEAR1982Report [U6]. The unfolding ofcollective doses toderive annual doses is presented below in more detail toillustratethetimedependenceofcontributionstotheannual effective doses alreadyreceived by the world population from various radionuclides and to estimate the future annual effective doses from residual contamination.

10.

The production of nuclear weapons involves securing quantities of enriched uranium or plutonium for fission devices and of tritium and deuterium for fusion devices. The fuel cycle for military purposes is similar to that for nuclear electrical energy generation: uranium mining and milling, enrichment, fuel fabrication, reactor operation, and repro-cessing. Releases ofradionuclides mayoccur at all the various stages but particularly during reprocessing and plutonium separation. Initial information on exposures from the opera-tion of military fuel cycle installations was included in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3]. Some further data are summarized in this Chapter. Discharges and hence exposures were greatest in the early years when nuclear arsenals were being established.

A.

ATMOSPHERIC TESTS 1.

Number and yields of tests 11.

Further information on the number and yields of atmospheric nuclear tests has been reported by the countries that conducted the tests. In the UNSCEAR1993 Report [U3],

the number of tests by all countries was adjusted from 423 to 520, an increase of more than 20%. The total has since been modified slightly, andat the same time the estimated total and fission yields have been revised downwards.

12.

Compilations of data on atmospheric nuclear tests have been published within the last few years, first by the United States [D4], then by the former Soviet Union [M2],

the United Kingdom [J3], and France [D3]. Information was provided on the date of each test, its name or designa-tion, location, type, purpose, and the total explosive yield.

To verify production amounts of important globally dispersed fission radionuclides, it would also be necessary to know the fission yield of each test or series of tests.

13.

The data on atmospheric nuclear tests needed by the Committee for exposure evaluations are given in Table 1, and a summary for each country and each test site is provided in Table 2. The date, type, and total explosive yield of individual tests are as reported by the country. In a few cases, the total yields reported by the United States and the former Soviet Union were indefinite (low, sub megatonne, or within a designated range). Specific values for summations and analyses were estimated based on assumptions given in the footnotes to Table 1.

14.

Assumptions are also needed to estimate the fission and fusion yields of individual tests. Relatively low yield explosions may be assumed to be due to fission only, and very high yield explosions were thermonuclear tests with substantial fusion yields. For the purpose of obtaining values for Table 1, all tests smaller than 0.1 Mt total yield were assumed to be due only to fission, unless otherwise indicated. For tests in the range 0.55 Mt, fission yields averaging about 50%

have been reported to be representative [G4], and that value has been assumed here.

For tests in the range 0.10.5 Mt, a fission yield of 67% is assumed. There were 17 tests in the range 525 Mt. With no other indications available, fission yields of 33% were assumed in Table 1 for these tests. However, the fission yields of tests bythe United States were arbitrarilyadjusted to agree with the reported total fission yields for the years 1952, 1954, and 1958. The large variation in assumed fission yields for the high-yield tests conducted in these years is consistent with unofficial reports that the test of 31 October 1952 (Mike) had a relativelyhigh fission yield and with the confirmation that some high-yield tests had very high fission ratios [D7]. The largest test, 50 Mt, conducted by the former Soviet Union in 1961, was reported to have a fission yield of 3% and a fusion yield of 97% [M2].

Special design measures were taken to obtain such a high fusion yield.

15.

It would be desirable to have further information on the fission and fusion yields of atmospheric nuclear tests to substantiate the somewhat arbitraryassumptions that must be made, particularly for the tests of the former Soviet Union. Because the largest atmospheric nuclear tests

(4 Mt) made such substantial contribution to the fission, fusion, and total yields, they are listed separately in Table 3. These 25 tests account for nearly 66% of the total explosive yield of all tests and about 55% of the estimated fission yields. Tests with yields greater than 1 Mt accounted for over 90% of the total fission yield.

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 160 Atmospheric tests Underground tests 1945 100 50 0

50 100 150 NUMBER 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 Number of tests Atmospheric tests Underground tests YIELD (Mt) 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 10 0

10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 Atmospheric tests Underground tests YIELD (Mt) 1945 1950 Total yield of tests 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 10 0

10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 16.

Some exceptions to the general fission/fusion assump-tions can be made for the atmospheric tests conducted by China. These tests occurred in the latter part of the test period, and the individual tests were relatively well separated in time. It was thus possible to obtain independent estimates of fission yields from the stratospheric monitoring of radionuclides that took place regularlythroughout this testing period [K7, K8, K9, K10, L7, L8, T5]. The estimates of fission yields from 90Sr and 95Zr stratospheric inventories include some inconsistencies and uncertainties, but the direct evidence is used in preference to the assumptions.

17.

Theannual number and yields ofatmospherictestsby all countries are summarized in Table 4 and illustrated in Figure I. The number of tests (Figure I, upper diagram) wasgreatest during19511958and19611962. Therewas a moratorium in 1959, which was largely observed in 1960, as well. The most active years of testing from the standpoint of the total explosive yields (Figure I, lower diagram) were 1962, 1961, 1958, and 1954. The total number of atmospheric tests by all countries was 543, and the total yield was 440 Mt. The fission yield of all atmospheric tests is estimated at present to be 189 Mt.

Figure I. Tests of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere and underground.

2.

Dispersion and deposition of radioactive debris 18.

Nuclear weapons tests were conducted at various locations on and above the earth's surface, including mountings on towers, placement on barges on the ocean surface, suspensions from balloons, drops from airplanes, and high-altitude launchings by rockets. Depending on the location of the explosion (altitude and latitude) the radio-active debris entered the local, regional, or global environ-ment. For tests conducted on the earths surface, a portion of the radioactive debris is deposited at the site of the test (local fallout) and regionally up to several thousand km downwind (intermediate fallout). This fraction varies from test to test depending on themeteorological conditions, height ofthetest, the type of surface and surrounding material (water, soil, tower, balloon, etc.). For refractory radionuclides such as 95Zr and 144Ce, 50% ofthe debris is assumed tobe deposited locally in the immediate vicinity of the test site and a further 25% is deposited regionally[B9, B10, H5]. For volatile radionuclides such as 90Sr, 137Cs and 131I, 50% of the fission yield, on average, isassumeddepositedlocallyand regionally[P1]. The remainder of the debris and all of the debris from airbursts is widely dispersed in the atmosphere. Airbursts are defined as tests occurring at or above a height in metres of55 Y0.4, where Y is the total yield in kilotonnes [P1].

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 161 ALTITUDE (km)

High polar atmosphere High equatorial atmosphere Upper equatorial stratosphere High equatorial atmosphere Upper equatorial stratosphere Upper polar stratosphere Northern hemisphere Southern hemisphere 30 30 0

90 90 High polar atmosphere Upper polar stratosphere o

o o

o o

10 0

20 30 40 50 Lower polar stratosphere Lower polar stratosphere Lower equatorial stratosphere Lower equatorial stratosphere EDDY DIFFUSION GRAVITATIONAL SETTLEMENT Troposphere Troposphere HADLEY CELL CIRCULATION 19.

Depending on the conditions of a test, the radioactive debris can be initially partitioned or apportioned into various regions of the atmosphere. A basic compartment diagram representing atmospheric regions and the predominant atmospheric transport processes is shown in Figure II. This representation was developed to describe atmospheric dispersion and deposition of radioactive debris produced in atmospheric nuclear testing [B1, U6]. The atmosphere is divided into equatorial and polar regions (from 0 to 30 and 30 to 90 latitude, respectively). The troposphere height is variable with latitude and season, but for modelling purposes it is assumed to be at an average altitude of 9 km in the polar region and 17 km in the equatorial region. The lower stratosphere is assumed to extend to 17 km and 24 km, respectively, in the two regions and the upper stratosphere to 50 km in both regions. Only a few tests injected material above the upper stratosphere, designated the high atmosphere, which extends toseveral hundred kilometres and includes the remainder of the region from which debris will eventually be deposited on the earth's surface.

Figure II. Atmospheric regions and the predominant atmospheric transport processes.

20.

Apportionment of debris in the atmosphere is based on the stabilization heights of cloud formation following the explosion. Empirical values derived from a number of observations are given in Table 5 [P1]. These results were used for the earlier estimates of fallout production from atmospheric testing that were quoted in the UNSCEAR 1982 Report [U6]. Adjustments can now be made according to the revised values of total yields and the fission yield estimates given in Table 1. The partitioned yield estimates are included in Tables 1 and 2, and annual injections into the various atmosphericregions are summarized in Table 6. The estimate ofthe relative fractions of debris injected intothe stratosphere and troposphere for a particular test with yield less than severalmegatonnesissomewhat uncertainforseveralreasons.

The empirical estimates were only available for equatorial tests and were highlyvariable [F5]. Values for polar latitudes are based on meteorological considerations [F5], and the height of the troposphere varies seasonally.

21.

Partitioning of debris into atmospheric regions was initially formulated for the equatorial and polar regions.

Injections from the Chinese test site at Lop Nor (40N) indicate that a temperate region formulation would also be useful. This was not apparent for earlier tests at the Nevada test site (37N) or the Semipalatinsk test site (52N) because there was relatively little or no stratospheric input from tests at these sites. Releases from temperate sites can be partitioned by averaging the equatorial and polar results. Basically, this averaging procedure reduces the input to the upper stratosphericregion comparedwith thepartitioningfor apolar release. Details of the assumptions, justified by the empirical nature of the modelling, are specified in the footnote to Table 6.

22.

With the indication of the type of test given in Table 1, the apportionment of fission yield corresponding to local and more widespread tropospheric and strato-spheric portions has been made in Tables 1, 2 and 4. The tropospheric and stratospheric injections listed in these Tables are for volatile radionuclides (e.g. 90Sr, 137Cs) and do not reflect the additional local and regional deposition that occurred for refractory radionuclides (e.g. 95Zr, 144Ce).

23.

As indicated in the summaryTables 2 and 4, the locally and regionally deposited debris amounts to about 29 Mt (for volatile elements). Therefore, about 160 Mt is estimated to

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 162 ALTITUDE (km)

High polar atmosphere High equatorial atmosphere Upper equatorial stratosphere High equatorial atmosphere Upper equatorial stratosphere Upper polar stratosphere High polar atmosphere Upper polar stratosphere 10 0

20 30 40 50 Lower polar stratosphere Lower polar stratosphere UPPER STRATOSPHERE LOWER STRATOSPHERE TROPOSPHERE HIGH ATMOSPHERE EARTH'S SURFACE (1,1,1,1)

(1,1,1,1)

(24,24,24,24)

(24,24,24,24)

(6,6,9,9)

(9,9,6,6)

(8,36,24,12)

(24,12,8,36)

(3,6,12,10)

(12,10,3,6)

(6,6,9,9)

(9,9,6,6)

(12,12,12, )

(12,,12,12) 8 8

(24,24,24, )

(24,,24,24) 8 8

(12,12,12, )

(12,,12,12) 8 8

(,,,24)

(,24,, )

8 8

8 8

8 8

Northern hemisphere Southern hemisphere 30 30 0

90 90 o

o o

o o

have been widely dispersed, contributing to global fallout.

This latter value, inferred from yield information, may be compared with the value of 155 Mt derived from global 90Sr measurements (604 PBq deposited worldwide divided by the production estimate of 3.9 PBq Mt1). Since about 2%3% of 90Sr decayed before deposition, the total dispersed amount (injection into atmosphere) inferred from measurements is also about 160 Mt. The fission yield estimates thus provide much better agreement with the measured deposition (corresponding to 155 Mt) than the previous fission yield estimates of 189 Mt [B1, U6]. The estimate of the total debris deposited locallyand regionallyis somewhat uncertain due to the likely high variations from test to test, however, as seen, this component is a small fraction of the debris injected into the global atmosphere, and thus this uncertainty will have only a small impact on the uncertainty in the total global 90Sr deposition.

24.

From extensive monitoring following individual tests and for the entire period of dispersion and deposition, con-siderable information was gained on the movement and mixing processes in the atmosphere. The radioactive debris served as a tracer material. Aerosols in the atmosphere descend bygravityat the highest altitudes and are transported with thegeneral air movementsat lower levels. Eddydiffusion causes irregular migration of air masses in the general directions indicated in Figure II in the lower stratosphere and upper troposphere. The circular air flow pattern in the troposphere at lower latitudes is termed Hadley cell circulation. These cells increase or decrease in size and shift latitudinally with season. The balanced pattern shown in Figure II is that for the months of March, April, May, and September, October, November. The mean residence time of aerosols in the lower stratosphere ranges from 3 to12 months in the polar regions and 8 to 24 months in the equatorial regions. The specific seasonal values, determined from empirical fitting to fallout radionuclide measurements, are indicated in Figure III. The most rapid removal occurs during the spring months. Removal half-times to the next lower region from the upper atmosphere are 6 to 9 months and from the high atmosphere, 24 months was found to be represen-tative [B1]. A removal half-time of infinity () in Figure III means that no transfer takes place via the particular pathway during that season of the year.

Figure III. Schematic diagram of transfers between atmospheric regions and the earths surface considered in the empirical atmospheric model [B1].

The numbers in parentheses are the removal half-times (in months) for the yearly quarters in the following order:

March-April-May, June-July-August, September-October-November, December-January-February.

25.

An empirical atmospheric compartmental model based on Figures II and III had been used to estimate surface air concentrations and deposition of long-lived fallout radionuclides starting with estimated fission production yields of each test [B1]. However, since rather complete measurements of 90Sr in air and deposition were available and there were uncertainties in the reported fission yields, this modelling work was not pursued.

Improved estimates of fission yields changes this situation and allows the possibilityofexamining in greater detail the deposition of other radionuclides, such as 106Ru and 144Ce, and of projecting the measurement records beyond levels

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 163 Calculation Calculation Measurements Measurements 1958 1958 1957 1957 1959 1959 1960 1960 1961 1961 1962 1962 1963 1963 1964 1964 1965 1965 1966 1966 1967 1967 1968 1968 1969 1969 1970 1970 1971 1971 1972 1972 1973 1973 1974 1974 1976 1976 1975 1975 1977 1977 1978 1978 1979 1979 1980 1980 1981 1981 1982 1982 1983 1983 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 CONCENTRATION (Bq m )

CONCENTRATION (Bq m )

-2

-2

-4

-4

-5

-5

-3

-3

-3

-3

-7

-7

-6

-6 Northern hemisphere Southern hemisphere of detection capabilities. Estimates can also be made for short-lived radionuclides such as 95Zr, however the uncertainty will be greater, since most of the deposition from these radionuclides is from highlyuncertain fractions of the total debris that were injected into the troposphere or deposited locally and regionally.

26.

The parameters of the empirical model were set by comparisons with data on tracer radionuclides released in some of the tests at specific times, such as 185W, 109Cd, and 54Mn, as well as with the longer-term records of 90Sr. The fit of the calculation to the 90Sr data in surface air is shown in Figure IV for the northern hemisphere (upper diagram) and for the southern hemisphere (lower diagram). With the available estimates of fission yields of individual atmospheric tests, the model matches rather well the monthly data that show seasonal variations in the con-centrations. The model indicates the total 90Sr inventoryin the hemispheric troposphere. This has been converted to a concentration with use of a volume parameter of 0.0001 Bq m3 per PBq, empiricallydetermined from the 90Sr data for mid-latitudes [B1]. Annual average calculated and measured concentrations of 90Sr in surface air of the mid-latitude regions are summarized in Table 7.

Figure IV. Strontium-90 concentration in air in the mid-latitude regions.

The measurements averaged over several sites are compared with results of the atmospheric model calculation.

27.

Measurements of 90Sr in surface air were made routinely at a number of locations around the world. A global surfaceair monitoring network was maintained by the United States Naval Research Laboratory from 1957 to 1962 [L6] and continued by the Environmental Measure-ments Laboratory of the United States Department of Energyfrom 1963 to1983 [F4]. After 1983, the levels were undetectable with the methods used. The representative measured concentrations of 90Sr in air shown in Figure IV are derived from averaging the results of several sites in the mid-latitudes of both hemispheres (see footnotes to Table 7).

28.

Some slight deviations between the measured and calculated results of 90Sr in air may be due to inaccurate estimation of injection amounts or of the initial parti-tioning of debris in the atmosphere or to variations in the measured results or in the meteorology that may occur

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 164 Cumulative deposit Cumulative deposit Annual deposition Annual deposition 1945 1945 1950 1950 Northern hemisphere Southern hemisphere 1955 1955 1960 1960 1965 1965 1970 1970 1975 1975 1980 1980 1985 1985 1990 1990 1995 1995 2000 2000

-4 10

-4 10

-3 10

-3 10

-2 10

-2 10

-1 10

-1 10 0

10 0

10 1

10 1

10 2

10 2

10 DEPOSITION (PBq)

DEPOSITION (PBq) 3 10 3

10 from year to year. Furthermore, the measured results at the chosen representative mid-latitude sites may not be representative of the entire hemisphere as calculated from the model, particularly for years with relatively large tropospheric injections from low-latitude test sites. Debris injectedintotheequatorial troposphereat lowlatitudes will likely remain in a low latitude band due to the Hadley circulation patterns, as illustrated in Figure II. Some deviations for tests conducted at high-latitude sites have also occurred, for example the rapid depletion of the polar stratosphere in 1959 following the 1958 Soviet tests was indicated bythe measurements. Alsonotable is the absence of a peak in 1962 in the southern hemisphere following injections into the troposphere and stratosphere of the equatorial region from tests in that year. Further deviations occur beyond 1980, when the low levels reached by the measuredconcentrationsbecomeuncertainandsomeenhance-ment from resuspension of ground deposits may become relatively more important.

29.

Long-term monitoring of 90Sr deposition based on precipitation sampling was conducted with global networks operated by the Environmental Measurements Laboratory of the United States [H1] and the Harwell Laboratory of the United Kingdom [P3]. Quite comparable results were obtained. An earlier monitoring network based on gummed-film detectors at more than a hundred stations in many countries was operated from 1952 to 1959 by the Health and SafetyLaboratory,whichbecametheEnvironmentalMeasure-ments Laboratory, in the United States [H8]. The results of deposition densities at individual sites have been averaged within latitude bands and multiplied by the area of the bands to obtain estimates of the hemispheric and global deposition amounts. The annual results are shown in Figure V for the northern hemisphere (upper diagram) and southern hemi-sphere (lower diagram) and are compared to the estimates derived from the atmospheric model. The agreement is quite close until the early 1980s, when uncertainties in the measurements began to increase.

Figure V. Hemispheric depositions of 90Sr determined from global network measurements (points) and from atmospheric model calculations (lines).

30.

Using the atmospheric model and the estimated fission yields of individual tests, it is possible to distinguish the contributions of the test programmes of individual countries to the annual deposition of 90Sr. This is illustrated in Figure VI. In the northern hemisphere the contributions from the test programme of the United States dominated before

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 165 Measured total United Kingdom 1945 1945 1950 1950 Northern hemisphere Southern hemisphere 1955 1955 1960 1960 1965 1965 1970 1970 1975 1975 1980 1980 1985 1985 1990 1990 1995 1995 2000 2000

-5 10

-5 10

-4 10

-4 10

-3 10

-3 10

-6 10

-6 10

-2 10

-2 10

-1 10

-1 10 0

10 0

10 1

10 1

10 2

10 2

10 Total USSR United States United States France China DEPOSITION (PBq)

DEPOSITION (PBq)

Measured total United Kingdom Total USSR United States France China Figure VI. Components of strontium-90 deposition from test programmes of countries calculated from fission yields of tests with the atmospheric model.

1958. From 1959 until 1967 the test programme ofthe former Soviet Union contributed the greatest amounts to annual 90Sr deposition, and from 1968 until 1988 the deposition was primarilyfrom the Chinese tests. In the southern hemisphere, theannual deposition was greatest from the tests ofthe United States before 1964 except for 1957 and 1958, when the equatorial tests of the United Kingdom took place. Sub-sequently, the greatest contributors to annual deposition were the former Soviet Union during 19651967, France during 19681976, and China during 19771988. Owing to slower removal ofdebrisfrom inventoriesin thehighatmosphereand upper stratosphere, the deposition of the test programmes of the United States and the former Soviet Union predominate again in the 1990s, although at levels too low to be measurable.

31.

A summary of the annual hemispheric totals of measured and calculated 90Sr deposition is given in Table 7.

The deposition rate of 90Sr was generallygreater bya factor of about 5 in the northern hemisphere from 1953 to 1965 and from 1977 to 1983. From 1967 to 1977 and since 1985, the fallout rates in both hemispheres have been roughlythe same.

The model results indicate a total global deposition of 610 PBq. Using the measurement results preferentially, when available, the global deposition amount of 90Sr is unchanged, although the measurements indicate a slightly smaller proportion of the total deposition in the northern hemisphere thanindicatedbythecalculations.Thepreviousestimateofthe total deposition based on measurement results and measured cumulative deposition up to 1958 was 604 PBq. The calculated results indicate a decay of about 2%3% of the injected amount of 90Sr prior to deposition (injected amount 160.5 Mt x 3.9 PBq Mt1 = 626 PBq; deposited amount 610 PBq or 97.4% of the injected amount), corresponding to an averageresidence time ofdebris in the atmosphere ofabout 1.1 years. The measured result of 604 PBq suggests an average residence time of about 1.3 years. The global cumulative deposit reached a maximum in 19671972 of 460 PBq (Table 7). Bythe year 2000, this will havedecayed to 250 PBq.

32.

Since most of the atmospheric tests were conducted in the northern hemisphere, the deposition amounts are greater there than in the southern hemisphere. Because of the preferential exchange of air between the stratosphere and troposphere in the mid-latitudes ofthe hemisphere and the air

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 166 circulation patterns in the troposphere, there is enhanced deposition in the temperate regions and decreased deposition (by a factor of about 2) in the equatorial and polar regions.

Thelatitudinal distribution of 90Srdepositiondeterminedfrom the global measurements is given in Table 8. This latitudinal variation is only valid for long-lived radionuclides, for which most ofthe deposition was from debris originallyinjected into thestratosphere. As the half-lifeoftheradionuclidedecreases, a larger fraction of the fallout was from injections into the troposphere,sincelargerfractionsofthestratosphericamounts decayduring the relativelylong stratospheric residence times.

The variation with latitude for these radionuclides thus will depend more on thelatitudeofinjection. (The model indicates that about 90% of the deposited 90Sr is from stratospheric debris, while for 95Zr only about one third is due to stratospheric debris and for 131I, less than 5%).

33.

With demonstrated good agreement for 90Sr obtainable with the empirical atmospheric model, the concentrations in air and the deposition ofother long-lived radionuclides can be calculated. Previously, estimatesweremadefrom ratiosto 90Sr values. The atmospheric model can take better account of decay prior to deposition and can start with the fission production values that are independent of estimates for other radionuclides. The model can be very usefully applied for short-lived radionuclides that could not be adequately monitored at the time the testing occurred. However, because the deposition of these short-lived radionuclides is so dependent on the fractions injected into the troposphere and the amounts of local and intermediate fallout, the model deposition estimates are less reliable, and the results need to be adjusted to agree with available data.

34.

The radionuclides produced and globally dispersed in atmospheric nuclear testing that are important from a dosi-metric point of view are listed in Table 9. These are the radionuclides that were also considered in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report (Annex B, Table 1) [U3]. For fission radio-nuclides, the production per unit energy released in the tests assumes 1.45 1026 fissions Mt1. Multiplying by the fission yield and the decay constant gives the normalized activity production. For radionuclides produced in fusion reactions or by activation primarilyin thermonuclear tests (3H, 14C, 54Mn, 55Fe), the normalized production can be estimated from measured inventories in the environment and the associated total fusion energy of all tests. The values for 54Mn and 55Fe are those quoted in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3], which mayyet be adjusted totake into account better estimates ofthe inventoriesand thetotal fusion energyoftests. Theproduction of transuranic radionuclides has been inferred from ratios to 90Sr, as measured in deposition. These values are thus un-changed from previous estimates [U3]. The total production of radionuclides in atmospheric testing associated with the globallydisperseddebris(excludinglocal deposition at thetest sites and regional deposition) and based on revised estimates of fission and fusion energies is given in the last column of Table 9. The fission yields in Table 9, which are assumed to be representative of all atmospheric tests, are those for thermonuclear tests, since these contributed over 90% of the debris. The fission yields for 89Sr and 125Sb has been revised slightlyfrom those previouslyused [U3], based on the produc-tion ratios for thermonuclear tests reported by Hicks [H6].

35.

The input data to the atmospheric model for the calculationofworldwidedeposition ofradionuclidesproduced in atmospheric testing are the fission and fusion yields of individual tests (Table 1), the normalized production of radionuclides (Table 9), and the atmospheric partitioning assumptions (Tables 5 and 6). Because atmospheric transport is seasonal, it is necessary to work with monthly values of input and to calculate monthly deposition. For short-lived radionuclides it is necessary to use daily values to adequately account for decay before deposition. The total annual deposi-tion results are presented in Table 10 for each hemisphere and for theworld. Becausethermonuclear fission yieldswereused, the estimates for years with mostly low-yield tests are somewhat less certain, since the fission yields for low-yield tests for some radionuclides vary significantly depending on the mixture of fissile material used.

36.

Only for 90Sr are there adequate measurements of hemispheric deposition that could be used in place of the calculated results. Limited data are available for 89Sr from the sampling network of the United States [H7]. Some data on other radionuclides are also available for a few sites during particular time periods. There are onlyminor discrepancies in calculated and measured results for 90Sr, but the measured resultsareusedpreferentiallyin Table 10, i.e. 19581985. An important component of the residual global contamination from atmospheric testing is 137Cs. Because of the similarity in the half-life of 137Cs (30.07 a) and 90Sr (28.78 a), deposition occurs according to the ratio of fission yields and (inversely) half-lives: 137Cs/90Sr = 1.5. Thus, the estimates of 137Cs in Table 10 are based on this ratio times the measured 90Sr deposition for the period 19581985. The estimates for 144Ce, 106Ru and

125Sb, 54Mn and 55Fe are based solely on the calculated results. The calculated results for the refractory radionuclides, 95Zr, 141Ce, 144Ce, 54Mn, and 55Fe take into account the higher local and intermediate deposition discussed earlier. The estimates of annual deposition of 95Zr, 91Y, 89Sr, 103Ru, 141Ce, 140Ba, and 131I have been normalized to the total depositions reported at the bottom of Table 10. The estimates of total deposition are based on comparisons with available data, production ratios, and relative half-lives. The ratios of total deposition for these radionuclides to 90Sr differ somewhat from those reported in the UNSCEAR1993Report

[U3], because of revised assessment of the available data as well as an adjustment to account for a greater proportion of deposition at low latitudes than assumed earlier.

37.

A basic indication of deposition amounts determined by measurements and needed in dose calculations is the deposition density, the activity of deposited radionuclides per unit ground surface area. Global measurements of 90Sr are related to the areas of the 10 latitude bands in which the measurements were made. These areas are given in Table 8.

From the evaluated fractional deposition in each band, the total hemisphericdeposition is apportionedandthedeposition densities determined. By weighting these results with the populations in the bands, the population-weighted deposition

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 167 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 0

20 -30 40 -50 60 -70 o

o o

o o

o Southern hemisphere Northern hemisphere 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 DEPOSITION DENSITY (kBq m )

-2 densityfor the hemisphere is obtained. With 89% oftheworld population in the northern hemisphere and 11% in the southern hemisphere, the hemispheric results may be weighted accordingly to obtain the world average deposition density. This latitudinal apportionment is valid only for the long-lived radionuclides for which most of the deposition originated from debris injected into the stratosphere. For short-lived radionuclides, for which most of the deposition was from debris injected into the troposphere, adjustments must be made to account for the increased deposition at low latitudes resulting from tests of the United States and the United Kingdom in the Pacific. Since the population in the northern hemisphere is about equally divided between latitudes greater and less than 30, an increase in the relative fraction of the deposition below 30 has only a small impact (about 10%) on the population-weighted deposition density.

However, because 86% of the population of the southern hemisphere lives between 030 latitude and almost all of the debris injected into the southern hemisphere troposphere was at latitudes less than 30, the value to convert from total deposition topopulation-weighteddeposition densityfor short-lived radionuclides (half-lives less than 30 days) for months in which the input was primarily from United States tests in the Pacific would be 6.7 rather than 3.74 (see Table 8). An intermediate weight of 5.7 based on 75% of the debris from tropospheric injections and 25% from stratospheric injections would be more appropriate for radionuclideswith half-lives of about 30 to 100 days.

Figure VII. Caesium-137 deposition density in the northern and southern hemispheres calculated from fission production amounts with the atmospheric model.

38.

The hemispheric and world average cumulative deposi-tion densities are given in Table 11. The monthly deposition results from the atmospheric model have been averaged over the year. The model accounts for decay during the month of deposition as well as after deposition. The total deposition for long-lived radionuclides (half-life >100 d) in the hemisphere is multiplied by the parameters in Table 8 (4.65 and 3.74 Bq m2 per PBq in the northern and southern hemisphere, respectively) to obtain the population-weighted deposition densities of Table 11. For radionuclides with half-lives between 30 and 100 d, and <30 d, factors of 5.7 and 6.7 Bq m2 per PBq, respectively, were used for the southern hemisphere. A value of 4.0 was used for the northern hemisphere for all short-lived radionuclides. The world average is the population-weighted sum of the hemispheric values:0.89timestheaveragepopulation-weighteddeposition densityofthenorthernhemisphereplus0.11timestheaverage population-weighted deposition density of the southern hemisphere. For the long-lived radionuclides, the deposition densitiesinparticular latitudinal regionsmaybeobtainedwith use of the factor given in the last column of Table 8. For example, the deposition density for 90Sr in the 4050latitude region of the northern hemisphere is 1.5 times the northern hemisphere average value.

39.

An important component of the residual radiation backgroundcausedbydepositionofradionuclidesproducedin atmospheric testing is that of 137Cs. Calculated deposition densities of 137Cs in various latitude regions are shown in Figure VII. These levels were perturbed by additional deposition from the Chernobyl accident in 1986, especiallyin European countries.

40.

The world average deposition densities ofradionuclides produced in atmospheric testing are illustrated in Figure VIII.

Considerable variations are noted for the short-lived radio-nuclides, and these have by now decayed to negligible levels.

When the tests were taking place, the deposition densities of several short-lived radionuclides, especially 144Ce, 106Ru, and 95Zr, were highest, but since 1965, 137Cs and 90Sr dominate in the residual cumulative deposit.

41.

The summations ofthe annual deposition densities of Table 11 give the integrated deposition densities (Bq a m2) for the radionuclides. Only for 90Sr and 137Cs are there significant contributions beyond the year 2000. The total in Table 11 extended for all time (1945 to infinity) may also be obtained from the total deposited amounts (Table 10) multiplied by the mean lives of the radionuclides (1/ =

half-life ÷ ln2) and the appropriate population-weighted conversion factor from Table 8. This demonstrates the consistencyof the annual calculation of deposition and the cumulative deposition density.

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 168

























































 

 











































Figure VIII. Worldwide population-weighted cumulative deposition density of radionuclides produced in atmospheric testing. The monthly calculated results have been averaged over each year. Several short-lived radionuclides with half-lives and deposition patterns intermediate between 140Ba and 95Zr are not shown.

3.

Annual doses from global fallout 42.

The Committee provided a rough indication of the average annual doses to the world population from fallout radionuclides in the UNSCEAR 1982 Report [U6]. For 19581979, the maximum dose rate was estimated to be 0.14 mSv a1 in 1963, and it had decreased by almost an order of magnitude by 1979. Using available empirical models, the annual doses can be estimated in much more detail. The results of this exercise are presented in this Section.

43.

The basic input to dose calculations from fallout radionuclides has been the measured deposition density of 90Sr. The measured annual hemispheric deposition amounts for representative mid-latitude sites are listed in Table 7. The measurements, which began in 1958, were continued until 1985. By then the stratospheric inventory from atmospheric tests was largely depleted. Some of the monitoring sites were affected by the Chernobyl accident in 1986. Subsequently, a low, constant level of deposition has been measured that reflects resuspended soil particles [A4, I5]. Longer-lived radionuclides in global fallout other than 90Sr have also been monitored, but they have been present in relatively constant ratios to 90Sr. For short-lived radionuclides (half-life <100 days), decay before deposition is significant. For these radionuclides, the pattern of deposition was previously taken to be that of 95Zr, with the magnitude estimated from the average value of the ratio determined by available measurements. The empirical atmospheric model with input from individual nuclear tests now allows the time course of depositionofallradionuclidesproducedinatmospherictesting to be determined in greater detail and with better general accuracy.

44.

Thegeneralproceduresfor derivingdoseestimatesfrom the measured or calculated deposition densities of radio-nuclides are presented in Annex A, Dose assessment methodologies. It is only necessary to summarize here the values of transfer coefficients needed for the annual dose evaluationsfor thevariouspathways: external, inhalation, and ingestion. The transfer coefficients P25 used to evaluate the effective dose committed by unit deposition density of a radionuclide were given in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report (Annex B, Table 8) [U3].

45.

Of the radionuclides contributing to external exposure, only 137Cs has a half-life greater than a few years. For this radionuclide the depth distribution in soil has been taken to correspond to a relaxation length of 3 cm. Previous assess-ments of external doses from fallout assumed a plane source distribution for the other radionuclides [U3, U4]. This assumption is now altered toprovide a more realistic basis for the dose estimation. A relaxation length of 3 cm is also used for the other long-lived radionuclides (half-lives >100 days).

For radionuclides with half-lives between 30 and 100 days, a relaxation length of 1 cm is more appropriate. For the other short-lived radionuclides (half-lives <30 days), a relaxation length of 0.1 cm is assumed rather than a plane source, to account for ground roughness. The chosen relaxation lengths are consistent with the values used in the UNSCEAR 1988 Report [U5] to estimate external exposures from the Chernobyl accident and more adequately reflect the observed penetration of the radionuclides into the soil with time. The parameters required to calculate the annual effective doses from external irradiation are summarized in Table 12.

46.

For the external irradiation pathway, the effective dose rate per unit deposition density is derived by multiplying the dose rate in air per unit deposition density by the conversion factor 0.7, which relates the dose rate in air to the effective dose, and the occupancy-shielding factor, 0.2 fractional time outdoors + 0.8 fractional time indoors x 0.2 building shielding = 0.36. The average annual effective dose is then obtained bymultiplying bythe average annual deposition density.

47.

The values of annual doses due to external exposure from radionuclides produced in atmospheric testing are given in Table 13. The components of the world average

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 169 Cd,i

b1 Fi  b2 Fi1  b3 n1 e n Fin (1)

Cb,i

c Cd,i  g m0 e

bm Cd,im (2) external dose are illustrated in Figure IX (upper diagram).

The short-lived radionuclide 95Zr, with its decay product 95Nb, was the main contributor to external exposure during active testing. Of less significance were 106Ru, 54Mn, and 144Ce. Beginning in 1966, 137Cs became the most important contributor, and presently it is the only radionuclide contributing to continuing external exposure from deposited radionuclides.

48.

Several radionuclides contribute to exposure via the ingestion pathway. They are listed, along with the transfer coefficients, in Table 12. For the short-lived radionuclides (131I, 140Ba, 89Sr), the exposures occur within weeks or months following deposition. For annual dose rates, it is sufficient to assume that the exposures occur evenly over the mean life of the radionuclide. The transfer coefficientsrelatingdoserate to deposition density are obtained by dividing the transfer coefficients for the committed dose [U3] by the radioactive mean lives. These are the entries in Table 12.

49.

In previous UNSCEAR assessments, exposures via the ingestion pathway from the longer-lived radionuclides 90Sr and 137Cs have been derived from empirical transfer models applied tothe measured deposition densityof 90Sr (the 137Cs to 90Sr ratio of 1.5 is used to derive the deposition density of 137Cs). The parameters of the models were evaluated from regression fits to the measured concentrations of these radionuclidesin diet andthehumanbody.Thesemodelsapply to continuing deposition throughout the year, as occurred during fallout deposition. Thus, the seasonal variability in transfers to diet is averaged out in a single annual value.

50.

The model used to describe the transfer of 90Sr or 137Cs from deposition to diet is of the form where Cd,i is the concentration of the radionuclide in a food component d or in the total diet in the year i due to the deposition density rate Fi in the year i, Fi1 in the previous year, and the sum of the deposition density rates in all previous years, reduced by exponential decay. The exponential decay with decay constant reflects both radioactive decay and environmental loss of the radionuclide. The coefficients bi and the parameter are determined by regression analysis of measured deposition and diet data. The coefficients bi represent the transfer per unit annual deposition in the first year (b1), primarily from direct deposition, in the second year (b2), from lagged use of stored food and uptake from the surface deposit, and in subsequent years (b3), from transfer via root uptake from the accumulated deposit.

51.

The transfer from diet to the human body (bone) for 90Sr is described by a two-component model:

where Cb,i is the concentration of 90Sr in bone in the year i, c is a coefficient for short-term retention, and g is a coefficient for longer-term retention, with removal governedbythe decay constant b. The parameters c, g, and b are determined by regression fits to monitoring data.

52.

The retention of 137Cs in the body is relatively short-term (retention half-time of around 100 days). The annual dose per unit intake can therefore be expressed by a single transfer coefficient, P34, which applies to the year of intake.

The annual doses from 90Sr and 137Cs in the body are evaluated using the transfer coefficient P45. The values of the transfer coefficients used in calculating the annual effective dose from ingestion of 90Sr and 137Cs, derived from long-term monitoring, are given in Annex A, Dose assessment methodologies.

53.

Further exposure via ingestion of longer-lived radio-nuclides occursfrom 55Feandthetransuranium elements. The dosescommittedfromthetransuraniumradionuclidesarevery small, and the contributions to annual doses are negligible. A transfer model does not exist for 55Fe. Its half-life is only 2.73 years; therefore, it is assumed, as for the short-lived radio-nuclides, that the dose-rate transfer coefficient is equal to the commitment transfer coefficient [U3] divided by the radio-active mean life. This result is entered in Table 12.

54.

The components of annual dose via the ingestion pathway from radionuclides produced in atmospheric testing are listed in Table 14 and illustrated in Figure IX (middle diagram). During active testing, 137Cs was the most significant component, owing to its more immediate transfer to diet and delivery of dose. Because of the longer-term, continuing transfer of 90Sr to diet and its longer retention in the body, this radionuclide became the most important contributor to dose beginning in 1967. The short-lived radionuclideshavebeen relativelyinsignificantcontributorsto ingestion exposure (see Figure IX).

55.

For the inhalation pathway, exposures depend on the concentrations of radionuclides in air, but because of the association between concentrations in air and deposition densities through the deposition velocity, the transfer coefficients for the dose from inhalation can be given in terms of the measured deposition densities of the radionuclides.

These transfer coefficients, P25, were given in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report (Annex B, Table 8) [U3] and are repeated here in Table 12. These are the committed doses per unit intake.

The dose from inhalation can be assumed delivered in the same year that the deposition occurred. Subsequent exposures from resuspension are accounted for in the measured air concentrations and the derived deposition velocity, and although these exposures may continue for a few more years, including all of the exposure in the year of initial deposition does not introduce much error.

56.

The estimates of annual doses from the inhalation of radionuclides produced in atmospheric testing are given in Table 15, and several of the components are illustrated in Figure IX (lower diagram). Important contributors to

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 170 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

-3 10

-2 10

-2 10

-1 10

-1 10 0

10 0

10 1

10 1

10 2

10 2

10 Sb 125 Mn 54 ANNUAL EFFECTIVE DOSE ( Sv)

ANNUAL EFFECTIVE DOSE ( Sv)

ANNUAL EFFECTIVE DOSE ( Sv)

External exposure 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

-3 10 Ingestion exposure Sr 90 I+

131 Fe 55 Inhalation exposure 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

-3 10

-2 10

-1 10 0

10 1

10 2

10 Total Total Total Total Sr 90Sr 90 Ce 144Ce 144 Ce 144 Pu, Am Pu, Am Cs+

137Cs+

137 Cs 137 Cs 137 Ru 106Ru 106 Ru 106 Zr+

95Zr+

95 Zr+

95 Figure IX. Worldwide average doses from radionuclides produced in atmospheric testing.

External exposure:

Contributions from radionuclides 131I, 140Ba, 144Ce, 106Ru are included with 95Zr; Ingestion exposure:

Contributions from 90Sr and 140Ba are included with 131I; Inhalation exposure:

Contributions from short-lived radionuclides (131I, 140Ba, 141Ce, 103Ru, 89Sr, 91Y) are included with 95Zr and from intermediate-lived radionuclides (54Mn, 125Sb, 55Fe) are included with 137Cs.

inhalation exposure were

144Ce, the transuranic radionuclides, 106Ru, 91Y, 95Zr, and 89Sr. Deposition, and thus the concentrations of these radionuclides in air, dropped rapidly once atmospheric testing ceased in 1980.

Even for the long-lived transuranic radionuclides, inhalation exposure became insignificant after 1985.

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 171

























































 



1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

-2 10

-1 10 0

10 1

10 2

10 3

10 Total External Ingestion Inhalation ANNUAL EFFECTIVE DOSE ( Sv)

H, C

3 14 57.

One further contribution to annual exposures comes from the globally dispersed radionuclides 3H and 14C. In both cases, there is no external exposure and only negligible exposure from inhalation. Exposure arises most entirely from the ingestion pathway. Global models have been formulated to describe the dispersion and long-term behaviours of these radionuclides in the environment.

Estimates of the annual doses from 3H and 14C produced in atmospheric testing are included in Table 14 and illustrated in Figure X.

Figure X. Worldwide average dose (mainly from ingestion pathway) from globally dispersed 3H and 14C.

58.

The annual doses from tritium have been evaluated using the seven-compartment model presented by the United States National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) [N1]. With volumes and transfer rates applicable for the hydrological cycle of the world and intake of water by humans assumed to be 33%

from the atmosphere, 53% from surface fresh waters, 13.3% from groundwater, and 0.7% from ocean surface water (through fish) [N1], the dose per unit release is 0.06 nGyPBq1. Further details of the model are presented in Annex A, Dose assessment methodologies.

59.

The annual doses from 14C have been derived using the multi-compartment model described in Annex A, Dose assessment methodologies. The estimates are only approxi-mate, since widespread, immediate mixing in large regions is assumed in the model formulation. To compensate for this, the hemispheric values have been adjusted to an initial ratio of 4 to 1 in the northern and southern hemispheres, reflecting thedeposition pattern oflonger-lived radionuclides. Thisratio was maintained through 1970 and then reduced uniformly to a ratio of 1 to 1 by the year 2000, representing assumed completion of uniform mixing throughout the world. This procedure provides more realistic estimates of doses in the hemispheres, but does not affect the estimated global average.

The average annual global effective dose from 14C produced in atmospheric nuclear testing was at a maximum, 7.7 Sv, in 1964 and has decreased by a factor of 4 since that time. The dose would be estimated to be somewhat less when account is taken of the input of stable carbon into the atmosphere from fossil fuel burning, which dilutes the 14C.

Figure XI. Contributions of pathways to worldwide average dose from radionuclides produced in atmospheric testing.

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 172 60.

The estimates of the total annual effective doses from radionuclides produced in atmospheric nuclear testing are summarized in Table 16, and the world average contributions from the main pathways are illustrated in Figure XI. These results are for the hemispheric-and world-population-weighted averages of deposition of fallout radionuclides. The doses in more specific regions of the world may be obtained by adjusting to the latitudinal distribution of deposition determined from measurement of 90Sr (Table 8). In the temperate zones (4050), the annual doses from long-lived radionuclides are higher than the hemispheric averages by factors of 1.5 in the northern hemisphere and 1.65 in the southern hemisphere. For the short-lived radionuclides (see paragraph 37), the distribution with latitude is more uniform in the northern hemisphere, while the doses in the temperate zonesofthe southern hemisphere are about one thirdlessthan the hemispheric average. The hemispheric average annual dose was highest in 1963 in the northern hemisphere (0.13 mSv) and in 1962 in the southern hemisphere (0.06 mSv).

61.

The estimated world average annual dose from atmospheric nuclear testing was highest in 1963 (0.11 mSv) and subsequently declined to less than 0.006 mSv in the 1990s. External exposure generally made the highest contributionstoannual doses, when theannual doses from 14C and 3H are not included, initially by short-lived radionuclides and subsequently by 137Cs. Both external and ingestion exposure peaked in 1962. The annual doses at present are due almost equally to external irradiation (53%) and ingestion exposures (47%). The dose from 14C (30% of the total) now exceeds that from ingestion of other radionuclides. The doses yet to be delivered at future times are also indicated in Table 16. The summation of annual doses for all time defines the dose commitment, which is the dose quantity previously evaluated in UNSCEAR assessments of the exposure from atmospheric nuclear testing [U3]. With use of the model calculations, the revised external dose coefficients, and the re-evaluation of the total deposition of short-lived radionuclides, the present dose estimates for some radionuclides differ slightly from the previous assessment, although the current estimated total effective dose commitment to the world population, 3.5 mSv, is little different from the result given in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3], 3.7 mSv.

4.

Local and regional exposures 62.

Since atmospheric nuclear tests were conducted in relatively remote areas, exposures of local populations did not contribute significantly to the world collective dose from this practice. Nevertheless, those individuals living downwind of the test sites received greater-than-average doses. In addition, individuals who might now or in the future occupy contaminated areas of the former test sites could receive exposures through external or internal pathways. Efforts are being made to evaluate these sites to guide possible rehabilitation and resettlement, and work is continuing to reconstruct the exposure conditions and to estimate the local and regional doses that were received at the time of the tests. Available information was presented in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3] and is summarized here in Table 17. Further results, although still not systematic and complete, are presented in this Section. It will be necessary to add details as the dose reconstruction efforts progress.

63.

The locations of several test sites are shown in Figures XII, XIII, and XIV. The areas within a few hundred kilometres of the site are generally designated as local and thosewithin a fewthousand kilometres, regional. Distancesof 500 km and 1,000 km from the test sites are delineated in the figures for reference purposes. The exposed populations were generally only those living in downwind, generally eastward directions.

(a)

Nevada test site 64.

The Nevada test site in the United States was the location for 86 atmospheric nuclear tests: 83 tests were conducted from 1951 to 1958, and 3 more tests were conducted in 1962. Additional cratering tests also injected debrisintothe atmosphere [N10]. Local areaswereaffected by relatively few tests, but for those few tests they were much more affected than more distant areas of the United States, which received less deposition and exposure but were more evenly affected by a larger number of tests. The external exposures to local populations were estimated at the time of testing to be low; however, public concern about the health impact of the exposures grew. As a consequence, rather detailed dose reconstruction projects were undertaken in the 1980s.

65.

Estimates of external exposures from atmospheric tests at the Nevada test site were reported by Anspaugh et al. [A1, A3]. Results were derived from survey meter and film badge measurements for 300 communities in the local areas

(<300 km) around the test site in Nevada and in southwestern Utah. The distribution of individual cumulative exposures is given in Table 18. The effective dose exceeded 3 mSv in 20%

of the population of180,000. The highest effective doses were in therange6090mSv,andthepopulation-weightedaverage value was 2.8 mSv [A1]. The exposures resulted primarily from short-lived gamma-emitters (half-lives <100 days).

The estimates were based on outdoor occupancy of 50%

and a building shielding factor of0.5; the usual UNSCEAR assumptions are 20% and 0.2, respectively. Most of the exposures resulted from relatively few events; 90% of the cumulative collective dose of 470 man Sv resulted from 17 events, the most significant being test Harry on 19 May 1953 (180 man Sv), test Bee on 22 March 1955 (70 man Sv), and test Smoky on 31 August 1957 (50 man Sv)

[A3].

Collective doses that included areas further downwind, encompassing all ofNevada andUtah and parts ofseveral other western states, were estimated to have been even greater than for the local area, about 10,000 man Sv, primarilydue to the exposure of the large population areas around Salt Lake City [A7, B9]. All of the United States received some fallout from Nevada weapons tests [B10].

Beck and Krey [B11] reported cumulative doses from external exposure averaged about 1 mSv to persons living in the midwest and east of the country.

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 173 Ujae Ujelang Enewetak Lae Ebadon Wotho Bikini Rongerik Rongelap Ailinginae Taka Utirik Bikar Mejit Lemo Likiep Roi Kjawalein Lib Namu Jabwot Jaluit Kili Namorik Mili Ebon Butaritari Makin KIRIBATI Majuro Arno Ailinglapalap Aur Maloelap Erikub Wotje M

A R

S H

A L

L I

S L

A N

D S

10 10 5

170 170 165 N O R T H P A C I F I C O C E A N Ailuk MARSHALL ISLANDS Equator NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN FED. STATES OF MICRONESIA Wake Island (USA)

Guam (USA)

Northern Mariana Islands (USA)

PAPUA NEW GUINEA VANATU FIJI KIRIBATI TUVALU NAURU SOLOMON ISLANDS Coral Sea 66.

Internal exposuresresultingfrom atmospherictesting at the Nevada test site have been estimated from deposition measurements and an environmental transfer model [K2, W2]. Absorbed doses to organs and tissues from internal exposure were substantially less than those from external exposure, with the exception of the thyroid, in which 131I from ingestion of milk contributed relatively higher doses.

Estimates of absorbed doses in the thyroid of 3,545 locally exposed individuals ranged from 0 to 4.6 Gy; the average was 98 mGy and the median 25 mGy [T4]. Five individuals received absorbed doses greater than 3 Gy, and all ofthem drank milk from a family-owned goat [T4]. The collective absorbed dose to the thyroid of the population of states in the western United States was estimated to be 140,000 man Gy [A7]. An extensive study has been completed by the National Cancer Institute of the United States of thyroid doses in all counties of the United States from 131I deposition following the atmospheric tests in Nevada [B6, N10]. The individual thyroid doses ranged up to 100 mGy in local areas. For the entire population of the United States, the estimate was 20 mGy, with a collective absorbed dose of 4 106 man Gy. Although not involving exposure, it shouldbenoted that plutonium migration from an underground nuclear test conducted at the Nevada Test Site was detected 30 years following the test in a ground water monitoring well 1.3 km from the test location [K12].

In this veryarid region, no migration had been anticipated.

Theauthorsconcludedthat colloid-facilitatedtransport was implicated in the field findings.

(b)

Bikini, Enewetak test sites 67.

An extensive nuclear test programme was conducted by the United States at locations in the Pacific (Table 1).

The test resulting in the most significant local exposures was the thermonuclear test Bravo on 28 February 1954 at Bikini Atoll. Unexpectedly heavy fallout occurred in the local area eastward of the atoll (Figure XII). Within a few hours of the explosion, fallout particles descended on Rongelap and Ailinginae atolls, 200 km from Bikini, exposing 82 persons. The Japanese fishing vessel Lucky Dragon was also in this area, and 23 fishermen were exposed. Farther east, exposures occurred at Rongerik Atoll (28 United States servicemen) and Utrik Atoll (159 persons). These individuals were evacuated within a few days of the initial exposures.

Figure XII. Bikini and Enewetak test sites.

The inner dotted circle indicates a distance of 500 km, the outer dashed circle 1,000 km from the test sites.

68.

Average external exposures from the Bravotest, mainly from short-lived radionuclides, ranged from 1.9 Sv on Rongelap (67 persons, including 3 in utero), 1.1 Sv on Ailinginae (19 persons, including 1 in utero), and 0.1 Sv on Utrik (167 persons, including 8 in utero) [L4]. The collective dose from the exposures received by these individuals before evacuation was, therefore, 160 man Sv. Thyroid doses from several isotopes of iodine and tellurium and from external gamma radiation were estimated to be 12 Gy on average (42 Gy maximum) to adults, 22 Gy (82 Gy maximum) to children of 9 years, and 52 Gy (200 Gy maximum) to infants of 1 year [L4].

69.

The external exposure from the Bravo test to the servicemen on Rongerik Atoll was 0.8 Sv [L4]. For the 23 Japanese fishermen, the external exposures from the fallout

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 174 Semipalatinsk Almaty Bishkek Ulaanbaatar G A N S U A L T A I Barnaul Irkutsk Ulan-Ude Bratsk Xining Yinchuan Lanzhou Chengdu Lop Nor New Delhi Urümqi Korla Kashi Kashi KYRGYZSTAN R U S S I A C H I N A I N D I A KAZAKHSTAN Burqin Aqmola Golmud 90 45 30 105 105 M O N G O L I A 45 30 75 90 deposition on deck ranged from 1.7 to 6 Sv, mostly received on the first day of the fallout but continuing for 14 days, until the ship arrived in its port [C9]. The thyroid doses to the fishermen were estimated to have been 0.21.2 Gy from 131I, based on external counting, but since other short-lived iodine isotopes were also present, the total doses to the thyroid from inhalation during a period of five hours were estimated to have been 0.84.5 Gy [C9].

70.

There seem to have been no other tests that caused significant exposures to the population in the Pacific region.

The populations of the atolls where tests were conducted had been relocated prior to the testing. Exposures to residual radiation levels on Utrik and Rongelap atolls toresidents who returned to these islands in 1954 and 1957, respectively, were of the order of 2030 mSv over the following 20year period from external irradiation and 20140 mSv from internal exposure [C9]. During the temporary resettlement of Bikini Atoll from 1971 to 1978, total whole-body exposures were estimated to have been 23 mSv a1 [G5]. A radiological survey of residual radiation levels, primarily due to global fallout deposition, was conducted throughout the Marshall Islands in 1994 [S2], and more detailed surveys have been made of Bikini and Enewetak atolls, in order to evaluate eventual permanent resettlement [I4, R1]. Estimated effective doses caused byresidual contamination topersons who might return at present to Bikini Atoll were estimated to be 4 mSv with a diet composed of both local and imported foods and about 15 mSvfor a diet of local origin only[I4]. Tests at other locationsin thePacific(ChristmasIslandandJohnstonIsland) were conducted in the high atmosphere, and there was little local fallout deposition.

(c)

Semipalatinsk test site 71.

The Semipalatinsk test site is located in the northeast corner of Kazakhstan (see map in Figure XIII). At this location, 456 nuclear tests were conducted, including 86 atmospheric and 30 surface tests [M2]. The most affected local populations lived mainly east and northeast of the test site, in the Semipalatinsk region of Kazakhstan and the Altai region of the Russian Federation. After some tests, traces of radioactive contamination were also formed in southern and southeastern directions [G8].

Figure XIII. Lop Nor and Semipalatinsk test sites.

The inner dotted circle indicates a distance of 500 km, the outer dashed circle 1,000 km from the test sites.

The measurement areas in Gansu Province (for Lop Nor) and the Altai Region (for Semipalatinsk) are shown within elliptical areas.

72.

Two tests were most significant in exposing the population of Kazakhstan: the first test on 29 August 1949 andthefirst thermonuclear test on 12August 1953. Theseand two additional test (on 24 September 1951 and 24 August 1956) are stated in [G8] to have contributed 85% of the total collective effective dose from all tests. There are several

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 175 Emu Derby Wyndham Alice Springs Cooktown Cairns Townsville Cloncurry Rockhampton Charleville Bourke Porto Augusta Geraldton Coolgardie Albany Ashburton Dariing Monte Bello Islands Maralinga Perth Darwin CAPE YORK Brisbane Sidney CANBERRA Q U E E N S L A N D N O R T H E R N T E R R I T O R Y S O U T H A U S T R A L I A N E W S O U T H W A L E S W E S T E R N A U S T R A L I A Melbourne Adelaide 132 132 144 144 12 12 24 36 24 36 120 120 Adelaide documents listing doses at specific locations for the population in Kazakhstan [G8, S7, T1], but the presented results differ markedly. Example results from the latest publication [S7] of accumulated effective doses for several districts indicate effective doses in the range from 0.04 to 2.4 Sv. The collective effective dose for ten districts is estimated to be 3,0004,000 man Sv [S7]. The absorbed dose to the thyroid from the ingestion of radioiodines is quite uncertain, but is estimated to be as high as 8 Gyto children in the Akbulak settlement [S7].

73.

The Altai region of the Russian Federation is about 200 km from the Semipalatinsk Test Site. This population experienced exposure following about 40 explosions [S8].

The most significant exposure was caused by the nuclear test of 29 August 1949 with other major exposures following tests on 3 September 1953, 1 August 1962, 4 August 1962, and 7 August 1962. Effective doses of about 2 Sv are estimated to have occurred in the Uglovski district following the 1949 test. The total collective dose to all residents in 58 districts with a total population of 1.9 million persons is estimated to be 42,000 man Sv [S8].

74.

The results for Kazakhstan and the Altai region in the Russian Federation must at present be regarded with caution. There are significant discrepancies among the reported results for Kazakhstan, and the reported results for the Altai region differ markedly when derived from measured results or model calculations. Validation of results based upon contemporary measurements of 137Cs deposition density might be useful in resolving some of these discrepancies.

75.

Investigation of residual contamination levels at the Semipalatinsk site has begun. In 19931994, an inter-national team performed a preliminary survey of the test site and surrounding area [I9]. More significantly con-taminated areas were found at ground zero locations and surrounding Lake Balapan. Projected annual doses were estimated to be 10 mSv, mainly from external exposure, to individuals making daily visits to these sites and 100 mSv to those who might permanently reside at these locations.

Present annual effective doses to persons living outside the test site boundaries were estimated to be of the order of 0.1 mSv from residual contamination levels.

(d)

Novaya Zemlya test site 76.

The test site Novaya Zemlya in the Russian Arctic is large and remote. Although an extensive atmospheric test programme was conducted there, most of the tests were carried out at high altitudes, thus minimizing local fallout.

There was one test with a 32 kt yield on the land surface on 7 September 1957 [M2]. In addition, there were two tests on the surface of the water and three tests underwater at the site. Research programmes to investigate residual contamination both on-and off-site have been initiated. It may be that reindeer herders and those who consume reindeer meat received low internal exposures, primarily from 137Cs, that could be attributed to tests at this site.

Figure XIV. Maralinga, Emu and Monte Bello test sites.

The inner dotted circle indicates a distance of 500 km, the outer dashed circle 1,000 km from the test sites.

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 176 (e)

Maralinga, Emu test sites 77.

The nuclear weapons testing programme of the United Kingdom included 21 atmospheric tests at sites in Australia and the Pacific. The tests in the Pacific at Malden and the Christmas Islands in 1957 and 1958 were airbursts over the ocean (six tests with submegatonne and megatonne yields) or explosions of devices suspended by balloons at 300450 m over land (one test of 24 kt and two tests each with 25 kt yield) [D2]. Local fallout would have been minimal following those tests. Twelve tests were conducted from 1952 to1957 at three sites in Australia: Monte Bello Islands, Emu, and Maralinga, which are shown on the map in Figure XIV.

These were mainly surface tests with yields of 60 kt or less.

For each of these tests, trajectories of the radioactive cloud weredetermined, and local andcountrywidemonitoringofair and deposition was performed [W1]. Estimates of external exposures in local areas werenot made for the earlier tests; for the tests in 1956 and 1957, the external effective doses were less than 1 mSv [W1]. The sizes oflocal populations were not indicated. Estimates of internal exposures were also made for the entire Australian population. The average effective dose was 70 Sv, and the collective effective dose was 700 man Sv in this population [W1]. A number of safety tests were conducted at the Maralinga and Emu sites in South Australia, resulting in the dispersal of 239Pu over some hundreds of square kilometres. The potential doses to local inhabitants of these areas have been evaluated [D1, H2, W3]. Following rehabilitation of the Maralinga test site it is estimated that potential doses to future inhabitants living a semi-traditional nomadic lifestyle will be less than 5 mSv [D1].

(f)

Algerian, Mururoa, Fangataufa test sites 78.

The French nuclear testing programme began with four low-yield surface tests at a site near Reggane in the Algerian Sahara in 1960 and 1961 [D3]. There is no information on local exposures following these tests. Some residual contamination remains at this site and at a nearby site, In Ecker, where 13 underground tests were conducted. Small quantities of plutonium were dispersed at these sites from safety experiments, which involved conventional explosives only. Investigations of the present radiation levels and potential exposuresofindividual whomightutilizetheseareas have been initiated by the IAEA.

79.

The subsequent programme of France was conducted at the uninhabited atolls of Mururoa and Fangataufa in French Polynesia in the South Pacific. Most ofthese testsinvolvedthe detonation of devices suspended from balloons at heights of 220500 m [D3], limitinglocal fallout. Radiological monitor-ing has been conducted at surrounding locations. The closest inhabited atoll is Tureia (140 persons) at a distance of120 km to the north; only 5,000 persons lived within 1,000 km of the test site. A larger population (184,000 persons in 1974) is located 1,200 km to the northwest, at Tahiti. Under the conditions that normally prevail at the test site, radioactive debris of the local and tropospheric fallout was carried to the east over uninhabited regions of the Pacific. On occasion, however, some material was transferred to the central South Pacific within a few days of the tests by westerly moving eddies.French scientists[B8]haveidentifiedfivetests,follow-ing which regional population groups were more directly exposed (Table 19). A single rain-out event caused exposures in Tahiti after the test of 17 July 1974. Exposures resulted mainly from external irradiation from deposited radio-nuclides. Milk production on Tahiti issufficient for onlyabout 20% of local needs, and consumption is in any case low, which limited ingestion exposures. Estimated effective doses to maximallyexposed individuals after all five events were in the range 15 mSv in the year following the test. A collective effective dose of 70 man Sv was estimated for all local exposures at this test site. Estimates of exposures were based on moreextendedmeasurementsthat were made beginningin 1982. In that year the external exposures in the region were in therange110Sva1, internal exposures were232Sva1, and total exposure was 333 Sv a1, due mostly to residual 137Cs deposition from global fallout. The collective effective dose was estimated to be about 1 man Sv in 1982 for all of French Polynesia [R2]. An international investigation of the present radiological conditions at Mururoa and Fangataufa was conducted during 19961998 [I7]. Residual contamina-tion levels were, on the whole, found to be negligibly low.

Small areas with surface contamination from plutonium exist, but it was regarded as only remotely conceivable that a plutonium-containing particle could enter the body of an individual, e.g. through a cut in the skin. Plutonium, tritium, and caesium in the sediments of the lagoons were considered unlikelyto cause non-negligible exposures at present or in the future to any repopulated individuals or to residents of other islands throughout the Pacific region [I7].

(g)

Lop Nor test site 80.

TheChinesenuclear weaponstestingprogrammewas carried out at the Lop Nor test site in western China, shown on the map in Figure XIII; 22 atmospheric tests were conducted between 1964 and 1980.

Limited information is available on local deposition following the tests. Balloons were used to follow the trajectory of the debris clouds, and airborne and ground-based instruments were used to monitor the radiation levels. Estimates of exposures were made over a downwind area to a distance of800 km [Z1]. Estimates of external exposures in cities or towns within 400800 km of the test site in Gansu Province ranged from 0.02 to 0.11 mSv (Table 20), with an average of about 0.04 mSv for three tests, which accounted for over 90% of the dose from all Chinese tests [Z1].

Indoor occupancy of 80% and a building shielding factor of 0.2 were assumed. A retrospective dose evaluation based on soil sampling was conducted in 19871992 [R4]. The dose commitment from 137Cs was estimated to range from 1.5 to 10 mSv in the northwest Ganzu province.

B.

UNDERGROUND TESTS 81.

Testing of nuclear weapons underground was begun in 1951 by the United States and in 1961 by the former Soviet Union. Following the limited nuclear test ban treaty

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 177 of 1963, which banned atmospheric tests, both countries conducted extensive underground test programmes. The United Kingdom participated with the United States in a few joint underground tests. The underground test pro-grammes of France and China continued until 1996. India conducted a single underground test in 1974 and five further tests in 1998. Pakistan reported conducting six tests in 1998. A comprehensive test ban treaty was formulated in 1996, but it has not yet been ratified by all countries or entered into force. Thus, it cannot yet be said that the practice of underground weapons testing has also ceased.

82.

The number of underground tests (Figure I, upper diagram) has greatly exceeded the number of atmospheric tests, but the total yield of the former (Figure I, lower diagram) has been much less. The largest underground tests had a reported yield of 1.510 Mt (27 October 1973, at Novaya Zemlya by the former Soviet Union) [M2] and less than 5 Mt (6 November 1971 at Amchitka, Alaska, by the United States) [D4], but most tests have been ofa much lower yield, particularly if containment of nuclear debris was desired. Only with venting or diffusion of gases following the tests, as has happened on occasion, could local populations be exposed.

83.

Underground test programmes were summarized in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3] and the resultant exposures were estimated. No further information has become available that could allow exposure estimates to be improved. It would be desirable to have a more complete list of those tests in which venting occurred and estimates of the amounts of radioactive materials thereby dispersed in the atmosphere.

Thirty-twoundergroundtestsconductedat theNevadatestsite were reported to have led to off-site contamination as a result of venting [H3].

84.

The number of underground tests requires revision, based on recentlypublished information [D4, M2]. Several tests involved the simultaneous detonation of two or more nuclear charges, either in the same or in separate boreholes or tunnels. These so-called salvo tests were done for reasons of efficiency or economy, but they also deterred detection by distant seismic measurements. The tests usually involved two to four charges; the maximum number was eight. Since each charge has now been identified, they can be properly specified as separate tests.

The annual numbers of underground tests conducted by each country are given in Table 21. The total number of tests by all countries is 1,876.

85.

The yields of individual underground tests have not been directlyspecified. Manyare simplyreported to be within a range of energies, for example <20 kt or 20150 kt. The annual yields of underground tests at all locations have been compiled bythe National Defense Research Establishment in Sweden [N6]. These estimates were included in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3]. The total yield of all tests conducted through 1992 was 90 Mt. The yields of subsequent tests have not altered this total amount. The total yield of all underground tests conducted bythe former Soviet Union has been reported to be 38 Mt [M2]. The yields apportioned to other countries are listed in Table 22.

86.

Table 22 provides a summary listing of all nuclear weapons tests, both atmospheric and underground. The total number of tests was 2,419; this includes the two combat explosions of nuclear weapons in Japan and a number of safety tests. The latter had no nuclear yield, but theyare conventionallyincluded in listingsofnuclear tests.

The total yield of all tests was 530 Mt.

C.

PRODUCTION OF WEAPONS MATERIALS 87.

In addition to weapons testing, the installations where nuclear materials were produced and weapons were fabricated were another source of radionuclide releases to which local and regional populations were exposed. Some information on this practice was presented in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3]. Especially in the earliest years of this activity, the pressures to meet production schedules and the lack of stringent waste discharge controls resulted in higher local exposures than in the later years. Efforts are being made to evaluate the exposures that occurred during all periods in which these installations operated. Although it maynot be possible to systematically evaluate all such exposures, newly acquired information is summarized in this Section. Also, at some sites, weapons are now being dismantled.

1.

United States 88.

Nuclear weapons plants in the United States included Fernald, in Ohio(materials processing); Portsmouth, in Ohio, and Paducah, in Kentucky (enrichment); Oak Ridge, in Tennessee (enrichment, separations, manufacture ofweapons parts, laboratories); Los Alamos, in New Mexico (plutonium processing, weapons assembly); Rocky Flats, in Colorado (manufacture of weapons parts); Hanford, in Washington (plutonium production); and Savannah River, in South Carolina (plutonium production). There are many more sites at which such operations were conducted and wastes were stored or disposed. It has been estimated that there are some 5,000 locations in the United States where contamination by radioactive materials has occurred, not all of which are associatedwithweaponsmaterialsproduction[W4].Estimates of releases of radioactive materials during the periods of operation of the nuclear installations are summarized in Table 23. Alsolisted are the exposures estimated to have been received by the local populations. This information might be extended when studies now underway are concluded, thus allowingbetterdocumentationofthehistoricalexposuresfrom this practice.

2.

Russian Federation 89.

There were three main siteswhereweapons materials were produced in the former Soviet Union: Chelyabinsk, Krasnoyarsk, and Tomsk. Relativelylarge routine releases

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 178 occurred during the early years of operation of these facilities. In additions, accidents have contributed to the background levels of contamination and to the exposure of individuals living in the local and regional areas.

(a)

Chelyabinsk 90.

The Mayak nuclear materials production complex is located in the Chelyabinsk region between the towns of Kyshtym and Kasli near the eastern shore of Lake Irtyash.

Uranium-graphite reactors for plutonium production and a reprocessing plant began operating in 1948. Relatively largedischargesofradioactive materials totheTecha River occurred from 1949 to 1956 [D5]. The available informa-tion on exposures to the local population was summarized in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3].

91.

Estimates of releases of radionuclides during the early years of operation of the Mayak complex are presented in Table 24. Controls of releases were introduced in the early 1960s. Themaximum releasesin airborne effluents, primarily 131I, occurred from 1949 to 1956 [D6]. During the same period, the discharges of radionuclides into the Techa River occurred [D5, K3]. Of the 100 PBq released from 1949 to 1956, 95 PBqwerereleasedin 1950 and 1951. Along with the fission products listed in Table 24, plutonium isotopes were also released.

92.

The individuals most highly exposed from the releases to the Techa River were residents of villages along the river, who used the water for drinking, fishing, waterfowl breeding, watering of livestock, irrigation of gardens, bathing, and washing. In April-May 1951, a heavy flood resulted in contamination of the flood plain used for livestock grazing and hay making. The collective dose to the most exposed population from 1949 to 1956 was 6,200 man Sv (Table 25).

Doses from external irradiation decreased in 1956, when residents of the upper reaches of the river moved to new places and the most highly contaminated part of the flood plain was enclosed. For someinhabitants, however, the Techa River contamination remains a significant source of exposure up to the present time.

93.

On 29 September 1957, a fault in the cooling system of a storage tank containing liquid radioactive wastes led to a chemical explosion and a large release of radionuclides. The total activitydispersed off-site over the territoryofthe Chelya-binsk, Sverdlovak, and Tyumen regions was approximately 74 PBq. The composition of the release is indicated in Table 24. Although the release was characterized mainly by rather short-lived radionuclides (144Ce, 95Zr), the long-term hazard was due primarily to 90Sr. An area of 23,000 km2 was contaminated at levels of 90Sr greater than 3.7 kBq m2 [N8].

In 1957, 273,000 people lived in the contaminated area. Of them, 10,000 livedwherethe 90Sr deposition densityexceeded 74 kBq m2 and 2,100 where the levels were over 3,700 kBq m2. In areas where 90Sr contamination exceeded 74 kBq m2, the population was evacuated, and relocated first from the most severelyaffected area within 710 days and the remaining population over the next 18 months. The main pathways of exposure following the accident were external irradiation and internal exposure from the consumption of local food products.

94.

The Mayak complex was responsible for further exposure of the local population in 1967, when water receded from Lake Karachy, which had been used for waste disposal, and the wind resuspended contaminated sediments from the shoreline. The dispersed material, about 0.022 PBq, consisted mainlyof 137Cs, 90Sr, and 144Ce (Table 24). The contaminated area, defined as having levels of 90Sr greater than 3.7 kBq m2 and of 137Cs greater than 7.4 kBq m2, extended 75 km from the lake. Approximately 40,000 people lived within this area of2,700 km2. The exposures from external irradiation and the consumption of local foods were considerably less than those following the 1957 storage tank accident.

95.

Present levels of exposure associated with operation of the Mayak complex have been estimated from the residual contamination [K4]. For internal exposure, the average (and range) of daily consumption of food were determined to be milk 0.7 (0.51.0) kg, meat 0.14 (0.090.18) kg, bread 0.36 (0.270.52) kg, potatoes 0.57 (0.21.0) kg, vegetables 0.24 (0.140.43) kg, fish 0.05 (0.030.11) kg, mushrooms 0.02 (0.010.03) kg, and berries 0.04 (0.010.06) kg [K4]. These values were used with the concentrations given in Table 26 to estimate the average annual dose from internal exposure of 100 Sv. Average annual dose from external exposure is estimated to be 10 Sv. For the population of 320,000 surrounding the Mayak complex, the annual collective effective dose from present operations (19931996) is estimated to be 35 man Sv (Table 27).

(b)

Krasnoyarsk 96.

The Krasnoyarsk nuclear materialsproduction complex is located about 40 km from the cityof Krasnoyarsk. The first two reactors at Krasnoyarsk were direct-flow type commissioned in 1958 and 1961. A third, closed-circuit reactor, wascommissionedin 1964. Aradiochemical plant for irradiated fuel reprocessing began operation in 1964. In 1985, a storage facilityfor spent fuel assemblies from reactors in the Soviet republics of Russia and Ukraine was put into service.

There are plans toreprocess this fuel from the civilian nuclear fuel cycle in the future at the Krasnoyarsk site.

97.

Radioactive wastes discharges from the Krasnoyarsk complex enter the Yenisei River. Trace contamination can be found from the complex to the estuary, about 2,000 km away

[V1]. An estimate of the collective dose from radioactive discharges of the Krasnoyarsk complex during 19581991 is presented in Table 25 [K5]; the estimate is derived from data on the content of radionuclides in water, fish, flood plain, and other components of the river ecosystem [N9, V1]. On the whole, the collective dose was about 1,200 man Sv. The most important contributor (70%)tothisdosewasfishconsumption

[K6]. External exposure from the contaminated flood plain accounted for 17% of the collective dose. The main radio-nuclides contributing to the internal dose from fish consump-tion were 32P, 24Na, 54Mn, and 65Zn. The main contributor to

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 179 the external dose (over 90%) was gamma-emitting radio-nuclides, primarily 137Cs, 60Co, and 152Eu. Individual doses to the population varied over a wide range, from 0.05 to 2.3 mSv a1. The main portion of the collective dose (about 84%) was received bythe population living within 350 km of the site of the radioactive discharges.

98.

In 1992, the direct-flow reactors of the Krasnoyarsk complex were shut down. This considerably reduced the amount ofradioactive discharges totheYenisei River, andthe annual collective dose to the population was decreased by a factor of more than 4. Present estimates of average doses (19931996) are 30 Sv a1 (external) and 20 Sv a1 (internal). With a local population of 200,000, the annual collective effective dose is estimated to be 10 man Sv (Table 27).

(c)

Tomsk 99.

The Siberian nuclear materials production complex is located in the town of Tomsk-7 on the right bank of the Tom River 15 km north of the city of Tomsk. The Siberian complex was commissioned in 1953. It is the largest complex for the production of plutonium, uranium, and transuranic elements in the Russian Federation. The Siberian complex includesfiveuranium-graphiteproduction reactorsthat began operation in 19581963, enrichment and fuel fabrication facilities, and a reprocessing plant [B7].

100. Radionuclides in liquid wastes are discharged into the Tom River, which flows intothe ObRiver. An estimate of the collective dose from radioactive discharges of the Siberian complex from 1958 to 1992 is presented in Table 25. The exposure pathways considered in the dose evaluation were the ingestion of fish, drinking water, waterfowl, and irrigated products and external exposure from the contaminated flood plain. The collective effective dose was estimated to be 200 man Sv. The largest contributor (73%) to this dose was fish consumption. The main radionuclides contributing to the internal dose from fish consumption were 32P and 24Na. The largest portion ofthecollectivedose(about 80%) was received bythe population livingwithin 30km ofthe site ofradioactive discharges.

101. In 19901992, three of the five reactors of the Siberian complex were shut down. This considerably reduced the amount of radioactive discharges to the Tom River and the annual collective dose to the population. The average annual doses to the local population are estimated to be 0.4 Sv (external) and 5 Sv (internal). For the local population of 400,000, the collective effective dose at present (19931996) is estimated to be 2.2 man Sv (Table 27).

102. On 6 April 1993, an accident occurred at the radiochemical plant of the Siberian complex that resulted in the release of radioactive materials [B7, G6, I6]. A narrow traceofradioactivecontamination 3545kmlongwasformed in a northeasterly direction from the complex (based on trace concentrations of 95Zr and 95Nb in soil). The total area of the contamination with dose rate levels at the time ofthe accident higher than the natural radiation background was estimated to be about 100 km2 [M8]. The dominant radionuclides in snow samples from the contaminated area were 95Zr, 95Nb, 106Ru, and 103Ru. Traces of 239Pu and 144Ce were also detected.

A non-uniformity of contamination was noted, with the presence of hot particles in the composition of radioactive materials deposited on the snow. There are no populated places in the area of the pattern, except for the village of Georgievka, which has a population of 73 persons (including 18 children). The cumulative dose from external exposure to the inhabitants of Georgievka from the accident during 50 years of permanent residence will amount to 0.20.3 mSv

[B7], which is negligible, compared to the dose from natural background radiation over the same period.

3.

United Kingdom 103. The production of nuclear materials and the fabrication of weapons began in the 1950s in the United Kingdom. The work was carried on for several years at sites such as Springfields (uranium processing and fuel fabrication), Capenhurst (enrichment), Sellafield (produc-tion reactors and reprocessing), Aldermaston (weapons research), and Harwell (research). Subsequently, work related to the commercial nuclear power programme was incorporated at some of these sites. In the earliest years of operation oftheseinstallations, theradionuclidedischarges may be associated almost wholly with the military fuel cycle.

104. Plutonium production reactors were operated in the United Kingdom at Sellafield (two graphite-moderated, gas-cooled reactors known as the Windscale piles) and, later, at Calder Hall on the Sellafield site and Chapelcross in Scotland. A fire occurred in one of the Windscale reactors in 1957, resulting in the release of radionuclides, most notably 131I, 137Cs, 106Ru, 133Xe, and 210Po. The prompt imposition of a ban on milk supplies in the affected region reducedexposures to 131I. The collective effective dosefrom the accident was estimated to be 2,000 man Sv.

4.

France 105. A nuclear programme in France began in 1945 with the creation of the Commissariat l'Energíe Atomique (CEA).

The nuclear research laboratoryat Fontenay-aux-Roses began activities in the following year. The first experimental reactor, named EL1 or Zoé, went critical in 1948, and a pilot reprocessing plant began operation in 1954. A second experimental reactor, EL2, was constructed at the Saclay centre. From 1956 to 1959, three larger production reactors began operation at the Marcoule complex on theRhneRiver.

Thesegas-cooled,graphite-moderatedreactors,designatedG1, G2, and G3, operated until 1968, 1980, and1984. A full-scale reprocessing plant, UP1, was built and operated from 1958, also at the Marcoule site. Two more plants to reprocess fuel from commercial reactors were constructed at La Haguein the north of France: UP2, completed in 1966, and UP3, in 1990.

106. Although some systematic reporting of radionuclide discharge data is available beginning in 1972 [C10], some

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 180 of this may reflect the reprocessing of commercial reactor fuel. It should be possible toestimate plutonium production amounts at the various installations, and some reports of environmental monitoring(e.g. [M9])maygiveindications of early operating experience.

5.

China 107. A nuclear weapons development programme was initiated in China that led to the first nuclear explosion ofthat country, conducted in 1964. The Institute of Atomic Energy was created in 1950. The first experimental reactor was constructed in Beijing, and a uranium enrichment plant was built at Lanzhou in Ganzu Province in western China. The first nuclear test was of an enriched uranium device. Pluton-ium production and reprocessing were conducted at the Jiuquan complex, also located in Ganzu Province. The production reactor began operation in 1967 and the reprocessing plant in 1968. Production and reprocessing also occurred in Guangyuan in Sichuan Province, where larger installations were constructed. The weapons were assembled at the Jiuquan complex.

108. Assessment of exposures from nuclear weapons production in China have been reported by Pan et al. [P4, P5, P6]. Exposures to populations surrounding specific installations were estimated. This experience relates to the military fuel cycle, since the commercial nuclear power programme started only in the last decade.

II.

NUCLEAR POWER PRODUCTION 109. The Committee has routinelycollected data on releases of radionuclides from the operation of nuclear fuel cycle installations. In the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3], an overview was provided of annual releases ofradionuclides for the general types of reactors and other fuel cycle installations since the beginning of the practice of commercial nuclear power generation. Data for individual mines, mills, reactors, and reprocessing plants were given for the years 19851989.

In this Annex, the data for another five-year period, 19901994,andathree-yearperiod,19951997,areassessed.

110. Thegenerationofelectricalenergybynuclearmeanshas grown steadily from the start of the industry in 1956. The relatively rapid rate of expansion that occurred from 1970 to 1985, an increase in energygeneration of more than 20% per year, slowed to a pace averaging just over 2% per year from 1990 to 1996 [I1]. At the end of 1997, there were 437 nuclear reactors operating in 31 countries. The total installed capacity was352GW, andtheenergygeneratedin1997was254GWa

[I1]. It is projected [I1] that nuclear energy will continue to supplyabout 17%ofthetotalelectrical energygeneratedin the world, as at present, or possibly a few percent less.

111. The nuclear fuel cycle includes the mining and milling of uranium ore and its conversion to nuclear fuel material; the fabrication offuel elements; the production of energy in the nuclear reactor; the storage of irradiated fuel or its reprocessing, with the recycling of the fissile and fertile materials recovered; and the storage and disposal of radioactive wastes. For some types of reactors, enrichment of the isotopic content of 235U in the fuel material is an additional step in the fuel cycle. The nuclear fuel cycle also includes the transport of radioactive materials between the various installations.

112. Radiation exposures of members of the public resulting from discharges of radioactive materials from installations of the nuclear fuel cycle were assessed in previous UNSCEAR reports [U3, U4, U6]. In this Annex, the trends in normalized releasesandtheresultant doses from nuclear reactor operation are presented for the years 19701997. The doses are estimated using the environmental and dosimetric models described in Annex A, Dose assessment methodologies.

113. The doses to the exposed individuals vary widely from one installation to another, between different locations and with time. Generally, the individual doses decrease markedly with distance from a specific source. To evaluate the total impact of radionuclides released at each stage of the nuclear fuel cycle, the results are evaluated in terms of collective effective dose per unit electrical energy generated, expressed as man Sv(GWa)1. Onlyexposures tomembers ofthe public are considered in this Annex. Occupational exposures associated with nuclear power production are included in Annex E, Occupational radiation exposures.

A.

MINING AND MILLING 114. Uranium mining involves the removal from the ground of large quantities of ore containing uranium and its decay products. Underground and open-pit mining are the main techniques. Underground mines produced 40% of the world's total uranium production in 1996 and open-pit mines, 39% [O1]. Uranium is also mined using in situ leaching, which produced 13% of the world uranium in 1996 [O1]. The remaining 8% was recovered as a by-product of other mineral processing. Milling operations involve the processing of the ore to extract the uranium in a partially refined form, known as yellowcake.

115. Uranium mining and milling operations are con-ducted in several countries. Production in recent years is given in Table 28. In 1997 about 90% of world uranium production took place in 9 countries: Australia, Canada, Kazakhstan, Namibia, Niger, the Russian Federation, South Africa, the United States, and Uzbekistan. It is noted that oversupply, leading to large stockpiles and low prices,

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 181 has led to considerable reductions in output since 1989

[O1]. However, beginning in 1995, production of uranium was substantially increased in some countries, mainly Australia, Canada, Namibia, Niger, and the United States.

The world production in 1997 was 35,700 t uranium.

1.

Effluents 116. There are few new data on releases of radionuclides, mainly radon, in mining and milling operations. Limited data for underground mines, based on concentrations in exhaust air, were given in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report

[U3] for Australia, Canada, and Germany. There were no estimates of releases in open-pit operations. For under-ground mines the release of radon, normalized to the production of uranium oxide (U3O8), ranged from 1 to 2,000 GBq t1, with a production-weighted average of 300 GBq t1. Based on the estimated uranium (fuel) require-ments for the reactor types presently in use, 250 t uranium oxide are required to produce 1 GW a of electrical energy

[U3]. This leads to an average normalized radon release from mines of approximately 75 TBq (GW a)1.

117. In the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3], the average normalized radon release from mills in Australia and Canada, alsofrom thelimiteddata available, was estimated to be 3 TBq (GW a)1 [U3]. These values are not expected to change with current mining and milling practices. For mining operations in arid areas, liquid effluents are minimal, and radionuclide releases via this pathway are estimated to be of little consequence.

118. The mining and milling processes create various waste residues in addition to the uranium product. The tailings consist of the crushed and milled rock from which the mineral has been extracted, together with any chemicals and fluids remaining after the extraction process. The long-lived precursors of 222Rn, namely 226Ra (half-life 1,600 a) and 230Th (half-life 80,000 a), present in the mill tailings provide a long-term source of radon release to the atmosphere. Based on available data, the radon emission rates were estimated in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3] to be 10 Bq s1 m2 of tailings during the operational phase ofthe mill (assumed to be five years) and 3 Bq s1 m2 from abandoned but stabilized tailings (assumed period of unchanged release of 10,000 years).

Assuming that the production of a mine generates about 1 ha (GW a)1, the normalized radon releases are 3 and 1 TBq (GW a)1 for the operational and abandoned tailings, respectively. The in situ leach facilities have no surface tailings and little radon emissions after closure.

Release estimates from mining and milling operations are summarized in Table 29.

119. In a recent study of eight major uranium production facilities in Australia, Canada, Namibia, and Niger [S6],

measured emission rates were reported to range from background to 35 Bq s1 m2 from the tailings of presently operatingmills. Followingdecommissioning, thereleaserates are at present or are expected to be no more than 7 Bq s1 m2

[S6]. For many of the uranium mill tailings, the long-term managementinvolvessubstantialwater-saturatedcover,which reduces the radon emission rate to 00.2 Bq s1 m2. Taking into account present tailings areas yet to be rehabilitated with good present techniques and the anticipated future practice, the emission rate from abandoned mill tailings can be assumed tobe less than 1 Bq s1 m2. This value is adopted for the present evaluation. The previous estimate was 3 Bq s1 m2 [U3]. For comparison, the average emission rate corresponding to soils in normal background areas is 0.02 Bq s1 m2 [U3].

2.

Dose estimates 120. The methodologyusedbytheCommitteetoestimate the collective dose from mining and milling is described in the UNSCEAR 1977 and 1982 Reports [U4, U6]. The dose estimate is based on representative release rates from a model mine and mill site having the typical features ofexisting sites.

An air dispersion model is used to estimate the radon concentrations from releasesasa function ofdistance from the site, and the most common environmental pathways are included to estimate dose. Thus, the results are not applicable to any given site without duly considering site-specific data but are meant to reflect the overall impact of mining and milling facilities.

121. The previously estimated exposures for the model mine and mill site assumed population densities of 3 km2 at 0100 km and 25 km2 at 1002,000 km. The collective effective dose factor for atmospheric discharges in a semi-arid area with an effective release height of 10 m was 0.015 man SvTBq1 [U3], based on the dose coefficient for radon of 9 nSv h1 per Bq m3 (EEC). As the dilution factor at 1 km has been reduced from 3 106 to 5 107 s m3, the dose per unit release of radon becomes 0.0025 man Sv TBq1. Using this factor, the collective effective dose per unit electrical energy generated is estimated to be 0.2 man Sv (GW a)1 during operation of the mine and mill and 0.00075 man Sv (GW a)1 per year of release from the residual tailings piles. For the assumed 10,000-year period of constant, continued release from the tailings, the normalized collective effective dose becomes 7.5 man Sv (GW a)1 (Table 29). The various revisions in the parameters have led to a considerable reduction from the previously estimated value of 150 man Sv (GW a)1 [U3].

122. An alternative assessment of exposures from mill tailings has been proposed in a study prepared for the Uranium Institute [S6]. In this study, site-specific data relating to currently operating mills in four countries (Australia, Canada, Namibia, and Niger) were utilized.

Differences from the UNSCEAR results arise from the use of a more detailed dispersion model, much-reduced population densities (<3 km2 within 100 km and from 2 to 7 km2 in the region between 100 and 2,000 km), and more ambitious future tailings management with substantial covers to reduce radon emissions. The overall result (adjust-ing for the radon dose coefficient of 9 nSv h1 per Bq m3, as used above) is 1.4 man Sv (GW a)1 over a 10,000-year

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 182 period, which although less by a factor of 5, it is in reason-able agreement with the estimate derived in the previous paragraph.

123. In France, exposures from mill tailings at Lodeve mining site were assessed considering measurements of radon releases prior toand after remediation [T6]. Calcula-tions were based on a Gaussian plume dispersion model, and actual population densities of 63 km2 at 0100 km and 44 km2 at 1002,000 km were used. Before re-mediation the average measured flux was found to be 28 Bq m2 s1. The average annual effective dose to individuals within 10 km from the tailings was assessed to be about 20 Sv. Considering that 12,850 tonnes of uranium were extracted during the whole duration of processing, the collective effective dose to the population living within 2,000 km of the tailings and over a period of 10,000 years was estimated to be 380 man Sv (GWa)1.

This value is much higher than the estimate ofthe previous paragraph, which is due to higher radon fluxes and population densities and to the different atmospheric dispersion model. After remediation of the site, the radon fluxes were found not to be different from the background, and the collective dose was assess to be almost zero.

124. For the model mining and milling operations, the annual release of radon is of the order of 80 TBq (GW a)1 (Table 29). With annual average production of 4,000 t in the main producing countries (Table 28: 36,000 t mostly from 9 countries) and assuming the collective dose is received by the population within 100 km from the mine and mill sites (3 km2 to 100 km = 90,000 persons), the annual dose is estimated to be about 40 Sv [4,000 t ÷ 250 t (GW a)1 x 80 TBq (GW a)1 x 0.0025 man Sv TBq1

÷ 90,000 persons]. This dose rate would be imperceptible from variations of the normal background dose rate from natural sources.

125. The Committee recognizes that considerable devia-tions are possible from the representative values of parameters selected for the more general conditions of present practice. For example, much higher population densities are reported in areas surrounding the mills in China [P4], and previously abandoned tailings may not have been so carefully secured as is evidently possible.

Although careful management of tailings areas would be expected in the future, the extremes of leaving the tailings uncovered to providing secure and covered impoundment could increase or decrease the estimated exposure by at least an order ofmagnitude. Further surveys ofsite-specific conditions would be useful toestablish realistic parameters for the worldwide practice.

B.

URANIUM ENRICHMENT AND FUEL FABRICATION 126. Forlight-water-moderatedand-cooledreactors(LWRs) and for advanced gas-cooled, graphite-moderated reactors (AGRs), the uranium processed at the mills needs to be enriched in the fissile isotope 235U. Enrichments of 2%5%

are required. Before enrichment, the uranium oxide (U3O8) must be converted to uranium tetrafluoride (UF4) and then to uranium hexafluoride (UF6). Enrichment is not needed for gas-cooled, graphite-moderated reactors (GCRs) or heavy-water-cooled and -moderated reactors (HWRs).

127. In fuel fabrication for LWRs (PWRs and BWRs) and AGRs, the enriched UF6 is chemicallyconverted to UO2. The UO2 powder is sintered, formed into pellets, and loaded into tubes (cladding) of Zircaloy and stainless steel, which are sealed at both ends. These fuel rods are arranged in arrays to form the reactor fuel assemblies. The fuel pins for HWRs are produced from natural uranium or slightly enriched uranium sintered into pellets and clad in zirconium alloy. The natural uranium metal fuel for GCRs is obtained by compressing the UF4 with shredded magnesium and heating. The reduced uranium is cast into rods that are machined and inserted into cans.

128. The releases of radioactive materials from the conversion, enrichment, and fuel fabrication plants are generallysmall and consist mainlyofuranium series isotopes.

Available data from operating installations were reported in theUNSCEAR1993Report [U3]. For the model installations, the normalized collective effective dose from these operations was estimated to be 0.003 man Sv (GW a)1. Inhalation is the most important exposure pathway. The collective doses from liquid discharges comprise less than 10% of the total exposure.

C.

NUCLEAR REACTOR OPERATION 129. The reactors used for electrical energy generation are classified, for the most part, by their coolant systems and moderators: light-water-moderatedand-cooledpressurizedor boiling water reactors (PWRs, BWRs), heavy-water-cooled and -moderated reactors (HWRs), gas-cooled, graphite-moderated reactors (GCRs), andlight-water-cooled, graphite-moderated reactors (LWGRs). These are all thermal reactors that use the moderator material to slow down fast fission neutrons to thermal energies. In fast breeder reactors (FBRs),

there is no moderator, and the fission is induced by fast neutrons; the coolant is a liquid metal. FBRs are making only minor contributions to energy production. The electrical energygenerated bythese various types of reactors from 1970 through 1997 is illustrated in Figure XV and the data since 1990 for individual reactor stations are given in Table 30 [I3].

130. The Committee derives average releases of radio-nuclides from reactors based on reported data, and these averages are used to estimate the consequent exposures for a reference reactor. Mathematical models for the dispersion of radionuclides in the environment are used to calculate, for each radionuclideor a combination ofradionuclides, thedoses resulting from released activity. The geographical location of the reactor, the release points, the distribution of the population, food production and consumption habits, and the

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 183 0

50 100 150 200 250 300 ELECTRICAL ENERGY GENERATED (GW a) pre 1970 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 PWRs BWRs GCRs HWRs LWGRs Figure XV. Contributions by reactor type to total electrical energy generated worldwide by nuclear means.

environmental pathways of radionuclides are factors that influencethe calculated dose. The same release ofactivityand radionuclide composition from different reactors can give rise to different radiation doses to the public. Thus, the calculated exposures for a reference reactor provide only a generalized measure of reactor operating experience and serve as a standardizedparameter for analysinglonger-term trendsfrom the practice.

1.

Effluents 131. Theradioactivematerialsreleasedin airborneandliquid effluents from reactors during routine operation are reported with substantial completeness. The data for 19901997 are included in Tables 3136: noble gases in airborne effluents (Table31), tritium in airborneeffluents(Table32),iodine-131 in airborne effluents (Table 33), particulates in airborne effluents (Table34), tritium in liquid effluents (Table 35), and radionuclides other than tritium in liquid effluents (Table 36).

Each table also includes a summary of the total releases and the normalized releases (amount of radionuclide released per unit electrical energy generated) for each year of the five-year period 19901994 and for the three-year period 19951997 for each type of reactor and for all reactors together. Average normalizedreleasesofradionuclidesfrom each reactor type in five-year periods beginning in 1970 and for the three-year period 19951997 are presented in Table 37.

132. The normalized releases have traditionally been compiled for each reactor type. This is justified by the different composition of the releases, e.g. for noble gases, 41Ar from GCRs and krypton and xenon isotopes from other types of reactors. In this case, different dose factors are required to estimate the doses. For other release components, e.g. 14C or 131I, there may be no inherent differences between reactor types, and atypical releases from one or a few reactors may dominate the normalized release values. In this case, the average normalized releases reflect only the prevailing operating experience, which cannot betaken asrepresentative of the releases from a particular reactor type. With relatively complete data, little extrapolation is needed for estimating the collective doses from the total releases, and the normalized values are retained by reactor type mainly for convenience.

133. The release experience of individual reactors during the last five-year period (19901994) is evaluated in Figure XVI and shown as the characteristic distributions of the different reactor types. All reactors with relatively complete entries in Tables 3136 (four or five years ofdata for both release amount and energygenerated) are included in the figures. Each point has been derived from the total release of the radionuclide in 19901994 divided by the electrical energy generated in the same period. This evaluation of normalized release partly eliminates variations in annual values during the five-year period.

There are, however, substantial differences in values from one reactor to another. Some factors affecting releases of radionuclides include the integrity of the fuel, the waste management systems, and procedures and maintenance operations conducted during the period of interest.

134. To obtain the characteristic distribution diagrams, the data are put in ranked order. The cumulative fractional value of point i of n points is specified as i/(n + 1). The inverse of the standard normal cumulativedistribution ofeach fractional point is then derived. The value expresses the standard deviation of the data point from the centre of the distribution.

In Figure XVI, the abscissa has been transformed to a percentage scale (0 = 50%, 1 SD = 84.14%, 2 SD = 97.73%,

etc.). With a logarithmic scale on the ordinate, a straight line indicates a log-normal distribution. A steep slope indicates wide variations in the data. Breaks in the line indicate separate subpopulations of the available data. Outlier points are readily identified in these plots.

135. The distribution of normalized releases from reactors are approximately log-normal, often with a wide distribution of the data. The normalized releases of noble gases (Figure XVI) span seven orders of magnitude. There may be some differences in thecomposition ofnoble gases reported in airborne effluents, particularly the short-lived isotopes. The

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 184 PERCENTAGE

  





   





  



NORMALIZED RELEASE [GBq (GW a) ]























Iodine-131 PERCENTAGE

  





   





  











NORMALIZED RELEASE [GBq (GW a) ]















Noble gases



NORMALIZED RELEASE [GBq (GW a) ]















PERCENTAGE

  





   





  









Tritium

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 185



NORMALIZED RELEASE [GBq (GW a) ]









Particulates PERCENTAGE

  





   





  

























NORMALIZED RELEASE [GBq (GW a) ]

















PERCENTAGE

  





   





  









Tritium in liquid effluents PERCENTAGE

  





   





  



NORMALIZED RELEASE [GBq (GW a) ]









Radionuclides other than tritium in liquid effluents



















Figure XVI. Normalized release of noble gases, tritium, iodine-131 and particulates in airborne effluents and tritium and other radionuclides in liquid effluents from reactors during 19901994.

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 186 distributions for PWRs and BWRs are similar, but with deviations to higher normalized releases from BWRs in the upper range of the distribution. The highest values for BWRs arefrom thereactorsBig Rock Point, Ringhals 1, andTarapur 12, ranging from 3,400 to 41,000 TBq (GW a)1. The mean value for all BWRs is 18 TBq (GW a)1. The distributions for GCRsandHWRsaresimilar and somewhat higher than those for PWRs and BWRs.

136. The normalized releases of tritium in airborne effluents (Figure XVI) are less wide ranging. The distributions for PWRs and BWRs are identical; the distribution for GCRs is somewhat higher, with fewer values available, however. The distribution for HWRs is much higher, reflecting the large amounts of tritium produced in the moderator of these reactors. Among HWRs, those in Canada and the reactors Fugen, Embalse, and Wolsong 1 are all below 800 TBq (GW a)1, while Karachi, Atucha 1, and the Indian reactors are at higher values.

137. The distribution of 131I releases in airborne effluents (Figure XVI) are quite wide and are somewhat higher for BWRs and HWRs than for PWRs. There are fewer values for GCRs; however, when several reactors with data for three years in 19901994 are included, the distribution is similar to that of BWRs and HWRs.

138. The distributions of particulate releases are also shown in Figure XVI. The strikingly high values in Table 34 for the Swedish BWR Ringhals 1 in 1994 and 1995 are attributable to damage in fuel elements beginning in 1993 and a problem in delaying releasesofradionuclidesenteringturbineroom air

[N3]. These releases were toa large extent due torather short-lived nuclei. Nuclei with half-lives of less than 83 minutes gaveriseto98%ofthe releasedactivity. Authorizeddischarge limits were not exceeded; the atmospheric releases reached a maximum of 36% of the total dose limit for individuals (0.1 mSv a1) of the hypothetical critical group. The average value for 19901994 for this reactor [17 TBq (GW a)1] is the highest in the distribution for BWRs (Figure XVI). Relatively high values [0.040.1 TBq (GW a)1] were also derived for the BWRs Forsmark 13, Tarapur 12, and Oskarshamn 13. Thedistributionsofparticulatereleasesare verydifferent for the different reactor types and are somewhat higher for BWRs and GCRs than for PWRs.

139. Normalized releases of tritium in liquid effluents (Figure XVI) are fairly uniform about the mean values for most of the reactors. The distribution for BWRs is lowest and for HWRs, highest. Intermediate are the distributions for PWRs and GCRs. The mean value for the group is about 1 TBq (GW a)1. The GCRs seem to form two distributions, with newer reactors at the higher end and the older reactors at the lower end, the opposite of the case for the noble gas releases. The HWRs are gathered about a mean normalized release of tritium in liquid effluents of about 400 TBq (GW a)1; at the lower extreme is the Pickering 58 station

[28 TBq (GW a)1] and at the higher end [1,1003,700 TBq (GW a)1] are Bruce 14, Kalpakkam 12, and Atucha 1.

140. A wide range (eight orders of magnitude) is necessary to illustrate the normalized releases of radionuclides other than tritium in liquid effluents (Figure XVI); this may be a result of the radionuclides identified and of the hold-up times provided in the waste treatment systems. The distributions are similar, although that for GCRsissomewhat higher. Aduality in the GCR distribution is again noted, this time taking the pattern for noble gases mentioned above (higher normalized releases from the older reactors).

141. The radionuclide composition of releases has been examined for the various reactor types. In general, the releases of noble gases from PWRs are dominated by 133Xe, with a half-life of 5.3 days, but short-lived radionuclides such as 135Xe (half-life = 9.2 h) are also present. For the BWRs the composition of the noble gas releases is more varied, with most krypton and xenon radionuclides included. The releases of particulates from BWRs are also variable and difficult to generalize from the limited data available. The radionuclides 88Rb (half-life = 17.8 min), 89Rb (half-life = 15.2 min), 138Cs (half-life = 33.4 min), and 139Ba (half-life = 83.1 min) were prominent in the large releases mentioned above from the Ringhals 1 reactor. The radionuclide compositions of liquid releases from PWRs seem to vary from reactor to reactor; the cobalt isotopes (58Co, 60Co) as well as the caesium isotopes (134Cs, 137Cs) are usuallypresent. In some cases, large relative proportions of 110mAg and 124Sb are reported. It may be that some differences are accentuated by the various measuring and reporting practices at reactor stations.

142. The longer-term temporal trendsin normalizedreleases of radionuclides for the various reactor types are illustrated in Figure XVII. The trends are shown for the time designated pre-1970" to1994, averaged over five-year time periods, and for the three-year period from 1995 to 1997. Except for the atmospheric releases of particulates, the normalized releases are either fairlyconstant or slightlydecreasing. The increased release of particulates to air reflects the operation of a specific reactor and is not characteristic of all reactors.

2.

Local and regional dose estimates 143. The concentrations of the released radionuclides in the environment are generally too low to be measurable except close to the nuclear facility and then for a limited number of radionuclides only. Therefore, dose estimates for the popula-tion (individual and collective doses) are generally based on modelling theatmosphericandaquatictransport and environ-mental transfer of the released radioactive materials and then applying a dosimetric model.

144. The environmental and dosimetric models previously used for dose estimates were described in the UNSCEAR 1982 and 1988 Reports [U4, U6]. Based on the review in Annex A, Dose assessment methodologies, thevaluesofthe dose coefficients for some radionuclides have been revised.

The dose assessment procedures are applied to a model site with representative environmental conditions. The average population density is 20 km2 within 2,000 km of the site.

Within 50 km of the site, the population densityis taken to be

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 187 Noble gases Tritium (air)

Tritium (liquid)

Carbon-14 Other (liquid)

Iodine-131 Particulates Pre-1970 1970-1974 1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1997 NORMALIZED RELEASE [TBq (GW a) ]

-1

-4 10

-3 10

-2 10

-1 10 0

10 1

10 2

10 5

10 4

10 3

10

 

 



  





 

  





 



 



Pre 1970 1970-1974 1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1997

 





























Figure XVII. Trends in releases of radionuclides from reactors.

Values of 19701974 are assumed to apply prior to 1970.

400 km2. For the model site the collective effective doses per unit release (man Sv PBq1) for the different release categories and reactor types are presented in Table 38.

Because of the variability in annual releases, normalized releases [TBq (GW a)1] have been averaged over a five-year period (Table 37) to assess the collective dose.

145. The collective effective dose per unit electrical energy generated [man Sv (GW a)1] is obtained by multiplying the normalized releases per unit electrical energy generated (Table 37) by the collective effective dose per unit release (Table 38). The resulting estimates for 19901994 are given in Table 39. The total normalized collective effective dose for allreactors, weightedbytherelativeenergyproduction ofeach reactor type (Table 39), is 0.43 man Sv (GW a)1. The radionuclide releases were generally similar to those that prevailed in the preceding five-year assessment period [U3],

but revisions in the dose coefficients have reduced the normalized collective effective dose by a factor of 3.

Figure XVIII. Local and regional collective effective doses from average annual releases of radionuclides from reactors. The increasing trend in electrical energy generated is indicated with scale on left in units of GW a.

146. From the total energy generated and the normalized collective dose, the local and regional collective dose from the operation of nuclear power plants during 19901994 is estimated to be 490 man Sv. During 19851989 the corresponding collective dose was 390 man Sv. This is an increase of just over 25%, which is nearly the same as the increase in the energy generated by nuclear reactors (19851989: 936 GW a; 19901994: 1,147 GW a). To reduce the effect of variability in annual releases, the calculation of the collective dose is based on normalized releases averaged over five-year periods (Table 37). However, outliers in the data set can still have a substantial impact on thedoseestimate. If, for example, theparticulatereleasesfrom the Ringhals 1 reactor are excluded, the corresponding dose estimates will be 0.39 man Sv (GW a)1 and 450 man Sv, respectively. However, this point could not be taken out of the data set without examining other possible outliers for 19901994 and for earlier years.

147. It should be noted that the average normalized doses derived here may not apply to specific reactors of a particular type. There maybe further variations in release compositions,

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 188



 









 



 

 

 

 

 

 

 





    

















































population densities, and local environmental pathways that couldsignificantlychangethecollectivedosecontributions. In a fewcases, reactor operators report estimates ofdosestolocal residentsbasedon possible exposurescenarios. Thedata have, however, not been collected or assessed by the Committee.

148. The temporal trends of the local and regional collective effective doses for the different radionuclide categories over a longer time are shown in Figure XVIII. The collective dose from 131I has decreased for a number of years, and this decrease continues for the latest five-year and three-year periods. The collective doses from tritium (airborne and liquid), 14C, and particulates have been increasingthrough the 19901994 period. Overall, the total collective dose has been relatively constant since 19701979, even though the electrical energy generated has continuously increased.

149. For the model site, the annual average effective doses to individuals, estimated from the release data and assuming the total collective dose for a reactor type exposes a single local population group (400 km2 to 50 km), are 5 Sv for PWRs and GCRs, 10 Sv for BWRs and HWRs, 2 Sv for LWGRs, and 0.04 Sv for FBRs. In comparison, reported annual individual doses from a number of reactor sites are in the range 1500 Sv.

D. FUEL REPROCESSING 150. Fuel reprocessing is carried out to recover uranium and plutonium from spent fuel for reuse in reactors. Most spent fuel from reactors is retained on-site in interim storage, pending decisions on ultimate disposal or retrievable storage.

Only about 5%10% of fuel is submitted to the reprocessing stage of the nuclear fuel cycle. The main commercial repro-cessing plants are in France, Japan, and the United Kingdom.

1.

Effluents 151. Relatively large quantities of radioactive materials are involved at the fuel reprocessing stage. The radionuclides are freed from their contained state as the fuel is brought into solution, and the potential for release in waste discharges is greater than for other stages ofthe fuel cycle. Routine releases have been largely in liquid effluents to the sea. Operating standards have been considerably improved at these plants over the years, with substantial reductions occurring in released amounts.

152. Some revisions and additions have been made to the releasequantitiespreviouslyreported bytheCommittee. Also, more direct data on fuel throughput, which were previously estimated from 85Kr discharges, are available. Therefore, the annual release data for fuel reprocessing plants from 1970 through 1997 are given in Table 40. The average normalized releases per unit of energy generated in five-year periods (except for 19701979, a 10-year period) are summarized in Table 41 and shown in Figure XIX. It can be observed that the releases to both air and sea of most radionuclides have been decreasing over the long term. This is particularlyso for the releases of 106Ru, 90Sr, and 137Cs to the sea and for 137Cs and 131I to the air (Table 41).

Figure XIX. Trends in releases of radionuclides from fuel reprocessing plants.

Average values ere derived for 1970-1979 and assumed to apply also prior to 1970.

2.

Local and regional dose estimates 153. Collective doses from nuclear fuel reprocessing can be estimated from the normalized releases per unit of energy generated, the electrical energy equivalent of the fuel reprocessed, and the collective dose per unit release of radionuclides [U3]. This analysis is given in Table 41. For the entire period of fuel reprocessing, the total collective effective dose is estimated to be 4,700 man Sv. Liquid releases of 137Cs contributed87%ofthe total dose. Thecollectiveeffectivedose from each radionuclide is shown in Figure XX. In the most recent five-year period (19901994) the dose from 14C exceeded that from 137Cs. During the 1980s and 1990s, the collective dose from fuel reprocessing has been decreasing, even though the amount of fuel reprocessed has been increasing (Figure XX).

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 189

-3 10

-2 10

-1 10 0

10 1

10 2

10 4

10 3

10 1970-1974 Pre-1970 1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1997 COLLECTIVE EFFECTIVE DOSE (man Sv)

Iodine-131 Iodine-129 Krypton-85 Strontium-90 Ruthenium-106 Caesium-137 Carbon-14 Total Tritium Figure XX. Local and regional collective effective doses from average annual release of radionuclides from fuel reprocessing plants. The amount of fuel reprocessed is indicated by the heavy dashed line (units GW a).

154. From the data provided in Table 41, it may be determined that the annual components of collective dose from fuel reprocessing are of the order of 2030 man Sv. If this were received only by a single local population (3.1 106 persons within 50 km), the effective dose commitment to individuals would be about 10 Sv per year of operation. This dose commitment is delivered over a longer-term, especially from 14C, and is distributed, as well, among separate installa-tions (in three countries).

E. GLOBALLY DISPERSED RADIONUCLIDES 155. Radionuclides that are sufficientlylong-lived and easily dispersed in the environment can give rise to global doses.

The radionuclides of specific interest are 3H, 14C, 85Kr, and 129I, with half-lives of 12.26, 5,730, 10.7, and 1.6 107 years, respectively. The large uncertainties involved in estimating doses over prolonged time periods are due to problems in predicting environmental pathways, population distributions, dietary habits, climate change, etc. The uncertainties of dose calculations increase when the integration is carried out for very long periods of time, hundreds or thousands of years or even longer. In this assessment, as was done for the case of collective dose from mill

tailings, the global dose commitments are truncated at 10,000 years.

156. The normalized releases of the globally dispersed radionuclides given in Tables 37 and 41 are summarized in Table 42. From the electrical energy generated or the energy equivalentoffuel reprocessed, thetotal activityreleaseofthese radionuclides may be calculated (Table 43). Applying the factors of collective dose per unit release to these results gives estimates of the collective effective dose commitments (Table 44). For the very long-lived radionuclides (14C and 129I), a world population of1010 was assumed at the time of the release, and for 3H and 85Kr, a population of 5 109 was assumed.

157. The total collective effective dose per unit electrical energy generated is obtained from the normalized releases from reactors and reprocessing plants (Table 42) and the factors of collective dose per unit release (as revised in AnnexA, Dose assessment methodologies). In normalizing to the total energy generated, the contribution from the reprocessingplantsisweightedaccordingtothefraction ofthe fuel reprocessed (0.11 for 19901994). The estimates of the normalized collective dose commitments are 41 and 43 man Sv (GW a)1 for 19901994 and 19951997, respectively, which are due mostly to 14C (Table 44).

158. The commitment calculations may be used to indicate the maximum dose rate for a continuing practice. The 14C collective dose commitment (10,000 years) based on present practice is roughly 40 man Sv (GW a)1. This means that a continuing practice of 250 GW a energyproduction each year into the future, as at present, would result in an maximum dose rate of 1 Sv a1 [40 man Sv (GW a)1 x 250 GW a/a ÷ 1010 persons]. A limited practice of nuclear power generation would result in progressively less annual dose, e.g. a 100 or 200 year practice would cause 0.1 or 0.16 Sv a1, respectively (19502000 actual practice with 50 or 150 year projected releases as at present). This is illustrated in Figure XXI.

159. In a similar fashion, the maximum dose rates for the other globally dispersed radionuclides may be determined.

These are of the order of 0.1 Sv a1 for 85Kr and 0.005 Sv a1 for 3H and 129I. For limited duration practice, the maximum annual dose rates reached will be less. These are thus negligible annual dose rates for these globally dispersed radionuclides.

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 190 100-year practice 200-year practice 1950 2050 2100 2150 2200 2000 0

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18

-1 EFFECTIVE DOSE RATE ( Sv a )

Figure XXI. Average annual dose rate from globally dispersed 14C released from nuclear installations based on actual practice 19502000 and projection of current releases for the duration of the practice.

The equilibrium annual dose rate for a constant, continuing practice is 1 Sv a1.

F. SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL AND TRANSPORT 160. Solid wastes arise at various stages of the nuclear fuel cycle. They include low-and intermediate-level wastes, mainly from reactor operations, high-level wastes from fuel reprocessing, and spent fuel for direct disposal. Low-and intermediate-level wastes aregenerallydisposedofbyshallow burial in trenches or concrete-lined structures, but there are alsomoreadvanceddisposalsites.High-levelwastesandspent fuel are retained in interim storage tanks until adequate solutions for disposal have been devised and disposal sites have been selected.

161. Doses from solid waste disposal have been estimated based on the projected eventual migration of radionuclides through the burial site into groundwater. These estimates depend criticallyon the assumptions usedfor the containment of the solid wastes and the site characteristics and are, accordingly, highly uncertain in a general sense. The approximate normalized collective effective dose from low-and intermediate-level waste disposal is, however, quite low, of the order of 0.5 man Sv (GW a)1, due almost entirely to 14C [U3, U4].

162. A repositoryfor high-level waste and spent fuel has not yet been constructed. The radiological impact assessment of such a repository has to rely on modelling of the long-term behaviour ofthe waste packages andthe migration ofreleased radionuclides near the site and at greater distance over a long period of time. To carry out such performance assessments, a number of site-specific data, including waste characterization andtransportmodels,areneeded. Such assessmentshavebeen performed, mainly to help in formulating design criteria for the hypothetical repositories.

163. The transportation of radioactive materials of various types between nuclear fuel cycle installations may cause members of the public who happen to be near the transport vehicles to be exposed. Doses can be estimated only by applyinghypotheticalassumptions.Aconservativeestimateis, in this case, of the order of 0.1 man Sv (GW a)1 [U4].

164. Decommissioning of nuclear facilities gives rise to radioactive waste, and some experience is accumulating. The information available indicates that exposures of the public from the decommissioning practice will be very small.

G.

SUMMARY

OF DOSE ESTIMATES 165. The normalizedcollectiveeffective doses tomembers of the public from radionuclides released in the various stages of the nuclear fuel cycle are summarized in Table 45. The local and regional collective dose in the twomost recent assessment periods is 0.9 man Sv (GW a)1. The largest part of this dose is received within a limited number of years after the releases and is mainly due to the normal operation of nuclear reactors and mining operations. The global dose, which is estimated for 10,000 years, amounts to 50 man Sv (GW a)1. The main contribution is from globally dispersed 14C (reactors and reprocessing). The longer-term trends in collective effective doses per unit electrical energy generated show decreases, attributable to reductions in the release of radionuclides from reactors and fuel reprocessing plants. The components of normalized collective effective dose have decreased by much more than an order of magnitude for releases from reprocessing plants, bya factor of 7 for releases from reactors, and by a factor of 2 for globally dispersed radionuclides, compared to the earliest assessment period, 19701979.

166. The local and regional collective dose from the beginning of nuclear power production can be derived from the normalized collective doses (Table 45) and the electrical energy generated in each period (Table 43). The result is about 5,000 man Sv from fuel reprocessing, 3,000 man Sv from reactor operations, and 900 man Sv from mining and

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 191 milling. This analysis is summarized in Table 46. In recent years, the annual total from all these operations amounts to 200 man Sv received by the local and regional population.

Assuming that the current practice of nuclear power production continues for 100 years, the maximum per caput dose can be estimated from the truncated collective dose per unit electrical energygenerated. Figure XXI shows that about 10% of the dose from globally dispersed radionuclides is committed in the first hundred years, and using Table 45, the collective effective dose in the hundredth year of the practice, from globally dispersed radionuclides, would be 5 man Sv (GW a)1. For an annual production of 250 GW a this amounts to 1,250 man Sv per year, which when added to the local and regional dose of 200 man Sv per year gives a total dose of nearly 1,500 man Sv in the last year of the practice.

The maximum annual effective dose arising from 100 years of the practice of nuclear power production is then less than 0.2 Sv per caput for a global population of 1010 persons.

III. OTHER EXPOSURES A. RADIOISOTOPE PRODUCTION AND USE 167. Radioisotopesarewidelyusedinindustry,medicine,and research. Exposures may occur from trace amounts released in production or at subsequent stages of the use or disposal of the radionuclide-containing products. For very long-lived radionuclides such as 14C, all of the amount utilized may ultimately reach the environment. For short-lived radio-nuclidessuchasmostradiopharmaceuticals,radioactivedecay prior toreleaseisan essential consideration. Theisotopesused most widely in medical examinations and nuclear medicine procedures are 131I and 99mTc.

168. Estimatesofdosesfrom radioisotopeproduction anduse are uncertain, owing to limited data on the commercial pro-duction of the radioisotopes and on the release fractions from production and use. The main radionuclides ofinterest are 3H, 14C, 125I, 131I, and 133Xe. Theestimatedannual collectiveeffect-ive dose from the practice is of the order of 100 man Sv [U3].

169. An important use of radionuclides is in medical diagnostic examinations and in therapeutic treatments.

Medical radioisotopes or their parent radionuclides can be produced in a reactor (byfission ofuranium, e.g. 99Mo, 131I, or by activation, e.g. 59Fe) or in a cyclotron (by nuclear reaction, e.g.123I, 201Tl). The main radioisotope, used in 80% of all diagnostic examinations, is 99Mo. In many countries the production, isolation, and incorporation of the radioisotopes into generators, diagnostic kits, or pharmaceuticals are often subdividedindifferentfacilities[K11]. Asanexample,several research reactorsin neighbouringcountriessupply 99Motothe radioisotope production plant in Belgium [W6]. Three different facilities are involved in the Netherlands in the generation of 99Mo, itsextraction and incorporation into 99mTc generators [L10]. This subdivision of the manufacturing process hampers quantification of the fractional release amounts from the overall production phase.

170. In its request for a permit in 1996, a medical radioisotope production plant in the Netherlands reported a controlled annual release of 131I to the atmosphere of at most 300 MBq. Since it handles more than 52 TBq in a year, the release fraction would be less than 0.001%. The maximum annual dose to an individual from this release would 1 Sv

[L10]. This plant receives the 131I as raw material delivered from another company. Therefore, the data are unsuited for the entire production phase.

171. Over the period 19891992, a single facility supplied 90% of the annual amount of 131I (35.9 TBq) used in China and 100% of the 125I (0.98 TBq) [P7]. The average release fraction was reported to be 0.01% for 131I ( a reduction from 4.6% in 19751978) and 0.7% for 125I. The annual collective dose was estimated to be 0.13 man Sv for 131I and 0.10.6 man Sv for 125I, assuming a local population density of 500 km2. The collective dose per unit release of 131I is thus 36 man SvTBq1. This maybe compared with 0.3 man SvTBq1 that was estimated for release from a representative nuclear installation (Table 38).

172. Global usage of 131I in nuclear therapyis approximately 600 TBq (Table 47). With application of the above dose factors, and assuming the release fraction on production to be 0.01%, the global annual collective dose from 131I production and usage is 0.022 man Sv. A further contribution to the collective dose arises from wastes discharged from hospitals.

173. Limited data on 131I releases from hospitals were cited in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3]. Discharges of 131I from hospitals in Australia and Sweden in the late 1980s correspondedto110190GBqper 106 population [U3]. There is high excretion of 131I from patients following oral administration, but waste treatment systems with hold-up tanks are effective in reducing the amounts in liquid effluents to 5 104 of the amounts administered to patients [J4]. This seems to be confirmed by the very low concentrations of 131I measured in the surface waters and sewage systems of several countries

[U3].

This information seems not to be systematically collected.

174. With the estimated global annual usage of 131I in therapeutic treatments of 600 TBq, a release fraction of5 104 and a dose coefficient of 0.03 man Sv TBq1 for 131I released in liquid effluents (from Annex A, Dose assessment methodologies),thefurthercontributiontothecollectivedose is just 0.009 man Sv. The presence of the hold-up tanks should reduce the release of 99mTc, the other major radionuclide, to negligible levels.

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 192 175. Several recent studies consider the external exposure of the groups that are mainly exposed, i.e. parents, infants, who come in contact with therapeuticallytreated patients or fellow travellers on the journey home from the hospital [B12, C12, D8, G9, M11]. These assessments are based either on use of integrating dosimeters or on dose-rate measurements close to the patients with appropriate occupancyfactors. Assessments based on the first approach gave doses of 0.047 mSv to partners and children of the patients treated for hyperthyroidism with 200800 MBq of 131I [B12, M11].

Average doses were 1 mSv to partners and 0.1 mSv to children[M11].Treatment ofthyroidcancerpatientswith47 GBq of 131I resulted in doses below 0.5 mSv to family members [M11]. All of about 200 family members involved in these studies were given advice, according to current practice, about limiting close contact with the patient. Dose rates to fellow travellers ranged from 0.020.5 mSv h1.

176. An approximate estimateofthecollectivedosetofamily members of patients therapeutically treated with 131I can be derived as follows. In developed countries about 20% of therapeutic treatments with 131I are for thyroid cancer and 80% for hyperthyroidism with average administered amounts of 5 GBq and 0.5 GBq, respectively. The weighted average amount administered is thus 1.4 GBq per patient. For global usage of 600 TBq of 131I, 430,000 patients could be treated.

With average exposures of 0.5 mSv to 23 family members, the collective dose to those other than the patients could be 400600 man Sv.

177. The importance of inhalation of radioiodine exhaled by patients treated with radioiodine (0.31.3 GBq), was assessed by whole body measurements of their relatives [W7]. The effective dose ranged from 0.3 to about 60 Sv (17 persons) with a median value of about 4 Sv. Diagnostic procedures with most radionuclides are estimated to result in cumulative doses of less than 40 Sv to someone who remains in the close vicinity of the patient [B13]. Breast feeding following maternalradiopharmaceuticaladministrationmayresult in an effective dose to the infant of more than 1 mSv, if the feeding is not temporarilyinterrupted or ceased. This is the case for a limited number of treatments with radioiodine but also for some with 99mTc and 67Ga [M11, M12].

178. The most important component in the overall dose to thegeneralpopulationfromradioisotopeproductionandusage is that to relatives of patients given therapeutic treatments.

The dominant component ofthe global collective dose is from 131I. It was assumed that decaybetween production and use of the isotope can be neglected, which means that the data on isotope consumption can be used. The resulting global annual collective dose is estimated to range up to about 600 man Sv.

The small doses to relatives of patients after diagnostic procedures mayadd up to a comparable collective dose, since their number exceeds that ofthetherapeutictreatmentsbytwo orders of magnitude. The dose to family members was not consideredin thepreviousassessment bytheCommitteein the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3]. The earlier estimate of 100 man Sv, of which 80% was from 14C, represented possible releases mainly at the production stage. Since this estimate is quite uncertain and likely an overestimate, it is seen that the exposure of family members of patients treated with 131I may beconsideredtobethemost important component ofexposure to radioisotopes used in medicine, industry and education.

B. RESEARCH REACTORS 179. Research reactors differ from reactors producing electrical energyin their wide varietyof designs and modes of operation, as well as a wide range of use. Research reactors are used for tests of nuclear fuels and different materials, for investigations in nuclear and neutron physics, biology, and medicine, and for the production of radioisotopes. At the end of 1999, there were 292 nuclear research reactors operating in the world, with a total thermal energyof3,000 MW. The total operating experience exceeds 13,000 reactor-years. The Committee has not previously collected data on releases of radionuclides from research reactors.

180. Exposures resulting from the operation of research reactors are exemplified by some data reported from the Russian Federation. From 1993 to1996, annual releases from two research reactors in Obninsk averaged 0.7 PBq of noble gases, 5 GBq 131I, 0.3 GBq 90Sr, 0.6 GBq 137Cs, and 0.1 GBq plutonium [M8, M10]. The annual effective doses to individuals in Obninsk were estimated not to exceed 30 Sv

[M8]. Further data on research reactors are not available.

C. ACCIDENTS 181. Accidents involving releases of radionuclides to the environment occur from time to time. To the extent that these result in significant human exposures, they are reviewed and analysed. A separateChapter on accidentswas included in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3], and a brief account was given of all earlier accidents. Since then only one accident has occurred at a nuclear installation involving some exposure of the local population. This was the accident on 30 September 1999 at the Tokaimura nuclear fuel processing plant in Japan

[J6]. A criticality event took place because of improper procedures. During the 24-hour event and because of only limited shielding provided by the building, some direct irradiation was measurable outside the plant site. There was only trace release of gaseous fission products. Three workers inside the plant received serious overexposures. Their doses were estimated to be in the range 1620 Gy, 610 Gy, and 14.5 Gy (gamma equivalent dose). The doses to 169 other employees were determined from personal dosimeters, whole-body counting, and survey of their locations during the accident [I8, J6, S9]. Doses to members of the public, about 200 in all, who were living or working within 350 m of the facility were estimated individually [F6]. Direct exposures to persons outside the site were estimated to be up to 21 mGy (gamma plus neutron). The highest dose, estimated bywhole-body counting, was received by a person at a construction company just beyond the plant boundary.

182. Themisuseormishandlingofradiationsourcesisgener-ally a hazard to workers. Improper administration of thera-

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 193 peutic treatment sometimesresult in accidental overexposures of patients. Lost or unregulated (orphaned) sources can cause exposures ofthe public. These topics are considered further in the separate assessments by the Committee of occupational andmedical radiation exposures. TheCommittee hasnoother information on recent accidents that may have involved exposures of the public. The Committee has begun a more complete analysis of the doses and effects from the Chernobyl accident in the populations living nearest to the reactor in areas of the former Soviet Union. These results are presented separately in Annex J, Exposures and effects of the Chernobyl accident.

CONCLUSIONS 183. Releasesofradioactivematerialstotheenvironmentand exposures of human populations have occurred in several activities, practices, and events involving radiation sources.

The main contribution to the collective doses to the world population in such cases has come from the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere. This practiceoccurred from 1945 through 1980. Each nuclear test resulted in unrestrained release to the environment of substantial quantities of radioactive materials. These were widely dispersed in the atmosphere and deposited everywhere on the earths surface.

184. The Committee has given special attention to the evaluation of exposures from atmospheric nuclear testing.

Numerous measurements of the global deposition of 90Sr and 137Cs and of the occurrence of these and other fallout radionuclides in diet and the human body were made at the time the testing was taking place. The worldwide collective dose from this practice was evaluated in the UNSCEAR 1982 Report [U6], and a systematic listing of transfer coefficients for a number of fallout radionuclides was given in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3].

185. New information has become available on the numbers and yields of nuclear tests. These data were not fullyrevealed earlier by the countries that conducted the tests because of military sensitivities. An updated listing of atmospheric nuclear tests conducted at each of the test sites is included in this Annex. Although the total explosive yields of each test have been divulged, the fission and fusion yields are still mostly suppressed. Some general assumptions have been made to allow specifying the fission and fusion yields of each test in order to estimate the amounts of radionuclides produced in the explosions. The estimated total of fission yields of individual tests is in agreement with the global deposition of the main fission radionuclides 90Sr and 137Cs, as determined by worldwide monitoring networks.

186. With improved estimates of the production of each radionuclide in individual tests and using an empirical atmospheric transport model, it is possible to determine the time course of the dispersion and deposition of radionuclides and to estimate the annual doses from various pathways in each hemisphere of the world. In this way it has been estimatedthattheworldaverageannual effectivedosereached a peak of 110 Sv in 1963 and has since decreased to about 5 Sv, from residual levels in the environment, mainlyof 14C, 90Sr, and 137Cs. Theaverageannual doses are 10%higher than the world average in the northern hemisphere, where most of the testing took place, and much lower in the southern hemisphere. Although there was considerable concern at the time of testing, the exposures remained relatively low, reaching at most about 5% of the background level from natural radiation sources.

187. The exposures to local populations surrounding the test sites have alsobeen assessed using available information. The level of detail is still not sufficient to document the exposures with great accuracy. Attention to the local conditions and the possibilities of exposure was not great in the earlyyears of the test programmes. However, dose reconstruction efforts are proceedingtoclarifythisexperienceandtodocument thelocal and regional exposures that occurred.

188. Underground testing caused exposures beyond the test sites only if radioactive gases leaked or were vented. Most underground tests had a much lower yield than atmospheric tests, and it was usually possible to contain the debris.

Underground tests were conducted at the rate of 50 or more per year from 1962 to 1990. Although it is the intention of most countries to agree to ban all further tests, both atmosphericandunderground, thetreatyhasnot yet comeinto force. Further underground testing occurred in 1998. Thus, it cannot yet be stated that the practice has ceased.

189. During the time when nuclear weapons arsenals were being built up and especiallyin theearlier years (19451960),

there were releases of radionuclides and exposures of local populationsdownwindordownstreamofnuclearinstallations.

Since there was little recognition of exposure potentials and monitoring of releases was limited, the exposure evaluations must be based on the reconstruction of doses. Results are still being obtained that document this experience. Practices have greatly improved and arsenals are now being reduced.

190. A continuing practice is the generation of electrical energyby nuclear power reactors. In recent years, 17% of the worlds electrical energy has been generated by this means.

During routine operation of nuclear installations, the releases of radionuclides are low, and exposures must be estimated with environmental transfer models. For all fuel cycle operations (mining and milling, reactor operation, and fuel reprocessing) the local and regional exposures are estimated

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 194 at present to be 0.9 man Sv (GW a)1. With present world nuclear energy generation of 250 GW a, the collective dose per year of practice is of the order of 200 man Sv. The assumed representative local and regional population sur-rounding a single installation is about 250 million persons, and the per caput dose to this population would be less than 1 Sv. The collective doses from globally dispersed radio-nuclides are delivered over very long periods and to the projected maximum population ofthe world. If the practice of nuclear power production is limited to the next 100 years at the present capacity, the maximum annual effective dose per caput to the global population would be less than 0.2 Sv.

This dose rate is small compared to that from natural back-ground radiation.

191. Except in the case ofaccidents, in which more localized areas can be contaminated to significant levels, there are no other practices that result in important exposures from radionuclides released to the environment. Estimates of releases of isotopes produced and used in industrial and medical applications are being reviewed, but these seem to be associated with rather insignificant levels of exposure. The highest exposures, averaging about 0.5 mSv, maybe received by family members of patients who have received 131I therapeutic treatments. Possible future practices, such as weapons dismantling, decommissioning of installations, and waste management projects, can be reviewed as experience is acquired, but these should all involve little or no release of radionuclides and consequently little or no exposure.

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 195 Table 1 Atmospheric nuclear tests CHINA Date Type of test Yield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion Total Local and regional Troposphere Stratosphere Test site: Lop Nor 1964: 16 October Land surface 0.02 0

0.02 0.01 0.01 1965: 14 May Air 0.04 0

0.04 0.037 0.003 1966:

9 May 27 October 28 December Air Air Land surface 0.2 0.02 0.2 0.1 0

0.1 0.3 0.02 0.3 0.10 0.11 0.02 0.056 0.09 0.044 1967: 17 June 24 December Air Air 1.7 0.02 1.3 0

3 0.02 0.02 1.7 1968: 28 December Air 1.5 1.5 3

1.5 1969: 29 September Air 1.9 1.1 3

1.9 1970: 14 October Air 1.9 1.1 3

1.9 1971: 18 November Land surface 0.02 0

0.02 0.01 0.01 1972:

7 January 18 March Air Air 0.02 0.1 0

0 0.02 0.1 0.02 0.08 0.02 1973: 27 June Air 1.4 1.1 2.5 1.4 1974: 17 June Air 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.065 0.235 1976: 23 January 26 September 17 November Land surface Air Air 0.02 0.1 2.2 0

0 1.8 0.02 0.1 4

0.01 0.01 0.08 0.02 2.2 1977: 17 September Air 0.02 0

0.02 0.02 1978: 15 March 14 December Land surface Land surface 0.02 0.02 0

0 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 1980: 16 October Air 0.5 0.1 0.6 0.11 0.39 FRANCE Date Type of test Yield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion Total Local and regional Troposphere Stratosphere Test site: Algeria 1960: 13 February 1 April 27 December Tower Land surface Tower 0.067 b 0.003 b 0.002 b 0

0 0

0.067 0.003 0.002 0.0335 0.0015 0.001 0.0326 0.0015 0.001 0.0009 1961: 25 April Tower 0.0007 b 0

0.0007 0.00035 0.00035 Test site: Fangataufa 1966: 24 September Barge 0.125 b 0

0.125 0.0625 0.0595 0.003 1968: 24 August Balloon 1.3 1.3 2.6 1.3 1970: 30 May 3 August Balloon Balloon 0.4725 0.072 0.4725 0

0.945 0.072 0.07 0.4725 0.002

Table 1 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 196 Date Type of test Yield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion Total Local and regional Troposphere Stratosphere Test site: Mururoa 1966:

2 July 19 July 11 September 4 October Barge Air drop Balloon Barge 0.028 b 0.05 b 0.11 b 0.205 b 0

0 0

0 0.028 0.05 0.11 0.205 0.014 0.1025 0.014 0.049 0.0921 0.001 0.11 0.0104 1967:

5 June 27 June 2 July Balloon Balloon Barge 0.015 b 0.12 b 0.022 b 0

0 0

0.015 0.12 0.022 0.011 0.015 0.011 0.12 1968:

7 July 15 July 3 August 8 September Balloon Balloon Balloon Balloon 0.115 b 0.45 b 0.15 b 0.64 0

0 0

0.64 0.115 0.45 0.15 1.28 0.115 0.45 0.15 0.64 1970: 15 May 22 May 24 June 3 July 27 July 6 August Balloon Balloon Balloon Balloon Balloon Balloon 0.013 b 0.150 0.012 b 0.457 0.00005 b 0.297 0

0.074 0

0.457 0

0.297 0.013 0.224 0.012 0.914 0.00005 0.594 0.013 0.012 0.00005 0.150 0.457 0.297 1971:

5 June 12 June 4 July 8 August 14 August Balloon Balloon Balloon Balloon Balloon 0.034 b 0.29 0.009 b 0.004 b 0.478 0

0.15 0

0 0.477 0.034 0.44 0.009 0.004 0.955 0.034 0.009 0.004 0.29 0.478 1972: 25 June 30 June 27 July Balloon Balloon Balloon 0.0005 b 0.004 b 0.006 b 0

0 0

0.0005 0.004 0.006 0.0005 0.004 0.006 1973: 21 July 28 July 18 August 24 August 28 August Balloon Balloon Balloon Balloon Air drop 0.011 b 0.00005 b 0.004 b 0.0002 b 0.006 b 0

0 0

0 0

0.011 0.00005 0.004 0.0002 0.006 0.011 0.00005 0.004 0.0002 0.006 1974: 16 June 7 July 17 July 25 July 15 August 24 August 14 September Balloon Balloon Balloon Air drop Balloon Balloon Balloon 0.004 b 0.10 0.004 b 0.008 b 0.096 0.014 b 0.221 0

0.05 0

0 0

0 0.111 0.004 0.15 0.004 0.008 0.096 0.014 0.332 0.004 0.004 0.008 0.093 0.014 0.10 0.003 0.221 UNITED KINGDOM Date Type of test Yield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion Total Local and regional Troposphere Stratosphere Test site: Monte Bello Islands, Australia 1952:

3 October Water surface 0.025 0

0.025 0.0125 0.0125 1956: 16 May 19 June Tower (31 m)

Tower (31 m) 0.015 0.06 0

0 0.015 0.06 0.0075 0.03 0.0075 0.0293 0.0007 Test site: Emu, Australia 1953: 14 October 26 October Tower (31 m)

Tower (31 m) 0.01 0.008 0

0 0.01 0.008 0.005 0.004 0.005 0.004

Table 1 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 197 Date Type of test Yield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion Total Local and regional Troposphere Stratosphere Test site: Maralinga, Australia 1956: 27 September 4 October 11 October 22 October Tower (31 m)

Land surface Air drop (150 m)

Tower (31 m) 0.015 0.0015 0.003 0.01 0

0 0

0 0.015 0.0015 0.003 0.01 0.0075 0.00075 0.005 0.0075 0.00075 0.003 0.005 1957: 14 September 25 September 9 October Tower (31 m)

Tower (31 m)

Balloon (300 m) 0.001 0.006 0.025 0

0 0

0.001 0.006 0.025 0.0005 0.003 0.0005 0.003 0.025 Test site: Malden Island, Pacific 1957: 15 May 31 May 19 June Air burst Air burst Air burst 0.2 0.36 0.13 0.1 0.36 0.07 0.3 0.72 0.20 0.17 0.265 0.12 0.03 0.095 0.01 Test site: Christmas Island, Pacific 1957:

8 November Air burst 0.9 0.9 1.8 0.315 0.585 1958: 28 April 22 August 2 September 11 September 23 September Air burst Air burst Air burst Air burst Air burst 1.5 0.024 0.5 0.4 0.025 1.5 0

0.5 0.4 0

3 0.024 1

0.8 0.025 0.12 0.024 0.325 0.285 0.025 1.38 0.175 0.115 UNITED STATES Date Type of test Yield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion Total Local and regional Troposphere Stratosphere Test site: New Mexico 1945: 16 July Tower 0.021 0

0.021 0.011 0.01 Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan (combat use) 1945:

5 August 9 August Air drop Air drop 0.015 0.021 0

0 0.015 0.021 0.015 0.021 Test site: Nevada 1951: 27 January 28 January 1 February 2 February 6 February 22 October 28 October 30 October 1 November 5 November 19 November 29 November Air drop (320 m)

Air drop (330 m)

Air drop (330 m)

Air drop (335 m)

Air drop (340 m)

Tower (100 m)

Air drop (340 m)

Air drop (340 m)

Air drop (430 m)

Air drop (900 m)

Surface Surface (-5 m) 0.001 0.008 0.001 0.008 0.022 0.0001 0.0035 0.014 0.021 0.031 0.012 0.001 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0.001 0.008 0.001 0.008 0.022 0.0001 0.0035 0.014 0.021 0.031 0.0012 0.001 0.00005 0.0006 0.0005 0.001 0.008 0.001 0.008 0.022 0.00005 0.0035 0.014 0.021 0.031 0.0006 0.0005 1952: 1 April 15 April 22 April 1 May Air drop (240 m)

Air drop (320 m)

Air drop (1050 m)

Air drop (300 m) 0.001 0.001 0.031 0.019 0

0 0

0 0.001 0.001 0.031 0.019 0.001 0.001 0.031 0.019 1952: 7 May 25 May 1 June 5 June Tower (90 m)

Tower (90 m)

Tower (90 m)

Tower (90 m) 0.012 0.011 0.015 0.014 0

0 0

0 0.012 0.011 0.015 0.014 0.006 0.0055 0.0075 0.007 0.006 0.0055 0.0075 0.007

Table 1 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 198 Date Type of test Yield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion Total Local and regional Troposphere Stratosphere Test site: Nevada (continued) 1953: 17 March 24 March 31 March 6 April 11 April 18 April 25 April 8 May 19 May 25 May 4 June Tower (90 m)

Tower (90 m)

Tower (90 m)

Air drop (1835 m)

Tower (30 m)

Tower (90 m)

Tower (90 m)

Air drop (740 m)

Tower (90 m)

Airburst (160 m)

Air drop (400 m) 0.016 0.024 0.0002 0.011 0.0002 0.023 0.043 0.027 0.032 0.015 0.061 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0.016 0.024 0.0002 0.011 0.0002 0.023 0.043 0.027 0.032 0.015 0.061 0.008 0.012 0.0001 0.0001 0.012 0.022 0.016 0.008 0.012 0.0001 0.011 0.0001 0.011 0.021 0.027 0.016 0.015 0.0595 0.0015 1955: 18 February 22 February 1 March 7 March 12 March 22 March 29 March 29 March 6 April 9 April 15 April 5 May 15 May Air drop (230 m)

Tower (90 m)

Tower (90 m)

Tower (150 m)

Tower (90 m)

Tower (150 m)

Tower (150 m)

Air drop (225 m)

Air drop (1120 m)

Tower (90 m)

Tower (120 m)

Tower (150 m)

Tower (1560 m) 0.001 0.002 0.007 0.043 0.004 0.008 0.014 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.022 0.029 0.028 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0.001 0.002 0.007 0.043 0.004 0.008 0.014 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.022 0.029 0.028 0.001 0.0035 0.0215 0.002 0.004 0.007 0.001 0.011 0.0145 0.014 0.001 0.001 0.0035 0.0215 0.002 0.004 0.007 0.003 0.003 0.001 0.011 0.0145 0.014 1957: 28 May 2 June 5 June 18 June 24 June 5 July 15 July 19 July 24 July 25 July 7 August 18 August 23 August 30 August 31 August 2 September 6 September 8 September 14 September 16 September 23 September 28 September 7 October Tower (150 m)

Tower (90 m)

Balloon (150 m)

Balloon (150 m)

Balloon (210 m)

Balloon (460 m)

Tower (150 m)

Rocket (6100 m)

Tower (150 m)

Balloon (150 m)

Balloon (460 m)

Tower (150 m)

Balloon (460 m)

Balloon (230 m)

Tower (210 m)

Tower (150 m)

Balloon (150 m)

Balloon (230 m)

Tower (150 m)

Balloon (460 m)

Tower (150 m)

Balloon (460 m)

Balloon (460 m) 0.012 0.00014 0.0000005 0.01 0.037 0.074 0.017 0.002 0.01 0.0097 0.019 0.017 0.011 0.0047 0.044 0.011 0.0002 0.001 0.011 0.012 0.019 0.012 0.008 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0.012 0.00014 0.0000005 0.01 0.037 0.074 0.017 0.002 0.01 0.0097 0.019 0.017 0.011 0.0047 0.044 0.011 0.0002 0.001 0.011 0.012 0.019 0.012 0.008 0.006 0.00007 0.0085 0.005 0.0085 0.022 0.0055 0.0055 0.0095 0.006 0.00007 0.0000005 0.01 0.037 0.072 0.0085 0.002 0.005 0.0097 0.019 0.0085 0.011 0.0047 0.022 0.0055 0.0002 0.001 0.0055 0.012 0.0095 0.012 0.008 0.002 1958: 19 September 29 September 10 October 13 October 15 October 16 October 18 October 22 October 22 October 22 October 26 October 26 October 29 October 29 October 30 October Balloon (150 m)

Balloon (460 m)

Tower (30 m)

Balloon (460 m)

Tower (15 m)

Balloon (140 m)

Tower (22 m)

Balloon (440 m)

Balloon (460 m)

Balloon (150 m)

Balloon (460 m)

Balloon (460 m)

Tower (10 m)

Tower Balloon(460 m) 0.000083 0.002 0.000079 0.0014 0.0000012 0.000037 0.00009 0.006 0.00012 0.00019 0.0049 0.0022 0.0000078 0

0.0013 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0.000083 0.002 0.000079 0.0014 0.0000012 0.000037 0.00009 0.006 0.00012 0.00019 0.0049 0.0022 0.0000078 0

0.0013 0.00004 0.0000006 0.000045 0.0000039 0

0.000083 0.002 0.000039 0.0014 0.0000006 0.000037 0.000045 0.006 0.00012 0.00019 0.0049 0.0022 0.0000039 0

0.0013 1962: 11 July 7 July 14 July 17 July Surface (- 1 m)

Surface Tower Surface 0.0005 0.02 0.02 0.02 0

0 0

0 0.0005 0.02 c 0.02 c 0.02 c 0.00025 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00025 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 1 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 199 Date Type of test Yield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion Total Local and regional Troposphere Stratosphere Test site: Bikini, Pacific 1946: 30 June 24 July Air drop Underwater (-30 m) 0.021 0.021 0

0 0.021 0.021 0.011 0.021 0.01 1954: 28 February 26 March 6 April 25 April 4 May Surface Barge Surface Barge Barge 9 d 7.3 d 0.075 4.6 d 9.0 d 6

3.7 0.035 2.3 4.5 15 11 0.11 6.9 13.5 4.5 3.65 0.037 2.3 4.5 0.037 4.5 3.65 0.001 2.3 4.5 1956: 20 May 27 May 11 June 25 June 10 July 20 July Air drop Surface Barge Barge Barge Barge 1.6 d 1.25 d 0.183 d 0.55 1.5 d 2.3 d 2.2 2.25 0.182 0.55 3.0 2.7 3.8 3.5 0.365 1.1 4.5 5

0.625 0.092 0.275 0.75 1.15 0.076 0.038 0.077 0.168 0.018 0.005 1.52 0.587 0.014 0.107 0.732 1.145 1958: 11 May 21 May 31 May 10 June 14 June 27 June 29 June 2 July 12 July 22 July Barge Barge Barge Barge Barge Barge Barge Barge Barge Barge 0.68 0.0251 0.092 0.142 0.212 0.275 0.014 0.15 3.2 d 0.065 0.68 0

0 0.071 0.107 0.137 0

0.07 6.1 0

1.36 0.0251 0.092 0.213 0.319 0.412 0.014 0.22 9.3 0.065 0.34 0.0126 0.046 0.071 0.106 0.137 0.007 0.075 1.6 0.0325 0.175 0.0125 0.0446 0.063 0.091 0.164 0.007 0.076 0.0316 0.165 0.0014 0.008 0.015 0.024 1.6 0.0009 Test site: Enewetak, Pacific 1948: 14 April 30 April 14 May Tower Tower Tower 0.037 0.049 0.018 0

0 0

0.037 0.049 0.018 0.019 0.025 0.009 0.018 0.024 0.009 1951:

7 April 20 April 8 May 24 May Tower Tower Tower Tower 0.081 0.047 0.15 0.0455 0

0 0.075 0

0.081 0.047 0.225 0.0455 0.041 0.024 0.075 0.0228 0.039 0.023 0.066 0.0227 0.001 0.009 1952: 31 October 15 November Surface Air drop 5.7 d 0.25 4.7 0.25 10.4 0.5 2.85 0.2 2.85 0.05 1954: 13 May Barge 0.845 0.845 1.69 0.423 0.164 0.258 1956:

4 May 27 May 30 May 6 June 11 June 13 June 16 June 21 June 2 July 8 July 21 July Surface Tower Tower Surface Tower Tower Air drop Tower Tower Barge Barge 0.04 0.00019 0.0149 0.0137 0.008 0.00149 0.0017 0.0152 0.24 0.925 0.167 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0.12 0.925 0.083 0.04 0.00019 0.0149 0.0137 0.008 0.00149 0.0017 0.0152 0.36 1.85 0.25 0.02 0.000095 0.00745 0.00685 0.004 0.000745 0.0076 0.12 0.463 0.084 0.02 0.000095 0.00745 0.00685 0.004 0.000745 0.0017 0.0076 0.10 0.153 0.074 0.020 0.309 0.009 1958:

5 May 11 May 12 May 16 May 20 May 26 May 26 May 30 May 2 June 8 June 14 June 18 June 27 June 28 June 1 July 5 July 17 July 22 July 26 July 6 August 18 August Surface Barge Surface Under water Barge Barge Barge Barge Barge Under water Barge Barge Barge Barge Barge Barge Barge Barge Barge Surface Surface 0.018 0.081 0.685 0.009 0.0059 0.22 0.057 0.0116 0.015 0.008 0.725 0.011 0.44 3 d 0.0052 0.265 0.170 0.135 1

0 0.00002 0

0 0.685 0

0 0.11 0

0 0

0 0.725 0

0.44 5.9 0

0.132 0.085 0.067 1

0 0

0.018 0.081 1.37 0.009 0.0059 0.33 0.057 0.0116 0.015 0.008 1.45 0.011 0.88 8.9 0.0052 0.397 0.255 0.202 2

0 0.00002 0.009 0.041 0.343 0.0045 0.003 0.11 0.0285 0.0058 0.0075 0.004 0.363 0.0055 0.22 1.5 0.0026 0.133 0.085 0.067 0.5 0

0.00001 0.009 0.0388 0.175 0.0045 0.0029 0.094 0.0278 0.0058 0.0075 0.004 0.174 0.0055 0.151 0.0026 0.109 0.074 0.060 0.138 0

0.00001 0.0012 0.167 0.016 0.0007 0.188 0.069 1.5 0.024 0.011 0.007 0.363

Table 1 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 200 Date Type of test Yield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion Total Local and regional Troposphere Stratosphere Test site: Pacific 1955: 14 May Under water 0.03 0

0.03 0.015 0.015 1958: 28 April Balloon 0.0017 0

0.0017 0.0017 1962: 5 May 11 May Rocket Under water 0.05 0.02 0

0 0.05 c 0.02 c 0.01 0.01 0.05 Test site: Atlantic, 3850S 1958: 27 August 30 August 6 September Rocket Rocket Rocket 0.0015 0.0015 0.0015 0

0 0

0.0015 0.0015 0.0015 0.0015 0.0015 0.0015 Test site: Johnston Island, Pacific 1958:

1 August 12 August Rocket Rocket 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 3.8 3.8 1.9 1.9 1962:

9 July 2 October 6 October 18 October 20 October 26 October 27 October 30 October 1 November 4 November Rocket Air drop Air drop Air drop Rocket Rocket Air drop Air drop Rocket Rocket 0.7 0.075 0.0113 0.795 0.02 0.25 0.4 4.15 0.25 0.02 0.7 0

0 0.795 0

0.25 0.4 4.15 0.25 0

1.4 0.075 0.0113 1.59 0.02 c 0.5 c 0.8 8.3 0.5 c 0.02 c 0.073 0.0113 0.341 0.285 0.7 0.002 0.454 0.02 0.25 0.115 4.15 0.25 0.02 Test site: Christmas Island, Pacific 1962: 25 April 27 April 2 May 4 May 8 May 9 May 11 May 12 May 14 May 19 May 25 May 27 May 8 June 9 June 10 June 12 June 15 June 17 June 19 June 22 June 27 June 30 June 10 July 11 July Air drop Air drop Air drop Air drop Air drop Air drop Air drop Air drop Air drop Air drop Air drop Air drop Air drop Air drop Air drop Air drop Air drop Air drop Air drop Air drop Air drop Air drop Air drop Air drop 0.127 0.27 0.545 0.335 0.1 0.1 0.05 0.25 0.097 0.073 0.0026 0.043 0.391 0.14 1.5 0.6 0.4 0.052 0.0022 0.0815 3.83 0.63 0.5 1.94 0.063 0.14 0.545 0.335 0

0 0

0.25 0

0 0

0 0.391 0.07 1.5 0.6 0.4 0

0 0

3.82 0.64 0.5 1.94 0.19 0.41 1.09 0.67 0.1 0.1 0.05 0.5 0.097 0.073 0.0026 0.043 0.782 0.21 3

1.2 0.8 0.052 0.0022 0.0815 7.65 1.27 1

3.88 0.114 0.226 0.336 0.252 0.097 0.097 0.049 0.2 0.094 0.071 0.0026 0.043 0.281 0.124 0.12 0.345 0.28 0.051 0.0022 0.0791 0.346 0.325 0.089 0.014 0.047 0.209 0.083 0.003 0.003 0.001 0.05 0.003 0.002 0.110 0.016 1.38 0.255 0.12 0.001 0.0024 3.83 0.284 0.175 1.851 USSR Date Type of test Yield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion Total Local and regional Troposphere Stratosphere Test site: Semipalatinsk 1949: 29 August Surface 0.022 0

0.022 0.011 0.011 1951: 24 September 18 October Surface Air 0.038 0.042 0

0 0.038 0.042 0.019 0.018 0.039 0.001 0.003 1953: 12 August 23 August 3 September Surface Air Air 0.04 0.028 0.0058 0.36 0

0 0.4 e 0.028 0.0058 0.02 0.0089 0.028 0.0058 0.011

Table 1 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 201 Date Type of test Yield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion Total Local and regional Troposphere Stratosphere 1953:

8 September 10 September Air Air 0.0016 0.0049 0

0 0.0016 0.0049 0.0016 0.0049 1954: 29 September 1 October 3 October 5 October 8 October 19 October 23 October 26 October 30 October Air Air Air Surface Air Surface Air Air Surface 0.0002 0.00003 0.002 0.004 0.0008 0.000001 0.062 0.0028 0.01 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0.0002 0.00003 0.002 0.004 0.0008 0.000001 0.062 0.0028 0.01 0.002 0.0000005 0.005 0.0002 0.00003 0.002 0.002 0.0008 0.0000005 0.054 0.0028 0.005 0.008 1955: 29 July 2 August 5 August 6 November 22 November Surface Surface Surface Air Air 0.0013 0.012 0.0012 0.167 0.8 0

0 0

0.083 0.8 0.0013 0.012 0.0012 0.25 1.6 0.00065 0.006 0.0006 0.00065 0.006 0.0006 0.106 0.003 0.061 0.797 1956 16 March 25 March 24 August 30 August 2 September 10 September 17 November 14 December Surface Surface Surface Air Air Air Air Air 0.014 0.0055 0.027 0.45 0.051 0.038 0.45 0.04 0

0 0

0.45 0

0 0.45 0

0.014 0.0055 0.027 0.9 0.051 0.038 0.9 0.04 0.007 0.00275 0.0135 0.007 0.00275 0.0135 0.020 0.046 0.036 0.020 0.037 0.430 0.005 0.002 0.430 0.003 1957:

8 March 3 April 6 April 10 April 12 April 16 April 22 August 26 August 13 September 26 September 28 December Air Air Air High atmosphere Air Air Air Air Air Air Air 0.019 0.042 0.057 0.34 0.022 0.213 0.26 0.0001 0.0059 0.013 0.012 0

0 0

0.34 0

0.107 0.26 0

0 0

0 0.019 0.042 0.057 0.68 0.022 0.32 0.52 0.0001 0.0059 0.013 0.012 0.019 0.039 0.050 0.022 0.115 0.078 0.0001 0.0059 0.013 0.012 0.003 0.007 0.34 0.098 0.182 1958:

4 January 17 January 13 March 14 March 15 March 18 March 20 March 22 March Air Air Air Air High atmosphere Air High atmosphere Air 0.0013 0.0005 0.0012 0.035 0.014 0.00016 0.012 0.018 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0.0013 0.0005 0.0012 0.035 0.014 0.00016 0.012 0.018 0.0013 0.0005 0.0012 0.033 0.00016 0.018 0.002 0.014 0.012 1961:

1 September 4 September 5 September 6 September 9 September 10 September 11 September 13 September 14 September 17 September 18 September 18 September 19 September 20 September 21 September 26 September 1 October 4 October 12 October 17 October 19 October 25 October 30 October 1 November 2 November Air Air Air Air Surface Air Air Air Surface Air Surface Air Surface Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air 0.016 0.009 0.016 0.0011 0.00038 0.00088 0.0003 0.004 0.0004 0.04 0.000004 0.00075 0.00003 0.0048 0.0008 0.0012 0.003 0.013 0.015 0.0066 0.004 0.0005 0.00009 0.0027 0.0006 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0.016 0.009 0.016 0.0011 0.00038 0.00088 0.0003 0.004 f 0.0004 0.04 f 0.000004 0.00075 0.00003 0.0048 0.0008 0.0012 0.003 0.013 0.015 0.0066 0.004 e 0.0005 0.00009 0.0027 0.0006 0.00019 0.0002 0.000002 0.000015 0.016 0.009 0.016 0.0011 0.00019 0.00088 0.0003 0.004 0.0002 0.037 0.000002 0.00075 0.000015 0.0048 0.0008 0.0012 0.003 0.013 0.015 0.0066 0.004 0.0005 0.00009 0.0027 0.0006 0.003

Table 1 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 202 Date Type of test Yield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion Total Local and regional Troposphere Stratosphere 1961:

3 November 3 November 4 November Surface Air Surface 0.000001 0.0009 0.0002 0

0 0

0.000001 0.0009 0.0002 0.0000005 0.0001 0.0000005 0.0009 0.0001 1962:

1 August 3 August 4 August 7 August 18 August 18 August 21 August 22 August 23 August 25 August 27 August 31 August 22 September 24 September 25 September 28 September 9 October 10 October 13 October 14 October 20 October 28 October 28 October 30 October 31 October 1 November 3 November 4 November 5 November 11 November 13 November 14 November 17 November 24 November 26 November 1 December 23 December 24 December 24 December Air Air Air Surface Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Surface Air Surface Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Surface Air Air Air Air Surface Surface Surface Air Air Surface Surface Air Surface Surface Surface 0.0024 0.0016 0.0038 0.0099 0.0074 0.0058 0.04 0.003 0.0025 0.004 0.011 0.0027 0.00021 0.0012 0.007 0.0013 0.008 0.0092 0.0049 0.004 0.0067 0.0078 0.0078 0.0012 0.01 0.003 0.0047 0.0084 0.0004 0.0001 0.000001 0.012 0.018 0.000001 0.000031 0.0024 0.000001 0.000007 0.000028 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0.0024 0.0016 0.0038 0.0099 0.0074 0.0058 0.04 e 0.003 0.0025 0.004 e 0.011 0.0027 0.00021 0.0012 0.007 0.0013 0.008 0.0092 0.0049 0.004 e 0.0067 0.0078 0.0078 0.0012 0.01 0.003 0.0047 0.0084 0.0004 0.0001 0.000001 0.012 0.018 0.000001 0.000031 0.0024 0.000001 0.000007 0.000028 0.00495 0.00011 0.0035 0.0006 0.0002 0.00005 0.0000005 0.0000005 0.000016 0.0000005 0.00000035 0.000014 0.0024 0.0016 0.0038 0.00495 0.0074 0.0058 0.037 0.003 0.0025 0.004 0.011 0.0027 0.0001 0.0012 0.0035 0.0013 0.008 0.0092 0.0049 0.004 0.0067 0.0078 0.0078 0.0006 0.01 0.003 0.0047 0.0084 0.0002 0.00005 0.0000005 0.012 0.018 0.0000005 0.000015 0.0024 0.0000005 0.00000035 0.000014 0.003 Test site: Novaya Zemlya 1955: 21 September Under water 0.0035 0

0.0035 0.00175 0.00175 1957:

7 September 24 September 6 October 10 October Surface Air Air Under water 0.032 0.8 1.45 0.01 0

0.8 1.45 0

0.032 1.6 2.9 0.01 0.016 0.005 0.0154 0.003 0.005 0.0006 0.797 1.45 1958: 23 February 27 February 27 February 14 March 21 March 30 September 30 September 2 October 2 October 4 October 5 October 6 October 10 October 12 October 15 October 18 October 19 October 19 October 20 October 21 October Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air 0.43 0.163 0.75 0.04 0.325 0.6 0.45 0.193 0.04 0.009 0.015 0.0055 0.068 0.725 0.75 1.45 0.04 0.000001 0.293 0.002 0.43 0.087 0.75 0

0.325 0.6 0.45 0.097 0

0 0

0 0

0.725 0.75 1.45 0

0 0.147 0

0.86 0.25 1.5 0.04 0.65 1.2 0.9 0.29 0.04 0.009 0.015 0.0055 0.068 1.45 1.5 2.9 0.04 0.000001 0.44 0.002 0.025 0.103 0.004 0.037 0.054 0.005 0.020 0.112 0.037 0.009 0.015 0.0055 0.059 0.004 0.004 0.037 0.000001 0.115 0.002 0.405 0.060 0.746 0.003 0.271 0.595 0.430 0.071 0.003 0.009 0.721 0.746 1.45 0.003 0.178

Table 1 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 203 Date Type of test Yield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion Total Local and regional Troposphere Stratosphere 1958: 22 October 24 October 25 October 25 October Air Air Air Air 1.4 0.5 0.127 0.0001 1.4 0.5 0.063 0

2.8 1

0.19 0.0001 0.005 0.090 0.0001 1.4 0.495 0.037 1961: 10 September 10 September 12 September 13 September 14 September 16 September 18 September 20 September 22 September 2 October 4 October 6 October 8 October 20 October 23 October 23 October 25 October 27 October 30 October 31 October 31 October 2 November 2 November 4 November 4 November 4 November Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Under water Air Air Water surface Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air 1.35 0.012 0.575 0.006 0.6 0.415 0.5 0.266 0.173 0.167 2

2 0.015 0.725 0.0048 4.17 0.2 0.016 1.5 b 2.5 0.267 0.08 0.187 0.015 0.267 0.006 1.35 0

0.575 0

0.6 0.415 0.5 0.134 0.087 0.083 2

2 0

0.725 0

8.33 0.1 0

48.5 b 2.5 0.133 0.04 0.093 0

0.133 0

2.7 0.012 1.15 0.006 1.2 0.83 1

0.4 e 0.26 0.25 4 e 4

0.015 1.45 0.0048 12.5 0.3 0.016 50 5

0.4 e 0.12 0.28 0.015 0.4 e 0.006 0.0024 0.008 0.012 0.005 0.006 0.005 0.029 0.005 0.118 0.107 0.106 0.015 0.004 0.0024 0.113 0.008 0.118 0.063 0.111 0.015 0.118 0.006 1.35 0.570 0.595 0.386 0.495 0.148 0.066 0.061 2

2 0.721 4.17 0.087 1.5 2.5 0.149 0.017 0.076 0.149 1962:

5 August 10 August 20 August 22 August 22 August 25 August 27 August 2 September 8 September 15 September 16 September 18 September 19 September 21 September 25 September 27 September 7 October 9 October 22 October 27 October 29 October 30 October 1 November 3 November 3 November 18 December 18 December 20 December 22 December 23 December 23 December 23 December 24 December 24 December 25 December 25 December Air Air Air Air Water surface Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air 7.03 0.267 1.4 0.8 0.006 2

2.1 0.08 0.95 1.55 1.625 0.675 2

1.2 6.37 8.07 0.32 0.015 4.1 0.173 0.24 0.187 0.16 0.26 0.045 0.073 0.069 0.0083 0.0063 0.287 0.0083 0.0024 0.55 8.07 1.55 0.0085 14.07 0.133 1.4 0.8 0

2 2.1 0

0.95 1.55 1.625 0.675 2

1.2 12.73 16.13 0

0 4.1 0.087 0.12 0.093 0.08 0.13 0

0.037 0

0 0

0.143 0

0 0.55 16.13 1.55 0

21.1 0.4 f 2.8 1.6 0.006 4 f 4.2 0.08 1.9 3.1 3.25 1.35 4 f 2.4 19.1 24.2 f 0.32 0.015 8.2 0.26 0.36 0.28 0.24 0.39 0.045 0.11 0.069 0.0083 0.0063 0.43 0.0083 0.0024 1.1 24.2 3.1 0.0085 0.003 0.118 0.003 0.003 0.067 0.001 0.004 0.173 0.015 0.107 0.118 0.111 0.104 0.119 0.041 0.058 0.059 0.0083 0.0063 0.117 0.0083 0.0024 0.005 0.0085 7.03 0.149 1.4 0.797 2

2.1 0.013 0.949 1.55 1.625 0.671 2

1.2 6.37 8.07 0.147 4.1 0.066 0.122 0.076 0.056 0.141 0.004 0.015 0.010 0.170 0.545 8.07 1.55

Table 1 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 204 Date Type of test Yield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion Total Local and regional Troposphere Stratosphere a

Estimated fission and fusion yields unless otherwise indicated; reported total yields.

b Reported fission or fusion yield.

c Indefinite reported yield; value assigned as follows: low, 0.02 Mt; no indication, 0.05 Mt; submegatonne, 0.5 Mt.

d Fission yield arbitrarily adjusted to obtain agreement with reported total fission yields for test series: 19521954 = 37 Mt (36 Mt from >1 Mt events),

1956 = 9 Mt (8 Mt from >1 Mt events), 19571958 = 19 Mt (14 Mt from >1 Mt events) [D7].

e Thermonuclear explosion; fission yield estimated [G7].

f Indefinite reported yield; value assigned as follows: 0.0000010.02 Mt, 0.004 Mt; 0.020.15 Mt, 0.04 Mt; 0.151.5 Mt, 0.4 Mt; 1.510 Mt, 4 Mt;

>10 Mt, 24.2 Mt.

Test site: Totsk, Aralsk 1954: 14 September Air 0.04 0

0.04 0.037 0.003 1956:

2 February Surface 0.0003 0

0.0003 0.00015 0.00015 Test site: Kapustin Yar 1957: 19 January Air 0.01 0

0.01 0.01 1958:

1 November 3 November Air Air 0.01 0.01 0

0 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 1961:

6 September 6 October 27 October 27 October Air Air High atmosphere High atmosphere 0.011 0.04 0.0012 0.0012 0

0 0

0 0.011 0.04 0.0012 0.0012 0.011 0.037 0.003 0.0012 0.0012 1962: 22 October 28 October 1 November High atmosphere High atmosphere High atmosphere 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 Note: The dates of tests have been reported as Greenwich Mean Time.

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 205 a

Includes 22 safety tests of the United States, 12 safety tests of the United Kingdom, and 5 safety tests of France not listed inTable 1.

Table 2 Atmospheric nuclear tests at each test site Test site Number of tests Yield (Mt)

Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion Total Local and regional Troposphere Stratosphere China Lop Nor 22 12.2 8.5 20.72 0.15 0.66 11.40 France Algeria Fangataufa Mururoa 4

4 37 0.073 1.97 4.13 0

1.77 2.25 0.073 3.74 6.38 0.036 0.06 0.13 0.035 0.13 0.41 0.001 1.78 3.59 Total 45 6.17 4.02 10.20 0.23 0.57 5.37 United Kingdom Monte Bello Island Emu Marilinga Malden Island Christmas Island 3

2 7

3 6

0.1 0.018 0.062 0.69 3.35 0

0 0

0.53 3.30 0.1 0.018 0.062 1.22 6.65 0.050 0.009 0.023 0

0 0.049 0.009 0.038 0.56 1.09 0.0007 0

0 0.13 2.26 Total 21 4.22 3.83 8.05 0.07 1.76 2.39 United States New Mexico Japan (combat use)

Nevada Bikini Enewetak Pacific Atlantic Johnston Island Christmas Island 1

2 86 23 42 4

3 12 24 0.021 0.036 1.05 42.2 15.5 0.102 0.0045 10.5 12.1 0

0 0

34.6 16.1 0

0 10.3 11.2 0.021 0.036 1.05 76.8 31.7 0.102 0.0045 20.8 23.3 0.011 0

0.28 20.3 7.63 0.025 0

0 0

0.010 0.036 0.77 1.07 2.02 0.027 0

0.71 3.62 0

0 0.004 20.8 5.85 0.050 0.005 9.76 8.45 Total 197 81.5 72.2 153.8 28.2 8.27 44.9 USSR Semipalatinsk Novaya Zemlya Totsk, Aralsk Kapustin Yar 116 91 2

10 3.74 80.8 0.040 0.68 2.85 158.8 0

0.30 6.59 239.6 0.040 0.98 0.097 0.036 0

0 1.23 2.93 0.037 0.078 2.41 77.8 0.003 0.61 Total 219 85.3 162.0 247.3 0.13 4.28 80.8 All countries Total 543 a

189 251 440 29 16 145

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 206 a

Estimated from measured stratospheric inventories [L7, L8] and global deposition [F7].

b Fission yield arbitrarily adjusted to obtain agreement with reported total fission yields for test series: 19521954 = 37 Mt (36 Mt from >1 Mt events),

1956 = 9 Mt (8 Mt from >1 Mt events), 19571958 = 19 Mt (14 Mt from >1 Mt events) [D7].

c Officially reported value [M2].

d Reported yield: >10 Mt.

e Reported yield: 1.510 Mt.

Table 3 Estimated fission and fusion yields of atmospheric nuclear tests of total yields equal to or greater than 4 Mt Date Designation Type of test Test site Yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion Total China 17 November 1976 Air Lop Nor 2.2 a 1.8 4

United States 28 February 1954 4 May 1954 26 March 1954 31 October 1952 12 July 1958 28 June 1958 30 October 1962 27 June 1962 25 April 1954 20 July 1956 10 July 1956 Bravo Yankee Romeo Mike Poplar Oak Housatonic Bighorn Union Tewa Navaho Surface Barge Barge Surface Barge Barge Air drop Air drop Barge Barge Barge Bikini Bikini Bikini Enewetak Bikini Enewetak Johnston Island Christmas Island Bikini Bikini Bikini 9.0 b 9.0 b 7.3 b 5.7 b 3.2 b 3.0 b 4.15 3.83 4.6 b 2.3 b 1.5 b 6.0 4.5 3.7 5.7 6.1 5.9 4.15 3.82 2.3 2.7 3.0 15 13.5 11 10.4 9.3 8.9 8.3 7.65 6.9 5

4.5 USSR 30 October 1961 24 December 1962 5 August 1962 25 September 1962 27 September 1962 23 October 1961 22 October 1962 31 October 1961 27 August 1962 4 October 1961 6 October 1961 25 August 1962 19 September 1962 Test 130 Test 219 Test 147 Test 173 Test 174 Test 123 Test 183 Test 131 Test 160 Test 113 Test 114 Test 158 Test 168 Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Air Novaya Zemlya Novaya Zemlya Novaya Zemlya Novaya Zemlya Novaya Zemlya Novaya Zemlya Novaya Zemlya Novaya Zemlya Novaya Zemlya Novaya Zemlya Novaya Zemlya Novaya Zemlya Novaya Zemlya 1.5 c 8.07 7.03 6.37 8.07 4.17 4.1 2.5 2.1 2

2 2

2 48.5 16.13 14.07 12.73 16.13 8.33 4.1 2.5 2.1 2

2 2

2 50 24.2 21.1 19.1 24.2 d 12.5 8.2 5

4.2 4 e 4

4 c 4 c Total 25 tests 106 183 289

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 207 a

Includes two cases of military combat use in Japan.

b Total includes additional 39 safety tests: 22 by the United States, 12 by the United Kingdom, and 5 by France.

c Inferred from 90Sr measurements. Since radioactive decay of 2%3% occurred prior to deposition of 90Sr, the estimated dispersed amount (injection into atmosphere) would also be about 160 Mt.

Table 4 Annual fission and fusion yields of nuclear tests and atmospheric partitioning, all countries Year Number of tests Yield (Mt)

Partitioned fission yield (Mt)

Fission Fusion Total Local and regional Troposphere Fission 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 3 a 2

3 1

18 11 18 16 20 32 46 91 3

59 118 1

1 8

5 6

1 9

6 5

6 8

3 1

2 1

0.057 0.042 0.10 0.022 0.51 6.08 0.35 30.9 1.18 10.0 5.25 26.5 0.072 18.2 71.8 0.02 0.04 0.94 1.88 4.16 1.9 3.38 0.84 0.13 1.42 0.75 2.32 0.02 0.04 0.5 0

0 0

0 0.08 4.95 0.36 17.4 0.88 12.9 4.37 30.3 0

68.3 98.5 0

0 0.20 1.30 3.44 1.1 2.40 0.62 0

1.1 0.46 1.8 0

0 0.1 0.057 0.042 0.10 0.022 0.59 11.0 0.71 48.3 2.06 22.9 9.64 56.8 0.072 86.5 170.4 0.02 0.04 1.14 3.18 7.60 3

5.78 1.46 0.13 2.52 1.21 4.12 0.02 0.04 0.6 0.011 0.011 0.053 0.011 0.18 2.89 0.099 15.4 0.10 3.68 0.14 5.86 0.036 0.011 0.052 0.010 0

0.28 0.011 0

0 0

0.01 0

0 0

0.01 0

0.02 0

0.046 0.031 0.051 0.011 0.32 0.28 0.24 0.31 0.22 0.99 1.61 3.31 0.035 1.15 5.77 0.010 0.037 0.41 0.046 0

0.095 0.057 0.11 0.021 0.19 0.09 0.02 0.02 0.11 0

0 0

0 0.014 2.91 0.013 15.2 0.86 5.31 3.50 17.3 0.0009 17.1 66.0 0

0.003 0.25 1.82 4.16 1.90 3.28 0.77 0.02 1.40 0.56 2.22 0

0 0.39 Total Total 543 b 189 251 440 29 16 145 Total worldwide dispersion (troposphere and stratosphere) 160.5 Total measured global deposition 155 c

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 208 a

Atmospheric heights: Troposphere <17 km, lower stratosphere 1724 km, upper stratosphere 2450 km.

b Atmospheric heights: Troposphere <9 km, lower stratosphere 917 km, upper stratosphere 1750 km.

Table 5 Empirical estimates of the partitioning of yields from atmospheric tests into the troposphere and stratosphere

[P1]

Total yield (Mt)

Partitioned yield (Mt)

Equatorial airburst a (030 latitude)

Polar airburst b (3090 latitude)

Troposphere Lower stratosphere Upper stratosphere Troposphere Lower stratosphere Upper stratosphere 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 1

2 3

5 7

10 20 30 50 0.03 0.049 0.068 0.097 0.18 0.26 0.40 0.52 0.65 0.55 0.24 0.02 0

0.001 0.002 0.003 0.02 0.04 0.10 0.18 0.35 1.45 2.76 4.43 4.97 5.25 3.00 2.1 0.5 0.55 2.03 4.75 17.0 27.9 49.5 0.029 0.045 0.06 0.08 0.14 0.17 0.16 0.08 0.01 0.001 0.005 0.01 0.02 0.06 0.13 0.34 0.62 0.99 1.6 1.45 0.95 0.56 0.06 0.4 1.55 4.05 6.44 9.94 20 30 50

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 209 a

Yields were partitioned according to values of Table 5. For sites at temperate locations (3060 latitude) and yields of 14 Mt, input to the upper stratospheric region was reduced by one half, essentially averaging equatorial and polar partitioning assumptions; polar partitioning was maintained for the tropospheric portion. For tests in June, July, and August, inputs from temperate sites were assumed to be to the equatorial atmosphere and from all other months to the polar atmosphere. Partitioning from equatorial sites (Christmas Island and high altitude tests at Johnston Island) were assumed equally divided between the northern and southern hemispheres.

Table 6 Estimated annual injections of nuclear debris into atmospheric regions a Year Fission energy (Mt)

High equatorial atmosphere Polar stratosphere north Equatorial stratosphere north Equatorial stratosphere south Troposphere Total North South Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower North South 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 0.34 1.93 0.002 1.28 1.90 0.62 0.096 0.80 1.58 11.0 41.5 0.78 0.98 0.98 1.46 0.004 0.011 0.76 0.44 1.46 6.05 6.14 9.48 0.003 0.13 0.73 0.92 0.92 0.02 0.76 0.39 1.35 7.95 0.27 1.30 1.91 0.44 0.25 0.010 1.55 0.013 7.26 4.61 0.48 3.70 0.0009 7.02 1.26 1.15 0.24 0.63 1.09 0.0007 0.43 0.84 3.58 0.12 0.12 1.56 1.38 0.77 0.32 0.046 0.031 0.051 0.011 0.32 0.27 0.23 0.31 0.22 0.94 0.87 2.92 0.035 1.15 3.96 0.010 0.037 0.19 0.020 0.010 0.10 0.065 0.090 0.020 0.020 0.11 0.013 0.009 0.053 0.74 0.39 1.81 0.21 0.026 0.095 0.047 0.011 0.021 0.12 0.046 0.031 0.051 0.011 0.33 3.19 0.25 15.5 1.08 6.30 5.11 20.6 0.036 18.25 71.8 0.010 0.040 0.66 1.87 4.16 1.90 3.38 0.83 0.13 1.42 0.75 2.31 0.02 0.02 0.5 Total North South 3.84 2.52 59.2 28.2 13.5 27.3 1.72 9.12 12.1 3.55 144 16.9 Global 6.36 139 15.6 161

Table 7 Annual concentrations in air and deposition amounts of 90 Sr produced in atmospheric nuclear testing Year Average annual concentration in air of mid-latitudes (mBq m-3)

Annual hemispheric deposition (PBq)

Cumulative deposit (PBq)

Northern hemisphere Southern hemisphere Northern hemisphere Southern hemisphere North South Total Calculated a Measured b Calculated a Measured c Calculated a Measured d Calculated a Measured d Measured e Measured e Measured e 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 0.002 0.002

- f 0.002 0.001 0.014 0.014 0.061 0.16 0.24 0.22 0.22 0.36 0.33 0.14 0.14 0.67 1.41 0.87 0.40 0.18 0.086 0.062 0.078 0.088 0.090 0.051 0.026 0.037 0.020 0.014 0.052 0.031 0.014 0.011 0.015 0.23 0.48 0.72 0.15 0.17 0.99 2.17 1.25 0.45 0.19 0.075 0.098 0.070 0.12 0.11 0.035 0.018 0.056 0.032 0.011 0.032 0.035 0.011 0.008 0.019 0.001 0.009 0.053 0.055 0.057 0.072 0.081 0.061 0.043 0.030 0.185 0.139 0.109 0.073 0.054 0.036 0.041 0.051 0.056 0.049 0.029 0.018 0.020 0.012 0.006 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.11 0.074 0.056 0.075 0.11 0.16 0.18 0.16 0.085 0.050 0.046 0.089 0.066 0.078 0.053 0.024 0.018 0.019 0.007 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.002 0.017 0.13 0.00 0.20 0.04 1.16 1.18 5.00 13.0 19.4 17.9 17.6 29.4 27.2 11.3 11.5 54.6 115 71.2 32.9 14.6 7.00 5.11 6.34 7.18 7.37 4.15 2.17 3.06 1.67 1.14 4.25 2.50 1.11 0.91 1.23 23.3 38.9 9.69 13.0 53.4 97.0 61.3 28.6 12.1 6.24 7.22 5.45 7.62 6.97 3.19 1.18 4.46 2.16 1.00 3.01 3.70 1.16 1.11 1.85 0.05 0.71 4.38 4.55 4.70 6.34 6.73 4.82 3.52 2.49 15.2 11.5 8.97 6.02 4.48 2.99 3.40 4.20 4.60 4.04 2.40 1.46 1.68 0.99 0.46 0.27 0.21 0.15 0.09 0.07 9.45 6.84 6.22 6.44 9.75 11.4 15.6 13.2 7.66 4.07 3.76 5.21 4.74 5.56 3.55 1.13 1.45 1.27 0.77 0.81 0.67 0.39 0.39 0.29 0.17 0.29 0.29 0.47 0.50 0.49 1.61 2.72 7.52 20.1 38.5 55.0 70.9 92.2 128 135 145 194 285 339 359 362 360 358 355 354 353 347 340 336 331 324 319 315 308 302 297 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.75 5.02 9.35 13.7 19.6 28.5 34.5 39.9 45.3 53.8 63.8 77.7 88.9 94.3 96.1 97.5 100 103 106 107 105 104 103 101 100 97.8 95.8 93.9 92.0 0.17 0.29 0.29 0.47 0.50 0.49 1.61 2.77 8.27 25.1 47.8 68.7 90.4 121 163 175 190 248 349 416 448 457 456 456 455 457 458 454 445 441 433 425 418 413 404 396 387 ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 210

Table 7 (continued)

Year Average annual concentration in air of mid-latitudes (mBq m-3)

Annual hemispheric deposition (PBq)

Cumulative deposit (PBq)

Northern hemisphere Southern hemisphere Northern hemisphere Southern hemisphere North South Total Calculated a Measured b Calculated a Measured c Calculated a Measured d Calculated a Measured d Measured e Measured e Measured e a

Annual average of monthly calculated value.

b Average of measurements performed monthly at Washington, D.C., and Miami (1957-1962), at New York City, Miami, and Sterling, Virginia (1963-1973) and at New York City and Miami (1974-1963) [F4, L6].

c Average of measurements performed monthly at Antofagasta and Santiago, Chile (1958-1976) and at Lima, Peru and Santiago, Chile (1977-1983) [F4, L6].

d Measured in global monitoring network [L9, V2].

e Calculated from decayed monthly measured deposition; prior to 1958 only calculated monthly deposition values are available.

f Less than 0.001 mBq m-3 or 0.001 PBq.

g Measured values included preferentially in total.

h Previously derived value based on measured cumulative deposition prior to 1958 [U6].

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 0.003 0.002 0.005 0.001 0.002 0.30 0.09 0.04 0.013 0.005 0.002 0.001 0.47 0.33 0.27 0.078 0.055 0.033 0.017 0.008 0.004 0.002 0.22 0.19 0.11 0.052 289 283 276 269 263 256 250 244 238 233 227 222 216 211 206 201 196 192 187 90.3 88.2 86.1 84.0 82.0 80.0 78.1 76.2 74.4 72.6 70.9 69.2 67.5 65.9 64.3 62.8 61.3 59.8 58.4 379 370 362 353 344 336 328 320 313 305 298 291 284 277 270 264 258 251 245 Total g 6.1 mBq a m-3 8.9 mBq a m-3 1.3 mBq a m-3 1.7 mBq a m-3 499 PBq 470 PBq 460 PBq h 111 PBq 142 PBq 144 PBq h ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 211

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 212 a

Distributions valid only for long-lived radionuclides where majority of fallout is from debris originally injected into the stratosphere.

b Valid only for long-lived radionuclides. Value of 4.0 used for radionuclides with half-lives less than 100 d to reflect greater proportion of fallout from debris injected into the troposphere at low latitudes.

c Valid only for long-lived radionuclides. Value of 6.7 and 5.7 used for nuclides with half-lives less than 30 d and 30100 d, respectively, to reflect greater proportion of fallout from debris injected into the troposphere at low latitudes.

Table 8 Latitudinal distribution of radionuclide deposition from atmospheric nuclear testing based on measurements of 90Sr a Latitude band (degrees)

Area of band (1012 m2)

Population distribution

(%)

Integrated deposition of 90Sr (PBq)

Fractional deposition in band Deposition density per unit deposition (Bq m-2 per PBq)

Latitudinal value relative to hemispheric value Northern hemisphere 8090 7080 6070 5060 4050 3040 2030 1020 010 3.9 11.6 18.9 25.6 31.5 36.4 40.2 42.8 44.1 0

0 0.4 13.7 15.5 20.4 32.7 11 6.3 1

7.9 32.9 73.9 101.6 85.3 71.2 50.9 35.7 0.002 0.017 0.071 0.161 0.221 0.185 0.155 0.111 0.078 0.56 1.48 3.78 6.27 7.01 5.09 3.85 2.58 1.76 0.12 0.32 0.81 1.35 1.51 1.09 0.83 0.56 0.38 Total 255 100 460 1.0 Population-weighted value b 4.65 1.00 Southern hemisphere 8090 7080 6070 5060 4050 3040 2030 1020 010 3.9 11.6 18.9 25.6 31.5 36.4 40.2 42.8 44.1 0

0 0

0.5 0.9 13 14.9 16.7 54 0.3 2.5 6.7 12.1 28.1 27.6 28.1 17.8 21 0.002 0.017 0.046 0.084 0.195 0.191 0.195 0.123 0.146 0.53 1.50 2.46 3.28 6.19 5.26 4.85 2.89 3.30 0.14 0.40 0.66 0.88 1.65 1.40 1.29 0.77 0.88 Total 255 100 144 1.0 Population-weighted value c 3.74 1.00

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 213 a

For fission products, the value is 1.45 1026 fissions per Mt times the fission yield times the decay constant (ln2 / half-life) divided by 3.15 107 s a-1.

b Corresponds to total globally dispersed fission energy of atmospheric tests of 160.5 Mt or fusion energy of 250.6 Mt (excludes releases associated with local and regional deposition).

c Estimate of Miskel [M3].

d Production per unit fusion energy of atmospheric tests.

e Estimated from total production up to 1972 [U6] and present data on fusion yields.

f Because of mobility and half-lives of 3H and 14C, the release is associated with a total fusion energy of 251 Mt.

g Estimated from ratios to 90Sr in global deposition.

Table 9 Radionuclides produced and globally dispersed in atmospheric nuclear testing Radionuclide Half-life Fission yield

(%)

Normalized production a (PBq Mt-1)

Global release b (PBq) 3H 14C 54Mn 55Fe 89Sr 90Sr 91Y 95Zr 103Ru 106Ru 125Sb 131I 140Ba 141Ce 144Ce 137Cs 239Pu 240Pu 241Pu 12.33 a 5 730 a 312.3 d 2.73 a 50.53 d 28.78 a 58.51 d 64.02 d 39.26 d 373.6 d 2.76 a 8.02 d 12.75 d 32.50 d 284.9 d 30.07 a 24 110 a 6 563 a 14.35 a 3.17 3.50 3.76 5.07 5.20 2.44 0.40 2.90 5.18 4.58 4.69 5.57 740 c, d 0.85 c, e 15.9 c 6.1 c 730 3.88 748 921 1 540 76.0 4.62 4 210 4 730 1 640 191 5.90 186 000 f 213 f 3 980 1 530 117 000 622 120 000 148 000 247 000 12 200 741 675 000 759 000 263 000 30 700 948 6.52 g 4.35 g 142 g

Table 10 Annual deposition of radionuclides produced in atmospheric nuclear testing Year Annual deposition (PBq) a 131I 140Ba 141Ce 103Ru 89Sr 91Y 95Zr 144Ce 54Mn 106Ru 125Sb 55Fe 90Sr 137Cs Northern hemisphere 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 13.7 9.82

- b 15.9 3.34 96.5 90.5 69.5 144 70.1 303 278 961 0.25 10.4 395 1 260 40.7 3.04 11.0 46.5 18.5 2.99 11.4 5.88 3.13 30.3 2.40 20.2 34.0 6.70 5.53 0.47 35.6 0.023 24.3 17.2 28.0 5.95 171 165 129 322 127 556 511 1 780 5.31 18.4 740 2 320 124 5.39 19.7 81.9 37.1 6.61 33.7 16.8 6.27 54.5 6.84 36.6 0.01 63.0 15.3 9.23 1.45 65.4 0.52 15.8 10.3 10.1 2.15 0.01 88.8 107 98.3 240 71.5 300 412 1 110 79.1 6.66 593 1 960 435 2.07 14.5 60.4 38.7 7.85 68.9 33.4 18.0 41.1 13.4 29.4 0.58 45.2 36.5 3.04 0.91 49.7 6.87 0.0005 18.2 12.6 0.011 20.6 4.40 0.028 124 123 143 437 97.8 489 434 1 550 128 13.7 619 2 110 627 4.76 15.0 62.4 43.7 9.97 85.9 43.5 29.5 43.3 16.5 32.1 1.09 48.2 49.4 6.10 2.00 51.0 10.4 0.003 9.23 6.39 0.011 10.5 2.23 0.023 62.7 62.4 84.4 253 55.5 263 234 822 109 7.19 319 1 160 501 4.85 7.71 32.1 25.3 7.37 55.8 30.7 24.0 22.7 10.4 18.6 1.14 24.4 35.6 3.19 1.08 25.9 8.19 0.011 11.9 8.24 0.019 13.5 2.86 0.038 80.5 80.2 119 350 80.4 350 314 1089 182 9.84 4 14 1 580 825 11.7 10.0 41.6 35.1 12.2 82.1 47.8 39.7 30.1 15.0 26.6 2.12 31.3 55.4 4.38 1.45 33.3 13.2 0.038 0.0002 14.0 9.19 0.023 8.91 1.89 0.028 76.8 92.3 118 284 79.6 322 421 1 136 264 7.84 547 2 160 1 270 21.6 13.3 55.2 48.4 18.8 117 70.9 59.1 40.2 21.2 37.7 3.46 39.5 81.6 3.70 0.98 43.9 19.8 0.083 0.0005 6.95 4.70 0.050 4.48 0.93 0.040 37.1 45.0 103 231 193 263 355 791 572 97.5 297 1 790 2 820 791 162 57.3 45.2 59.1 143 145 142 54.9 26.1 62.1 20.2 22.6 122 32.2 6.40 22.2 32.1 3.04 0.37 0.051 0.0074 0.0011 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.24 2.39 5.80 12.1 9.13 21.1 25.0 57.7 52.3 9.85 19.0 299 408 131 27.9 6.44 3.08 3.83 11.0 8.54 7.88 2.25 1.74 4.55 1.52 0.61 8.24 2.34 0.48 0.42 0.58 0.120 0.025 0.0050 0.0010 0.0001 3.19 2.28 0.029 3.67 0.76 0.035 21.2 21.4 72.4 183 182 178 186 417 299 65.2 130 777 1 310 447 110 35.8 22.4 29.0 64.4 68.8 68.4 28.1 12.9 29.1 10.7 10.4 54.4 17.9 4.38 9.47 14.4 1.69 0.25 0.043 0.008 0.002 0.20 0.15 0.002 0.24 0.049 0.003 1.35 1.37 5.35 13.7 17.7 16.1 16.2 30.5 26.0 8.61 10.5 57.3 112 56.5 20.9 7.77 3.55 3.26 5.46 6.31 6.46 3.18 1.51 2.66 1.26 0.93 4.29 2.06 0.74 0.78 1.18 0.22 0.054 0.014 0.0039 0.0011 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.95 2.89 6.08 6.51 11.3 14.6 28.6 31.4 10.4 10.9 158 265 138 50.2 17.1 6.34 4.03 6.47 5.84 5.47 2.35 1.42 2.81 1.33 0.57 4.41 2.12 0.75 0.38 0.37 0.077 0.019 0.0054 0.0015 0.0004 0.18 0.13 0.002 0.202 0.042 0.002 1.16 1.18 5.00 13.0 19.4 17.9 17.6 23.3 38.9 9.69 13.0 53.4 97.0 61.3 28.6 12.1 6.24 7.22 5.45 7.62 6.97 3.19 1.18 4.46 2.16 1.00 3.01 3.70 1.16 1.11 1.65 0.47 0.33 0.27 0.078 0.0053 0.26 0.19 0.003 0.30 0.062 0.004 1.73 1.77 7.50 19.5 29.1 26.9 26.5 34.9 58.4 14.5 19.5 80.1 146 91.9 42.9 18.2 9.36 10.8 8.17 11.4 10.5 4.78 1.77 6.69 3.23 1.50 4.51 5.55 1.74 1.67 2.47 0.71 0.5 0.41 0.12 0.0081 ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 214

Table 10 (continued)

Year Annual deposition (PBq) a 131I 140Ba 141Ce 103Ru 89Sr 91Y 95Zr 144Ce 54Mn 106Ru 125Sb 55Fe 90Sr 137Cs Northern hemisphere (continued) 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 0.0002 0.0004 0.0003 0.0001 0.0023 0.0011 0.0005 0.0003 0.0002 0.0001 0.0035 0.0016 0.0008 0.0005 0.0003 0.0002 0.0001 Total 4 000 7 500 6 000 7 500 4 300 6 000 7 500 9 560 1 144 4 892 446 797 474 706 Southern hemisphere 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 0.004 4.33 3.07 1.39 0.0001 28.2 251 147 0.0007 0.0000 0.012 642 0.0056 0.0000 0.0001 74.0 13.9 14.09 0.003 40.5 21.2 0.024 7.72 5.41 9.48 62.5 442 273 0.045 0.000 0.060 1 160 0.095 0.000 0.001 130 30.0 40.8 0.091 81.7 44.2 0.043 2.73 2.16 24.51 0.116 47.0 273 218 1.84 0.002 0.16 921 4.87 0.007 0.002 58.3 35.2 68.9 4.33 88.9 50.6 0.12 6.04 5.31 73.2 0.74 90.4 343 278 4.06 0.010 0.212 1 060 11.2 0.040 0.004 102 44.2 87.5 8.37 109 62.8 0.077 2.99 3.37 51.5 1.23 50.8 172 150 4.27 0.035 0.13 554 13.1 0.14 0.003 50.9 25.3 51.1 7.98 62.1 36.6 0.12 4.14 5.60 85.1 3.15 75.1 240 218 8.85 0.13 0.19 791 28.0 0.52 0.010 70.6 37.8 76.9 15.5 92.7 55.8 0.088 2.75 4.27 62.4 2.97 68.8 282 270 12.9 0.28 0.27 1 070 47.5 1.21 0.027 60.1 50.9 107 24.9 129 78.5 0.071 1.12 8.88 66.5 33.2 53.0 140 169 61.4 22.4 7.79 550 206 74.0 22.1 30.8 34.6 75.8 74.5 102 81.2 0.003 0.009 0.61 3.21 1.69 5.13 10.5 15.0 6.24 2.42 0.88 43.1 22.8 9.96 3.40 1.78 1.42 3.42 4.84 6.73 5.50 0.061 0.92 8.19 59.0 35.1 39.0 73.0 82.4 37.4 16.0 6.39 231 102 44.2 16.0 20.8 16.3 33.2 36.2 46.2 37.9 0.004 0.059 0.70 4.55 3.89 3.92 5.91 6.48 4.00 2.46 1.43 16.1 10.1 6.41 3.47 2.66 1.78 2.74 3.49 4.04 3.48 0.001 0.004 0.373 1.72 1.44 2.85 5.39 7.58 4.78 3.01 1.80 20.2 17.0 12.3 7.04 3.76 2.02 2.25 3.40 4.16 3.68 0.004 0.051 0.71 4.38 4.55 4.70 6.34 9.45 6.84 6.22 6.44 9.75 11.4 15.6 13.2 7.66 4.07 3.76 5.21 4.74 5.56 0.006 0.077 1.065 6.57 6.83 7.05 9.51 14.2 10.3 9.34 9.66 14.6 17.1 23.4 19.8 11.5 6.11 5.65 7.82 7.11 8.34 ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 215

Table 10 (continued)

Year Annual deposition (PBq) a 131I 140Ba 141Ce 103Ru 89Sr 91Y 95Zr 144Ce 54Mn 106Ru 125Sb 55Fe 90Sr 137Cs Southern hemisphere (continued) 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 3.58 11.0 44.5 0.0005 0.0003 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0007 6.22 23.4 82.1 0.029 0.001 0.003 5.37 25.0 66.4 1.03 0.001 0.041 0.005 0.010 6.95 30.0 76.1 1.89 0.003 0.11 0.001 0.000 0.006 0.024 4.57 16.4 39.6 1.69 0.006 0.135 0.004 0.000 0.003 0.032 0.0023 7.65 23.9 56.4 3.16 0.021 0.30 0.015 0.000 0.005 0.071 0.0068 11.5 32.7 76.1 5.00 0.048 0.51 0.033 0.001 0.007 0.12 0.14 0.0003 30.8 22.9 43.7 14.6 2.80 2.25 1.45 0.54 0.15 0.56 0.35 0.11 0.026 0.0005 0.0009 0.0001 2.25 1.37 1.37 0.77 0.17 0.16 0.11 0.045 0.014 0.013 0.0078 0.0026 0.0006 0.0001 15.8 10.7 19.1 7.31 1.73 1.21 0.86 0.38 0.13 0.29 0.19 0.075 0.021 0.0050 0.0012 0.0002 1.81 1.09 1.52 0.78 0.28 0.17 0.13 0.08 0.040 0.039 0.029 0.015 0.0062 0.0022 0.0008 0.0002 1.95 1.06 0.92 0.64 0.25 0.16 0.14 0.08 0.042 0.024 0.013 0.0060 0.0023 0.0008 0.0003 0.0001 3.55 1.13 1.45 1.27 0.77 0.81 0.67 0.39 0.39 0.29 0.22 0.19 0.11 0.052 0.0036 0.0017 0.0008 0.0004 0.0002 0.0001 5.32 1.70 2.17 1.90 1.15 1.22 1.01 0.59 0.59 0.43 0.33 0.28 0.17 0.077 0.0055 0.0026 0.0012 0.0006 0.0004 0.0002 0.0001 Total 1 300 2 400 1 900 2 400 1 300 1 900 2 400 1 934 155 998 94 110 142 213 World 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 13.6 9.82 15.9 3.34 96.5 94.9 72.6 145 70.1 331 24.3 17.2 28.0 5.95 171 172 134 331 127 618 15.8 10.3 0.004 10.0 2.15 0.009 88.8 109 100 265 71.6 347 18.2 12.6 0.011 20.6 4.40 0.028 125 129 149 510 98.5 579 9.23 6.39 0.011 10.4 2.23 0.023 62.8 65.4 87.8 304 56.8 314 11.9 8.24 0.019 13.5 2.86 0.038 80.7 84.4 125 435 83.6 426 14.0 9.20 0.023 8.91 1.89 0.028 76.9 95.0 122 346 82.5 391 6.95 4.70 0.050 4.48 0.93 0.040 37.1 46.1 112 298 227 317 0

0 0

0 0

0 0.25 2.40 6.41 15.3 10.8 26.3 3.19 2.28 0.029 3.67 0.76 0.035 21.2 22.3 80.5 242 217 217 0.20 0.15 0.002 0.24 0.049 0.003 1.35 1.43 6.06 18.3 21.6 20.0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0.10 0.96 3.26 7.80 7.95 14.1 0.18 0.13 0.002 0.20 0.042 0.002 1.16 1.23 5.71 17.4 24.0 22.6 0.26 0.19 0.003 0.30 0.062 0.004 1.74 1.84 8.57 26.1 35.9 33.9 ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 216

Table 10 (continued)

Year Annual deposition (PBq) a 131I 140Ba 141Ce 103Ru 89Sr 91Y 95Zr 144Ce 54Mn 106Ru 125Sb 55Fe 90Sr 137Cs a

Derived from estimated fission/fusion yields of tests with atmospheric model. Measured results used preferentially for 90Sr and 137Cs during 1958-1985. Model values for 131I, 144Ba, 141Ce, 103Ru, 89Sr, 91Y, and 95Zr normalized to total hemispheric deposition estimated from available measurements. Latitudinal distributions for long-lived radionuclides may be estimated by use of parameters in Table 8.

b Indicates estimated value less than 0.0001 PBq.

1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 529 1 110 0.25 10.4 395 1 900 40.7 3.04 11.0 121 32.4 17.1 11.4 46.4 24.4 33.9 13.4 64.7 0.001 34.0 6.71 5.53 0.47 35.6 0.023 953 2 050 5.35 18.4 740 3 470 124 5.39 19.7 212 67.1 47.5 33.8 98.5 50.5 60.7 30.2 119 0.039 63.0 15.3 9.23 1.45 65.4 0.518 685 1 330 81.0 6.67 593 2 880 440 2.07 14.5 119 73.9 76.8 73.2 122 68.6 46.5 38.4 95.8 1.61 45.2 36.5 3.04 0.92 49.7 6.88 777 1 820 132 13.7 619 3 170 638 4.80 15.0 165 87.9 97.5 94.3 153 92.4 50.2 46.4 108 2.98 48.2 49.5 6.10 2.00 51.0 10.4 406 972 113 7.23 319 1 720 514 4.99 7.71 83.0 50.6 58.5 63.8 92.8 60.7 27.3 26.8 58.2 2.82 24.4 35.8 3.20 1.08 25.9 8.22 0.013 554 1 310 191 9.98 414 2 370 853 12.2 10.0 112 72.9 89.1 97.5 141 95.4 37.7 39.0 82.9 5.28 31.3 55.7 4.39 1.45 33.3 13.3 0.045 702 1 410 277 8.12 548 3 220 1 310 22.8 13.3 115 99.3 126 142 199 138 51.7 54.0 114 8.46 39.6 82.1 3.73 0.98 43.9 19.9 0.22 0.001 495 960 633 120 305 2 340 3 030 865 184 88.1 79.7 135 217 247 223 85.7 49.1 106 34.8 25.4 124 33.6 6.94 22.4 32.6 3.39 0.48 0.077 0.008 0.002 0.0003 35.6 72.7 58.6 12.3 19.9 342 430 141 31.3 8.22 4.50 7.24 15.9 15.3 13.4 4.49 3.11 5.92 2.29 0.79 8.40 2.46 0.53 0.44 0.59 0.12 0.026 0.005 0.001 0.0001 259 500 336 81.3 136 1 010 1 420 491 126 56.5 38.7 62.1 101 115 106 43.9 23.7 48.2 18.0 12.1 55.6 18.8 4.77 9.60 14.7 1.88 0.33 0.064 0.013 0.003 0.0002 22.1 37.0 37.0 11.1 11.9 73.4 122 63.0 24.3 10.5 5.33 6.00 8.95 10.4 9.94 4.99 2.60 4.18 2.04 1.21 4.45 2.19 0.82 0.82 1.22 0.25 0.07 0.02 0.006 0.002 0.0005 0.0002 20.0 36.2 36.2 13.4 12.7 178 282 150 57.3 20.9 8.36 6.28 9.87 9.99 9.15 4.30 2.48 3.73 1.98 0.81 4.58 2.26 0.84 0.42 0.39 0.090 0.025 0.008 0.002 0.001 0.0001 24.0 32.7 45.8 15.9 19.4 63.2 108 76.9 41.8 19.8 10.3 11.0 10.7 12.4 12.5 6.74 2.31 5.91 3.42 1.77 3.82 4.37 1.55 1.50 1.93 0.69 0.52 0.39 0.13 0.0089 0.0039 0.0019 0.0010 0.0005 0.0003 0.0002 0.0001 36.0 49.1 68.6 23.9 29.2 94.8 163 115 62.7 29.7 15.5 16.5 16.0 18.5 18.8 10.1 3.47 8.86 5.13 2.66 5.73 6.56 2.33 2.25 2.90 1.04 0.78 0.58 0.19 0.014 0.0060 0.0029 0.0015 0.0008 0.0005 0.0003 0.0002 0.0001 Total 5 300 9 900 7 900 9 900 5 600 7 900 9 900 11 494 1 299 5 890 540 907 612 919 ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 217

Table 11 Population-weighted cumulative deposition density of radionuclides produced in atmospheric nuclear testing Year Cumulative deposition density (Bq m-2) a 131I 140Ba 141Ce 103Ru 89Sr 91Y 95Zr 144Ce 54Mn 106Ru 125Sb 55Fe 90Sr 137Cs Northern hemisphere 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1.73 1.17

- b 1.94 0.43 12.2 11.2 9.33 18.2 8.70 38.0 33.5 121 4.06 1.31 49.8 155 10.2 0.38 1.40 5.39 2.57 0.65 1.46 0.74 0.39 3.88 0.30 2.58 0.00 4.08 0.96 0.57 0.19 4.50 0.03 4.92 3.31 5.49 1.21 33.7 29.6 30.6 65.0 23.5 111 96.1 356 17.2 3.69 141 449 51.6 1.05 4.04 15.3 8.05 2.02 6.63 3.23 1.43 11.3 1.37 7.35 0.00 11.4 4.05 1.43 0.75 12.6 0.78 7.53 5.28 0.22 5.02 1.02 0.15 36.9 41.1 70.9 121 27.6 151 182 522 135 3.57 200 896 434 1.75 7.70 28.0 21.3 5.53 30.6 16.8 14.2 21.8 6.03 15.3 0.89 15.2 25.5 1.94 0.91 16.6 12.5 0.005 9.99 7.84 0.61 12.3 2.51 0.52 63.1 55.9 119 261 56.1 285 235 869 249 9.38 225 1 140 710 7.18 10.1 34.4 28.7 8.78 45.3 27.1 25.3 28.3 8.40 20.5 2.03 18.3 40.2 4.31 2.32 18.3 19.9 0.032 0.0001 5.96 5.27 0.72 7.80 1.73 0.51 38.5 36.0 87.5 187 50.6 186 165 568 237 8.97 126 774 667 19.4 6.70 22.0 20.9 8.68 37.1 25.5 24.9 19.4 6.27 15.6 2.64 10.4 35.2 3.95 1.59 9.94 17.1 0.11 0.001 8.33 7.99 1.43 11.3 2.76 0.91 54.7 53.6 139 289 96.0 276 261 845 429 20.0 169 1 180 1 200 60.8 10.7 32.1 33.0 16.7 62.1 46.6 46.0 30.4 10.0 25.9 5.58 14.3 60.6 7.85 2.48 13.2 29.1 0.39 0.005 10.2 10.1 1.96 8.04 2.10 0.73 51.3 67.3 155 255 95.1 276 358 944 605 30.6 229 1 730 1 950 133 16.3 45.8 49.3 28.0 95.8 76.3 75.0 44.3 15.2 40.2 9.86 18.0 94.8 12.2 2.02 17.8 45.2 0.165 0.0006 8.70 21.7 17.0 16.2 12.1 6.99 57.2 128 362 637 982 1 050 1 340 2 340 3 460 2 100 1 150 3 940 10 300 8 740 4 660 2 170 1 040 619 582 693 749 566 308 302 235 134 350 340 184 94.4 168 69.0 28.4 11.7 4.80 1.97 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.49 1.30 20.2 36.2 52.0 68.4 104 179 290 197 109 625 1 560 1 430 825 407 193 98.8 70.0 61.5 54.5 37.1 20.6 21.9 18.4 10.2 23.1 24.4 14.2 7.14 5.51 2.45 1.09 0.48 0.22 0.10 4.17 11.4 10.4 13.2 11.8 7.83 39.5 77.8 251 526 976 1 020 1 090 1 570 2 240 1 560 959 2 100 5 290 5 250 3 390 1 910 1 050 633 483 475 482 388 241 211 167 107 193 205 134 78.7 100 50.8 25.7 13.0 6.58 3.33 0.28 0.96 1.15 1.46 1.58 1.38 3.61 7.41 23.

52.7 116 152 175 234 322 306 262 341 665 849 801 673 543 435 355 301 260 221 179 148 121 98.6 88.9 81.6 68.5 55.1 48.3 37.4 29.0 22.5 17.5 13.6 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.23 0.69 11.5 25.8 48.7 71.1 106 172 280 288 253 548 1 390 1 890 1 810 1 530 1 230 972 777 629 512 412 326 263 213 168 142 124 101 80.4 64.2 49.9 38.7 30.1 23.4 18.1 0.25 0.96 1.36 1.85 2.25 2.35 4.62 8.99 25.9 61.4 146 222 281 368 535 604 634 795 1 140 1 480 1 620 1 670 1 670 1 660 1 650 1 640 1 630 1 620 1 590 1 560 1 540 1 510 1480 1470 1 440 1 410 1 380 1 350 1 320 1 290 1 260 1 230 0.38 1.44 2.05 2.78 3.39 3.54 6.95 13.5 38.9 92.2 219 333 423 554 805 910 955 1 200 1 710 2 220 2 440 2 520 2 520 2 510 2 490 2 480 2 480 2 460 2 410 2 380 2 350 2 300 2 260 2 240 2 200 2 160 2 120 2 080 2 040 1 990 1 950 1 900 ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 218

Table 11 (continued)

Year Cumulative deposition density (Bq m-2) a 131I 140Ba 141Ce 103Ru 89Sr 91Y 95Zr 144Ce 54Mn 106Ru 125Sb 55Fe 90Sr 137Cs Northern hemisphere (continued) 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 0.81 0.33 0.14 0.057 0.023 0.010 0.0039 0.0016 0.0007 0.0003 0.0001 0.043 0.019 0.0084 0.0038 0.0017 0.0007 0.0003 0.0001 0.0001 1.68 0.85 0.43 0.22 0.11 0.056 0.028 0.014 0.0072 0.0037 0.0019 0.0009 0.0005 10.5 8.16 6.33 4.91 3.81 2.96 2.29 1.78 1.38 1.07 0.83 0.64 0.50 14.1 10.9 8.49 6.60 5.12 3.98 3.09 2.40 1.86 1.45 1.12 0.87 0.68 1 200 1 170 1 150 1 120 1 090 1 070 1 040 1 020 991 967 944 921 899 1 860 1 820 1 780 1 740 1 700 1 660 1 620 1 580 1 550 1 510 1 480 1 440 1 410 Total c 1945-1999 2000-2099 2100-2199 2200-510 1 520 3 080 4 660 3 440 5 560 7 590 50 000 6 560 33 300 0.0003 8 160 1.75 14 600 2.3 52 900 33 900 3 000 292 81 000 55 300 5 550 620 1945-510 1 520 3 080 4 660 3 440 5 560 7 590 50 000 6 560 33 300 8 160 14 600 90 000 142 000 Southern hemisphere 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 0.0009 0.92 0.65 0.30 5.97 50.1 31.5 0.85 0.002 135 0.006 0.008 2.53 1.83 3.29 0.001 20.9 137 96.1 3.23 0.02 389 0.17 0.029 1.44 1.70 17.3 1.09 31.4 163 169 25.1 0.017 0.059 642 31.3 0.095 3.47 5.09 59.6 7.01 69.4 248 253 51.2 0.13 0.080 861 78.5 0.073 1.89 4.03 49.5 11.6 46.0 155 170 50.4 0.57 0.055 541 99.6 0.12 2.75 7.43 88.8 29.1 74.1 246 281 101.1 2.26 0.12 847 221 0.093 1.87 5.95 68.3 27.0 71.5 296 380 151 4.76 0.24 1 210 382 0.072 0.76 11.5 85.9 175 168 289 484 540 314 165 717 1 290 0.003 0.009 0.66 4.58 9.1 11.5 23.8 41.6 50.9 32.8 18.7 57.4 118 0.064 0.66 10.8 81.4 186 188 232 320 358 248 155 364 672 0.005 0.049 0.97 7.42 21.1 29.0 36.1 49.0 58.9 55.5 49.6 61.8 94.9 0.001 0.006 0.43 3.12 8.19 12.5 21.5 37.5 53.3 53.7 49.9 66.4 118 0.004 0.047 1.01 7.92 25.4 41.8 57.0 84.5 117 137 156 185 219 0.007 0.070 1.51 11.9 38.1 62.8 85.7 127 177 206 235 278 330 ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 219

Table 11 (continued)

Year Cumulative deposition density (Bq m-2) a 131I 140Ba 141Ce 103Ru 89Sr 91Y 95Zr 144Ce 54Mn 106Ru 125Sb 55Fe 90Sr 137Cs Southern hemisphere (continued) 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 15.6 2.96 2.99 0.00 8.59 4.54 0.73 2.33 9.46 0.0014 0.0001 43.1 10.7 13.6 0.25 27.6 15.0 2.08 7.86 27.7 0.120 0.001 0.067 0.002 35.2 31.4 39.8 15.1 58.6 38.9 8.12 17.0 44.1 6.84 0.005 0.028 0.002 0.002 0.009 0.46 0.0041 67.2 57.8 57.0 31.2 81.6 60.7 15.3 23.5 58.6 13.9 0.036 0.084 0.011 0.000 0.002 0.023 1.84 0.023 37.9 43.4 39.3 32.3 53.8 48.3 15.3 15.3 36.9 13.9 0.15 0.13 0.033 0.0006 0.0011 0.033 7.16 0.16 56.0 74.9 65.4 65.2 86.9 87.7 31.0 24.7 58.6 27.7 0.57 0.31 0.11 0.0036 0.0017 0.0780 0.0010 17.0 0.52 51.6 88.4 96.8 107 127 137 51.7 36.0 84.7 45.3 1.33 0.56 0.24 0.0113 0.0026 0.1400 0.0005 867 470 245 188 178 313 305 375 306 180 147 150 79.9 37.8 20.4 11.0 5.32 2.93 1.20 0.50 0.20 0.084 0.035 0.014 0.0058 0.0024 0.0010 0.0004 0.0002 0.0001 94.5 58.9 32.4 18.2 12.4 18.7 20.3 26.7 22.8 13.9 9.49 7.49 4.42 2.31 1.40 0.83 0.44 0.23 0.10 0.045 0.020 0.0089 0.0040 0.0018 0.0008 0.0003 0.0002 0.0001 539 353 218 167 134 186 187 220 191 127 99 95 59.1 33.2 19.7 11.8 6.63 3.83 1.94 0.98 0.50 0.25 0.13 0.064 0.033 0.017 0.0083 0.0042 0.0021 0.0011 0.0005 0.0003 0.0001 102 95.9 83.9 730 62.5 60.4 57.8 58.3 54.8 46.9 40.2 35.8 29.5 23.6 18.8 14.9 11.8 9.26 7.19 5.57 4.32 3.36 2.60 2.02 1.57 1.22 0.94 0.73 0.57 0.44 0.34 0.27 0.21 0.16 0.12 0.10 142 144 130 110 91.5 81.3 74.1 71.8 65.9 55.8 46.4 39.0 31.8 25.3 20.1 16.0 12.7 9.93 7.71 5.99 4.65 3.61 2.80 2.18 1.69 1.31 1.02 0.79 0.61 0.48 0.37 0.29 0.22 0.17 0.13 0.10 262 313 341 355 359 368 377 388 396 395 389 386 380 374 368 361 353 346 339 331 324 317 309 302 294 287 281 274 267 261 255 249 243 237 231 226 394 472 514 536 542 557 571 587 601 599 591 587 578 570 561 551 541 530 520 509 498 487 476 466 455 445 435 425 415 406 396 387 379 370 362 353 Total c 1945-1999 2000-2099 2100-2199 2200-273 808 1 380 2 100 1 470 2 490 7 130 8 120 714 5 470 1 380 0.40 1 630 0.30 12 600 8 480 752 73 19 200 13 400 1 390 155 1945-273 808 1 380 2 100 1 470 2 490 7 130 8 120 714 5 470 1 380 1 630 21 900 35 000 ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 220

Table 11 (continued)

Year Cumulative deposition density (Bq m-2) a 131I 140Ba 141Ce 103Ru 89Sr 91Y 95Zr 144Ce 54Mn 106Ru 125Sb 55Fe 90Sr 137Cs World 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1.54 1.04 1.73 0.38 10.9 10.0 8.38 16.3 7.74 34.5 35.3 111 3.71 1.17 44.3 153 9.11 0.34 1.25 6.51 2.62 0.91 1.30 1.60 0.84 3.53 0.52 3.34 0.00 3.63 0.86 0.51 0.17 4.00 0.029 4.38 2.94 4.89 1.07 30.0 26.6 27.4 58.2 20.9 101 101 327 15.7 3.29 125 443 45.9 0.93 3.60 18.4 8.34 3.29 5.93 5.91 2.92 10.3 2.08 9.59 0.02 10.1 3.61 1.27 0.67 11.2 0.70 6.70 4.70 0.20 4.47 0.91 0.13 32.9 36.8 63.3 110 24.7 138 180 483 123 3.18 178 868 390 1.56 6.86 28.8 22.5 9.30 28.9 21.4 17.0 20.3 7.24 18.5 1.54 13.6 22.7 1.73 0.81 14.8 11.2 0.0046 8.89 6.98 0.54 10.9 2.24 0.47 56.1 50.1 107 239 50.7 261 236 802 228 8.36 200 1 110 641 6.44 8.95 38.0 31.9 14.1 43.8 33.1 29.2 26.9 10.1 24.7 3.33 16.3 35.8 3.84 2.06 16.2 17.7 0.0280 5.31 4.69 0.64 6.94 1.54 0.45 34.2 32.3 78.3 172 46.3 171 164 525 216 8.05 112 748 604 17.5 5.97 23.7 23.4 12.1 36.5 28.6 27.5 19.0 7.26 17.9 3.89 9.29 31.3 3.51 1.41 8.84 15.3 0.102 0.0007 7.41 7.11 1.27 10.1 2.45 0.81 48.7 48.0 124 267 88.7 254 259 782 393 18.0 151 1 140 1 090 54.9 9.58 34.8 37.6 22.0 62.4 51.1 50.6 30.4 11.7 29.5 8.01 12.8 54.0 7.00 2.21 11.8 25.9 0.34 0.0045 9.06 8.99 1.74 7.15 1.87 0.65 45.7 60.1 139 234 87.6 253 352 882 555 27.8 204 1 670 1 770 120 14.6 46.4 53.6 35.6 97.1 81.9 81.9 45.2 17.5 45.1 13.8 16.2 84.5 10.9 1.79 15.8 40.3 0.15 0.0005 7.74 19.3 15.1 14.4 10.8 6.22 50.9 114 323 576 893 949 1 230 2 130 3 140 1 900 1 040 3 590 9 290 7 870 4 200 1 960 942 570 553 650 708 538 294 285 225 128 316 305 165 84.6 150 61.5 25.3 10.4 4.28 1.76 0.44 1.16 18.0 32.7 47.2 62.2 95.0 164 263 179 99.5 562 1 400 1 280 741 366 174 89.3 64.3 57.0 51.4 35.5 19.9 20.6 17.2 9.59 20.8 21.9 12.7 6.41 4.92 2.19 0.97 0.43 0.19 0.086 3.71 10.1 9.24 11.7 10.5 6.97 35.2 69.3 224 477 889 926 992 1 428 2 030 1 420 871 1 900 4 780 4 730 3 060 1 720 954 578 450 444 453 366 229 198 159 102 176 185 121 70.8 89.7 45.4 23.0 11.6 5.88 2.98 0.25 0.85 1.03 1.30 1.40 1.23 3.22 6.60 20.7 47.7 106 139 160 214 293 278 239 311 602 767 723 608 491 394 323 274 238 202 164 137 113 91.0 81.7 74.7 62.6 50.3 44.0 34.1 26.5 20.5 15.9 12.4 0.21 0.61 10.3 23.3 44.3 64.6 96.7 157 255 262 230 495 1 250 1 690 1630 1 370 1 100 875 700 568 463 374 296 239 194 153 129 112 91.8 72.9 58.3 45.3 35.1 27.3 21.2 16.5 0.22 0.86 1.21 1.65 2.01 2.09 4.11 8.01 23.2 55.5 133 202 257 337 489 553 581 728 1 040 1 340 1 480 1 520 1 520 1 520 1 510 1 500 1 500 1 480 1 460 1 430 1 410 1 380 1 360 1 340 1 320 1 290 1 270 1 240 1 210 1 190 1 160 1 130 0.33 1.28 1.82 2.47 3.02 3.15 6.19 12.0 34.8 83.4 199 304 386 507 736 833 876 1 100 1 560 2 020 2 230 2 300 2 300 2 290 2 280 2 270 2 270 2 250 2 210 2 180 2 150 2 110 2 080 2 060 2 020 1 980 1 950 1 910 1 870 1 830 1 790 1 750 ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 221

Table 11 (continued)

Year Cumulative deposition density (Bq m-2) a 131I 140Ba 141Ce 103Ru 89Sr 91Y 95Zr 144Ce 54Mn 106Ru 125Sb 55Fe 90Sr 137Cs a

Derived from estimated fission/fusion yields of tests with atmospheric model. Includes residual deposition from previous years. Measured results used preferentially for 90Sr and 137Cs during 1958-1985. Latitudinal values may be derived by use of parameters in Table 8. The results for the world are the population-weighted averages of the northern and southern hemispheres (89% and 11% of the world population, respectively).

b Indicates estimated value less than 0.0001 Bq m-2.

c Integrated deposition density with units Bq a m-2.

World (continued) 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 0.72 0.30 0.120 0.050 0.021 0.0085 0.0035 0.0014 0.0006 0.038 0.017 0.0076 0.0034 0.0015 0.0007 0.0003 0.0001 0.0001 1.51 0.76 0.39 0.20 0.10 0.050 0.025 0.013 0.0065 0.0033 0.0017 0.0008 0.0004 9.58 7.44 5.77 4.48 3.47 2.69 2.09 1.62 1.26 0.98 0.76 0.59 0.46 12.8 9.92 7.70 5.98 4.65 3.61 2.80 2.18 1.69 1.31 1.02 0.79 0.61 1 100 1 080 1 050 1 030 1 000 978 954 932 909 887 866 845 825 1 710 1 670 1 630 1 590 1 560 1 520 1 490 1 450 1 420 1 390 1 360 1 330 1 300 Total c 1945-1999 2000-2099 2100-2199 2200-482 1 440 2 900 4 380 3 220 5 220 7 130 45 400 5 920 30 300 0.0007 7 420 1.8 13 200 2.1 48 440 31 000 2 750 268 74 100 50 700 5 090 569 1945-482 1 440 2 900 4 380 3 220 5 220 7 130 45 400 5 920 30 300 7 420 13200 83 000 131 000 ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 222

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 223 a

Values from Beck [B2], converted with 0.869 rad R-1, 0.01 Gy rad-1, 0.7 Sv Gy-1 and applying a shielding/occupancy factor of 0.36. Relaxation length of 0.1 cm assumed for 131I and 140Ba, 1 cm for 141Ce, 103Ru and 95Zr; 3 cm for remainder.

b Transfer coefficient P25 [U3 (page 127)] divided by the mean life of the radionuclide (T1/2 divided by ln 2) applied to the average cumulative deposition.

c Transfer coefficient P25 [U3 (page 127)] applied to the annual deposition density (nSv per Bq m-2). The exposure occurs only in the year of deposition.

d Includes decay product.

e Timedependent model used for components of annual dose.

Table 12 Coefficients for evaluating annual effective doses from radionuclides produced in atmospheric nuclear testing Radionuclide Dose coefficient (nSv a-1 per Bq m-2)

External a Ingestion b Inhalation c 131I 140Ba 141Ce 103Ru 89Sr 91Y 95Zr 144Ce 54Mn 106Ru 125Sb 55Fe 90Sr 137Cs 238Pu 239Pu 240Pu 241Pu 241Am 3.28 18.5 d 0.376 2.72

11.3 d 0.175 d 3.26 0.809 d 1.64

2.24

133 0.357

0.601

0.506

e

e

0.17 0.014 0.034 0.033 0.16 0.18 0.104 1.30 0.022 1.70 0.045 0.0043 4.60 0.11 800 840 840 12 920

Table 13 External exposure to radionuclides produced in atmospheric nuclear testing Year Worldwide average annual effective dose (Sv) 131I 140Ba,La 141Ce 103Ru 95Zr,Nb 144Ce,Pr 54Mn 106Ru,Rh 125Sb 137Cs Total 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 0.0051 0.0034

- a 0.0057 0.0012 0.036 0.033 0.027 0.053 0.025 0.11 0.12 0.37 0.012 0.0038 0.15 0.50 0.030 0.0011 0.0041 0.021 0.0086 0.0030 0.0043 0.0053 0.0028 0.012 0.0017 0.011 0.012 0.0028 0.0017 0.0006 0.081 0.055 0.091 0.020 0.0001 0.56 0.50 0.51 1.08 0.39 1.89 1.87 6.09 0.29 0.061 2.33 8.23 0.85 0.017 0.07 0.34 0.16 0.06 0.11 0.11 0.054 0.19 0.039 0.18 0.0003 0.19 0.067 0.024 0.012 0.0025 0.0018 0.0001 0.0017 0.0003 0.012 0.014 0.024 0.041 0.009 0.052 0.068 0.18 0.046 0.0012 0.067 0.33 0.15 0.0006 0.0026 0.011 0.0084 0.0035 0.011 0.0081 0.0064 0.0076 0.0027 0.0069 0.0006 0.0051 0.0085 0.0006 0.0003 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.15 0.14 0.29 0.65 0.14 0.71 0.64 2.19 0.62 0.02 0.55 3.03 1.75 0.018 0.024 0.10 0.087 0.038 0.12 0.090 0.080 0.073 0.027 0.067 0.009 0.045 0.098 0.010 0.006 0.10 0.10 0.020 0.082 0.021 0.0074 0.52 0.69 1.58 2.67 1.00 2.89 4.01 10.1 6.32 0.32 2.32 19.0 20.2 1.37 0.17 0.53 0.61 0.41 1.11 0.93 0.93 0.51 0.20 0.51 0.16 0.18 0.96 0.12 0.020 0.0014 0.0034 0.0026 0.0025 0.0019 0.0011 0.0089 0.020 0.057 0.10 0.16 0.17 0.21 0.37 0.55 0.33 0.18 0.63 1.63 1.38 0.74 0.34 0.16 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.094 0.051 0.050 0.039 0.022 0.055 0.053 0.029 0.0014 0.0038 0.059 0.11 0.15 0.20 0.31 0.53 0.86 0.58 0.32 1.83 4.54 4.17 2.41 1.19 0.56 0.29 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.12 0.065 0.067 0.056 0.031 0.068 0.071 0.041 0.0030 0.0082 0.0075 0.0095 0.0085 0.0056 0.028 0.056 0.18 0.39 0.72 0.75 0.80 1.15 1.64 1.15 0.70 1.54 3.86 3.82 2.47 1.39 0.77 0.47 0.36 0.36 0.37 0.30 0.18 0.16 0.13 0.08 0.14 0.15 0.10 0.0004 0.0014 0.0017 0.0021 0.0023 0.0020 0.0053 0.011 0.034 0.079 0.17 0.23 0.26 0.35 0.48 0.46 0.39 0.51 0.99 1.27 1.19 1.00 0.81 0.65 0.53 0.45 0.39 0.33 0.27 0.23 0.19 0.15 0.13 0.12 0.10 0.0007 0.0029 0.0041 0.0055 0.0068 0.0071 0.014 0.027 0.078 0.19 0.45 0.68 0.86 1.14 1.65 1.86 1.96 2.46 3.49 4.53 4.98 5.15 5.16 5.13 5.11 5.09 5.08 5.04 4.96 4.89 4.83 4.73 4.65 4.60 4.53 0.22 0.20 0.037 0.23 0.068 0.025 1.34 1.48 2.84 5.36 3.21 7.67 9.16 22.4 12.5 4.79 8.97 38.1 37.5 16.6 12.1 10.1 8.34 7.15 7.66 7.35 7.21 6.68 5.80 6.17 5.40 5.45 6.19 5.16 4.84 ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 224

Table 13 (continued)

Year Worldwide average annual effective dose (Sv) 131I 140Ba,La 141Ce 103Ru 95Zr,Nb 144Ce,Pr 54Mn 106Ru,Rh 125Sb 137Cs Total a

Estimated value less than 0.0001 Sv.

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 0.013 0.0001 0.21 0.013 0.0056 0.0042 0.044 0.048 0.18 0.46 0.0017 0.015 0.026 0.011 0.0044 0.0018 0.0007 0.0003 0.0001 0.0001 0.021 0.016 0.0071 0.0032 0.0014 0.0006 0.0003 0.0001 0.0001 0.057 0.072 0.037 0.019 0.0094 0.0048 0.0024 0.0012 0.0006 0.0003 0.0002 0.0001 0.083 0.073 0.056 0.044 0.034 0.026 0.020 0.016 0.012 0.0095 0.0074 0.0057 0.0044 0.0034 0.0027 0.0021 0.0016 0.0012 0.0010 0.0008 4.44 4.36 4.27 4.18 4.09 4.00 3.91 3.82 3.73 3.65 3.57 3.49 3.41 3.33 3.25 3.18 3.11 3.04 2.97 2.90 5.07 5.07 4.39 4.25 4.14 4.03 3.93 3.84 3.75 3.66 3.57 3.49 3.41 3.33 3.26 3.18 3.11 3.04 2.97 2.90 1945-1999 2000-2099 2100-2199 2200-1.58 26.7 1.09 12.0 81.3 7.94 19.2 24.5 12.2 0.003 166 114 11.4 1.3 353 114 11.4 1.3 1945-1.58 26.7 1.09 12.0 81.3 7.94 19.2 24.5 12.2 292 479 ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 225

Table 14 Ingestion exposure to radionuclides produced in atmospheric nuclear testing Year Worldwide average annual effective dose (Sv) 131I 140Ba,La 89Sr 55Fe 90Sr 137Cs Total 3H 14C Total 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 0.21 0.14

- a 0.23 0.051 1.45 1.33 1.11 2.16 1.03 4.59 4.69 14.8 0.49 0.16 5.89 20.4 1.21 0.046 0.17 0.87 0.35 0.12 0.17 0.21 0.11 0.47 0.069 0.44 0.48 0.11 0.068 0.023 0.0016 0.0011 0.0017 0.0004 0.011 0.010 0.010 0.021 0.0075 0.036 0.036 0.12 0.0056 0.0012 0.045 0.16 0.016 0.0003 0.0013 0.0066 0.0030 0.0012 0.0021 0.0021 0.0010 0.0037 0.0007 0.0034 0.0036 0.0013 0.0005 0.0002 0.0032 0.0028 0.0004 0.0042 0.0009 0.0003 0.021 0.019 0.05 0.10 0.028 0.10 0.10 0.32 0.13 0.0048 0.067 0.45 0.36 0.010 0.0036 0.014 0.014 0.0072 0.022 0.017 0.017 0.011 0.0044 0.011 0.0023 0.0056 0.019 0.0021 0.0009 0.0001 0.0003 0.0052 0.012 0.022 0.033 0.049 0.079 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.25 0.63 0.86 0.82 0.69 0.56 0.44 0.35 0.29 0.23 0.19 0.15 0.12 0.10 0.077 0.065 0.057 0.046 0.0044 0.0088 0.0059 0.0082 0.010 0.0060 0.034 0.072 0.18 0.53 1.02 1.32 1.46 1.77 2.50 2.45 1.94 3.11 5.58 6.56 5.47 4.45 3.83 3.57 3.42 3.30 3.22 3.00 2.72 2.60 2.50 2.30 2.19 2.15 2.02 0.027 0.040 0.016 0.032 0.031 0.0063 0.18 0.32 0.92 2.69 4.69 5.25 5.10 6.06 9.15 6.53 3.62 10.3 21.9 21.8 12.7 6.29 3.32 2.71 2.57 2.70 2.86 2.17 1.33 1.55 1.57 1.10 1.25 1.57 1.25 0.24 0.19 0.022 0.28 0.093 0.013 1.69 1.75 2.28 5.53 6.80 11.3 11.4 23.2 12.4 9.27 11.7 34.6 29.7 29.3 19.2 12.3 8.07 6.85 6.54 6.51 6.44 5.85 4.28 4.73 4.18 3.97 3.64 3.85 3.33 0

0 0

0 0

0 0.2 0.7 0.2 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.4 0.7 7.2 2.7 1.6 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.09 0

0 0

0 0

0 0.06 0.1 0.3 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.6 1.9 2.0 2.9 5.5 7.4 7.7 7.5 7.1 6.6 6.1 5.5 5.0 4.6 4.3 4.0 3.8 3.5 3.3 3.1 2.9 2.6 0

0 0

0 0

0 0.06 0.3 1.0 0.8 1.5 1.7 2.4 2.7 2.4 3.6 12.7 10.1 9.3 8.7 8.1 7.4 6.7 6.1 5.4 5.0 4.6 4.3 4.0 3.7 3.4 3.3 3.0 2.7 ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 226

Table 14 (continued)

Year Worldwide average annual effective dose (Sv) 131I 140Ba,La 89Sr 55Fe 90Sr 137Cs Total 3H 14C Total a

Indicates estimated value less than 0.0001 Sv.

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 0.53 0.0038 0.0040 0.0002 0.0053 0.0092 0.037 0.029 1.85 1.77 1.66 1.53 1.44 1.35 1.26 1.18 1.11 1.04 0.98 0.92 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.67 0.63 0.59 0.56 0.92 0.98 0.85 0.67 0.63 0.57 0.52 0.50 0.48 0.47 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35 3.35 2.79 2.51 2.20 2.07 1.92 1.78 1.68 1.59 1.51 1.43 1.36 1.29 1.22 1.16 1.10 1.05 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.009 0.009 2.5 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.3 2.3 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.1 2.1 2.0 2.0 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.7 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.3 2.3 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.1 2.1 2.0 2.0 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.7 1945-1999 2000-2099 2100-2199 2200-64.2 0.51 1.9 6.6 97.0 8.6 0.02 154 10 0.50 0.03 324 19 0.52 0.03 23.7 0.10 144 120 50 2 180 167 120 50 2 180 1945-64.2 0.51 1.9 6.6 106 165 344 23.8 2 494 2 517 ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 227

a Estimated value less than 0.0001 Sv.

Table 15 Inhalation exposure to radionuclides produced in atmospheric nuclear testing Year Worldwide average annual effective dose (Sv) 131I 140Ba 141Ce 103Ru 89Sr 91Y 95Zr 144Ce 54Mn 106Ru 125Sb 55Fe 90Sr 137Cs Pu, Am Total 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 0.0083 0.0059

- a 0.0096 0.0020 0.058 0.055 0.042 0.087 0.042 0.19 0.20 0.60 0.0002 0.0063 0.24 0.84 0.025 0.0018 0.0067 0.037 0.013 0.0036 0.0069 0.0086 0.0046 0.019 0.0028 0.018 0.021 0.004 0.0033 0.0003 0.022 0.0012 0.0009 0.0014 0.0003 0.0085 0.0083 0.0065 0.016 0.0063 0.028 0.030 0.092 0.0003 0.0009 0.037 0.13 0.0062 0.0003 0.0010 0.0054 0.0022 0.0008 0.0017 0.0017 0.0008 0.0028 0.0006 0.0027 0.0031 0.0008 0.0005 0.0001 0.0033 0.0019 0.0012 0.0012 0.0003 0.011 0.013 0.012 0.030 0.0087 0.037 0.056 0.14 0.0096 0.0008 0.072 0.26 0.053 0.0003 0.0018 0.0085 0.0054 0.0024 0.0084 0.0059 0.0033 0.0051 0.0021 0.0050 0.0001 0.0055 0.0044 0.0004 0.0001 0.0060 0.0008 0.0021 0.0015 0.0024 0.0005 0.015 0.015 0.017 0.053 0.012 0.059 0.058 0.19 0.015 0.0016 0.073 0.27 0.074 0.0006 0.0018 0.0094 0.0061 0.0030 0.010 0.0074 0.0048 0.0052 0.0026 0.0053 0.0002 0.0057 0.0058 0.0007 0.0002 0.0060 0.0012 0.0052 0.0036 0.0059 0.0013 0.036 0.036 0.048 0.15 0.032 0.15 0.15 0.45 0.062 0.0041 0.18 0.71 0.29 0.0028 0.0044 0.023 0.017 0.0093 0.032 0.024 0.017 0.013 0.0075 0.015 0.0008 0.014 0.020 0.0018 0.0006 0.015 0.005 0.0076 0.0053 0.0086 0.0018 0.052 0.052 0.077 0.23 0.052 0.23 0.23 0.72 0.12 0.0063 0.27 1.10 0.53 0.0075 0.0064 0.035 0.027 0.016 0.054 0.041 0.032 0.020 0.012 0.023 0.002 0.020 0.036 0.0028 0.0009 0.021 0.009 0.0001 0.0052 0.0034 0.0033 0.0007 0.029 0.034 0.048 0.11 0.034 0.14 0.17 0.42 0.097 0.0029 0.27 0.80 0.47 0.0080 0.0088 0.0237 0.025 0.0086 0.052 0.031 0.023 0.017 0.013 0.014 0.0013 0.015 0.030 0.0014 0.0004 0.016 0.038 0.025 0.0003 0.024 0.0050 0.0002 0.20 0.24 0.56 1.28 1.06 1.45 1.98 4.35 3.11 0.54 1.60 9.93 15.3 4.29 0.88 0.33 0.26 0.36 0.81 0.84 0.81 0.31 0.15 0.36 0.12 0.12 0.66 0.17 0.035 0.12 0.17 0.016 0.0020 0.0003 0.0002 0.0005 0.0011 0.0008 0.0020 0.0024 0.0054 0.0048 0.0009 0.0017 0.028 0.037 0.012 0.0026 0.0006 0.0003 0.0004 0.0010 0.0008 0.0008 0.0002 0.0002 0.0004 0.0001 0.0001 0.0008 0.0002 0.0001 0.022 0.016 0.0002 0.026 0.0054 0.0002 0.15 0.15 0.52 1.33 1.30 1.28 1.36 2.99 2.13 0.47 0.92 5.63 9.31 3.17 0.79 0.27 0.17 0.23 0.48 0.52 0.51 0.21 0.10 0.22 0.08 0.075 0.38 0.13 0.031 0.067 0.102 0.012 0.0018 0.0271 0.0001 0.0003 0.0003 0.0010 0.0026 0.0034 0.0031 0.0031 0.0058 0.0049 0.0016 0.0020 0.011 0.021 0.011 0.0040 0.0015 0.0007 0.0007 0.0011 0.0013 0.0013 0.0006 0.0003 0.0005 0.0002 0.0002 0.0008 0.0004 0.0001 0.0001 0.0002 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0005 0.0006 0.0002 0.0002 0.0029 0.0047 0.0025 0.0009 0.0003 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0033 0.0024 0.0038 0.0008 0.022 0.023 0.097 0.26 0.38 0.35 0.35 0.46 0.75 0.20 0.26 1.04 1.87 1.20 0.57 0.25 0.13 0.15 0.11 0.15 0.14 0.067 0.025 0.088 0.043 0.021 0.059 0.072 0.023 0.022 0.032 0.0094 0.0066 0.0053 0.0016 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0008 0.0008 0.0035 0.0092 0.014 0.013 0.013 0.017 0.027 0.0070 0.0093 0.037 0.067 0.043 0.020 0.0088 0.0045 0.0052 0.0041 0.0055 0.0051 0.0024 0.0009 0.0031 0.0016 0.0007 0.0021 0.0026 0.0008 0.0008 0.0011 0.0003 0.0002 0.0002 0.0001 0.014 0.010 0.0002 0.016 0.003 0.0002 0.090 0.092 0.40 1.05 1.55 1.43 1.43 1.89 3.09 0.81 1.06 4.24 7.66 4.90 2.34 1.01 0.52 0.59 0.47 0.63 0.59 0.28 0.10 0.36 0.18 0.084 0.24 0.29 0.094 0.090 0.13 0.038 0.027 0.022 0.0065 0.10 0.078 0.006 0.097 0.026 0.002 0.63 0.72 1.81 4.51 4.61 5.21 6.00 12.0 9.91 2.15 4.65 24.3 36.2 14.2 4.63 1.98 1.18 1.39 1.99 2.29 2.15 0.95 0.43 1.11 0.44 0.37 1.43 0.71 0.19 0.37 0.48 0.048 0.034 0.027 0.008 Total 2.58 0.40 0.77 0.93 2.56 4.07 2.92 52.5 0.11 35.2 0.085 0.014 9.22 0.33 37.8 149 ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 228

Table 16 Annual effective dose from radionuclides produced in atmospheric nuclear testing Year Average annual effective dose (Sv)

Northern hemisphere Southern hemisphere World External Ingestion a Inhalation Total External Ingestion a Inhalation Total External Ingestion a Inhalation Total 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 0.25 0.22 0.042 0.26 0.077 0.028 1.50 1.65 3.17 5.88 3.52 8.40 9.38 24.2 13.6 5.26 9.98 39.6 41.3 18.3 13.3 10.9 9.01 7.66 8.25 7.77 7.63 7.21 6.24 6.53 5.82 5.95 6.79 5.64 5.28 5.54 5.55 4.78 0.27 0.21 0.025 0.31 0.10 0.014 1.90 2.02 2.92 7.17 8.26 14.0 13.5 27.7 16.6 12.6 16.7 50.0 43.7 42.3 30.4 21.8 16.7 14.6 13.6 12.7 12.2 11.2 9.17 9.27 8.51 7.97 7.43 7.39 6.56 6.46 5.77 5.41 0.12 0.087 0.0046 0.11 0.027 0.0016 0.72 0.80 2.01 4.95 5.03 5.76 6.40 13.2 10.8 2.30 5.23 26.5 40.2 15.6 5.04 2.07 1.23 1.42 2.11 2.38 2.25 1.00 0.43 1.16 0.46 0.41 1.59 0.79 0.21 0.41 0.52 0.083 0.64 0.52 0.071 0.68 0.21 0.043 4.12 4.48 8.10 18.0 16.8 28.2 29.3 65.2 41.0 20.2 31.9 116 125 76.2 48.7 34.8 26.9 23.7 24.0 22.9 22.1 19.4 15.8 17.0 14.8 14.3 15.8 13.8 12.0 12.4 11.8 10.3

- b 0.0016 0.082 0.14 1.14 0.66 1.83 7.38 7.82 2.98 0.97 0.83 25.3 6.62 2.14 1.78 3.25 2.93 3.03 2.93 3.88 3.78 2.39 2.23 3.22 2.06 1.43 1.36 1.32 1.27 1.24 1.21 1.18 0.0010 0.15 0.34 1.35 1.89 3.03 9.47 8.15 4.17 3.45 3.79 25.5 7.36 8.32 8.53 9.11 5.68 4.84 4.49 5.62 5.08 4.21 3.54 4.08 2.72 2.47 2.33 2.20 2.03 1.92 1.87 1.81 0.0014 0.032 0.17 1.28 0.79 1.15 2.72 2.99 1.16 0.76 0.65 8.16 2.73 2.02 1.38 1.24 0.76 1.15 1.09 1.53 1.31 0.59 0.36 0.69 0.24 0.093 0.091 0.072 0.040 0.036 0.030 0.022 0.0039 0.27 0.65 3.77 3.34 6.01 19.6 19.0 8.31 5.18 5.26 59.0 16.7 12.5 11.7 13.6 9.37 9.02 8.52 11.0 10.2 7.19 6.14 7.98 5.01 4.00 3.78 3.59 3.34 3.20 3.11 3.01 0.22 0.20 0.037 0.23 0.068 0.025 1.34 1.48 2.84 5.36 3.21 7.67 9.16 22.4 12.5 4.79 8.97 38.1 37.5 16.6 12.1 10.1 8.34 7.15 7.66 7.35 7.21 6.68 5.80 6.17 5.40 5.45 6.19 5.16 4.84 5.07 5.07 4.39 0.24 0.19 0.02 0.28 0.09 0.01 1.69 1.81 2.58 6.53 7.60 12.8 13.1 25.6 15.1 11.7 15.3 47.3 39.8 38.6 27.9 20.4 15.5 13.6 12.6 11.9 11.4 10.4 8.58 8.73 7.88 7.37 6.94 6.85 6.02 5.93 5.36 4.97 0.10 0.077 0.0041 0.10 0.024 0.0014 0.64 0.72 1.81 4.55 4.57 5.26 6.00 12.1 9.75 2.13 4.73 24.5 36.0 14.1 4.63 1.98 1.18 1.39 1.99 2.28 2.15 0.96 0.42 1.11 0.44 0.37 1.43 0.71 0.19 0.37 0.47 0.076 0.57 0.47 0.06 0.60 0.19 0.039 3.67 4.01 7.23 16.4 15.4 25.8 28.3 60.1 37.3 18.6 29.0 110 113 69.3 44.6 32.5 25.0 22.1 22.3 21.5 20.8 18.1 14.8 16.0 13.7 13.2 14.6 12.7 11.1 11.4 10.9 9.43 ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 229

Table 16 (continued)

Year Average annual effective dose (Sv)

Northern hemisphere Southern hemisphere World External Ingestion a Inhalation Total External Ingestion a Inhalation Total External Ingestion a Inhalation Total a

Includes contribution from globally dispersed 3H and 14C.

b Estimated value less than 0.0001 Sv.

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 4.64 4.51 4.40 4.29 4.18 4.08 3.99 3.90 3.81 3.72 3.63 3.55 3.47 3.39 3.31 3.24 3.16 5.01 4.79 4.57 4.36 4.19 4.04 3.90 3.76 3.63 3.50 3.37 3.26 3.14 3.03 2.92 2.81 2.71 0.040 0.060 0.0087 0.0006 0.0003 9.69 9.36 8.98 8.65 8.38 8.12 7.89 7.65 7.43 7.22 7.01 6.81 6.61 6.42 6.23 6.05 5.87 1.15 1.12 1.10 1.07 1.05 1.02 1.00 0.97 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.79 1.77 1.72 1.68 1.64 1.62 1.61 1.60 1.60 1.61 1.62 1.63 1.65 1.68 1.72 1.76 1.82 1.89 0.018 0.010 0.005 0.0003 0.0002 2.93 2.85 2.78 2.71 2.66 2.63 2.60 2.58 2.56 2.55 2.54 2.54 2.55 2.57 2.59 2.63 2.68 4.03 3.93 3.84 3.75 3.66 3.57 3.49 3.41 3.33 3.26 3.18 3.11 3.04 2.97 2.90 4.65 4.41 4.26 4.01 3.91 3.82 3.63 3.55 3.38 3.31 3.14 3.07 3.01 2.86 2.81 2.66 2.61 0.038 0.055 0.008 0.0006 0.0002 8.94 8.60 8.30 7.94 7.75 7.57 7.29 7.12 6.87 6.72 6.48 6.33 6.20 5.97 5.85 5.63 5.51 1945-1999 2000-2099 2100-2199 2200-382 124 12 1.4 531 141 51 2 180 164 1 076 264 63 2 181 115 31 3.1 0.3 178 126 50 2 180 35 328 157 53 2 180 353 114 11 1.3 492 139 51 2 180 149 994 253 62 2 181 1945-520 2 900 164 3 580 149 2 530 35 2 720 479 2 860 149 3 490 ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 230

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 231 a

Exposures from Bravo test of 28 February 1954 to residents of Rongelap, Utrik, and Ailinginae atolls.

b External exposure to local population only.

c Population in settlements bordering the test site. The extended population of Semipalatinsk and Altai regions was 1.7 million in 1960.

d Maralinga, Emu, and Monte Bello Island.

a Assumed to be geometric mean of range.

Table 17 Local doses from atmospheric nuclear testing Test site Population Maximum absorbed dose in thyroid of children (Gy)

Maximum effective dose (Sv)

Collective effective dose (man Sv)

Ref.

United States Nevada Pacific a 180 000 245 1

200 1.9 500 b 160

[A1]

[L4]

Former USSR Semipalatinsk 10 000 c 20 4 600

[T1]

United Kingdom Australian sites d 700

[W1]

Table 18 Distribution of cumulative effective doses to individuals exposed in local areas downwind of the Nevada test site

[A1]

Effective dose (mSv)

Number of individuals Collective effective dose (man Sv)

Range Mean a 19511958 19611963 19511958 19611963

<0.060.6 0.63 36 630 3060 6090 0.2 1.3 4.2 13 42 73 61 000 80 000 19 000 20 000 520 45 180 000 480 0

0 0

0 12 104 80 260 22 3.2 36 0.6 Total (rounded) 180 000 180 000 460 40 Table 19 Estimated local exposures from atmospheric nuclear tests conducted by France at the South Pacific test site

[B8]

Location Date of test Population Effective dose (mSv)

Collective effective dose (man Sv)

External Inhalation Ingestion Total Gambier Islands 2 July 1966 8 August 1971 40 68 3.4 0.9 0.18 0.002 1.9 0.24 5.5 1.2 0.2 0.5 Tureia Atoll 2 July 1967 12 June 1971 516 545 0.7 0.9 0.023 0.003 0.17 0.043 0.9 1.3 0.7 0.08 Tahiti (Mahina) 17 July 1974 84,000 0.6 0.08 0.06 0.8 67 Total 70

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 232 a

Includes cratering tests carried out by the United States and the USSR, some of which released radionuclides to the atmosphere.

Table 20 Effective dose estimates from external exposures at locations 400800 km downwind of the Lop Nor test site

[Z1]

City Population Distance from test site (km)

Absorbed dose in air (mGy)

Effective dose (mSv)

Xihu

)

Anxi

)

Tashi

)

Qiaowan Yumenzhen

)

Yumanshi

)

Jinta Jiayuguan 60 000 (Village) 159 000 99 000 89 000 500 500 560 600 740 720 0.07 0.06 0.10 0.14 0.12 0.02 0.45 0.44 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.04 0.03 0.006 0.11 0.11 Table 21 Underground nuclear tests a Year Number of tests China France India Pakistan United Kingdom United States USSR 1955 1957 1958 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1

1 1

1 1

2 2

1 1

2 2

1 2

2 2

1 1

3 3

4 1

2 5

9 11 10 12 12 10 9

8 8

8 8

8 9

6 6

5 1

1 5

6 2

2 1

1 1

2 1

3 1

1 1

2 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

5 14 10 57 45 48 39 49 42 72 61 60 28 32 27 25 23 20 23 20 15 14 16 18 19 18 17 14 16 18 15 10 9

8 1

1 9

15 19 23 23 24 21 29 31 22 27 35 27 36 55 52 43 37 34 37 52 10 39 29 11 8

Total 22 160 6

6 24 908 750 All countries 1 876

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 233 a

Includes 5 safety tests.

b Includes 12 safety tests.

c Includes 22 safety tests and 2 combat explosions.

a Radionuclide composition included, additionally, 89Sr (8.8%) and other (27.9%).

Table 22 Summary of nuclear testing Country Number of tests Yield (Mt)

Atmospheric Underground Total Atmospheric Underground Total China France India Pakistan United Kingdom United States USSR 22 50 a

33 b 219 c 219 22 160 6

6 24 908 750 44 210 6

6 57 1 127 969 20.7 10.2 8.1 154 247 1

3 2

46 38 22 13 10 200 285 All countries 543 1 876 2 419 440 90 530 Table 23 Radionuclide releases and estimated local exposures from nuclear weapons material production and fabrication plants in the United States Location Release period Airborne release (GBq)

Liquid release (GBq)

Cumulative effective dose (mSv)

Reference Airborne Liquid Fernald 19541980 50150 (U)

[S5]

Oak Ridge 19421984

1 000 000 (131I) 25 400 (137Cs)

[H9, W5]

Rocky Flats 19531983 (routine) 1957 (fire) 19651969 (storage area) 8.8 (U) / 1.7 (Pu) 1.9 (Pu) 260 (Pu) 0.0015 0.013 0.072

[R3]

[M4]

[M5]

Hanford 19441987 27 300 000 (131I) 481 000 000 (24Na) 12 15

[H4, S3]

Savannah River 19541989 140 (Pu) 23 (Pu) 0.12 0.0024

[C1]

Table 24 Releases of radioactive materials associated with the early operation of the materials production complex at Chelyabinsk-40 in the eastern Urals region of the Russian Federation

[D5, K4, N8]

Circumstances of release Time period Radionuclide composition (%)

Total activity release (PBq) 90Sr 95Zr 106Ru 137Cs 144Ce Routine operation Atmospheric effluents Liquid effluents to Techa River a 19481956 19491956 11.6 13.6 25.9 12.2 100 Accident at waste storage site 1957 5.4 24.9 3.7 0.036 66.0 74 Resuspension from shoreline of Lake Karachay 1967 34 48 18 0.022

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 234 a

Dry weight.

Table 25 Estimated collective effective dose from operation of weapons material production centres in the former Soviet Union [D5, K4, K5, N8]

Production centre Time period Population exposed Collective effective dose (man Sv)

Chelyabinsk Discharges to Techa River Waste storage accident 19491956 1957 28 000 273 000 6 200 2 500 Krasnoyarsk Discharges to Yenesei River 19581991 200 000 1 200 Tomsk Discharges to Tom/Ob Rivers 19581992 400 000 200 Total 10 100 Table 26 Present (19901993) levels of contamination surrounding the Chelyabinsk site [K4]

Location Material Deposition density (kBq m2)

Concentration (Bq kg1) 90Sr 137Cs 90Sr 137Cs Techa River Water Bottom sediments Fish 723 402 000 a 50560 0.060.23 100280 000 a 410 Eastern Urals Agricultural areas Soil Potatoes Grain Milk Beef 3.774 7.437 0.26.7 0.512.6 0.26.3 0.21.7 0.53.8 0.32.9 0.24.5 0.32.6 Forest areas Soil Mushrooms Berries 3774 000 37740 4001 100 70016 000 1101 600 150 Lakes removed from use Water Bottom sediments Fish 17120 70 000110 000 0.7 250860 a 1 700 Lakes of multipurpose use Water Bottom sediments Fish 0.100.34 20300 a 30220 0.060.36 80240 a 826 Table 27 Present (19931996) exposures from nuclear materials production/processing centres in the Russian Federation [B7, K4]

Installation Population Annual effective dose (mSv)

Annual collective effective dose (man Sv)

External Internal Total Chelyabinsk Krasnoyarsk Tomsk 320 000 200 000 400 000 0.01 0.03 0.0004 0.10 0.02 0.005 0.11 0.05 0.0054 35 10 2.2

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 235 a

Values in parentheses are estimates.

b Uranium is produced as a byproduct from imported phosphates.

c Decommissioning product.

a Normalization basis: production, 250 t (GW a)1; tailings, 1 ha (GWa)1.

b Dose coefficient: 0.0025 man Sv TBq1.

c Normalized release rate: TBq a1 (GWa)1.

d Assuming release period of five years.

e Assuming release period of 10,000 years and unchanging population density.

Table 28 Production of uranium

[O1]

Country Annual production of uranium (t) a 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Argentina Australia Belgium b Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Czech Republic France Gabon Germany Hungary India Kazakhstan Mongolia Namibia Niger Pakistan Portugal Romania Russian Federation Slovenia South Africa Spain Ukraine United States Uzbekistan 9

3 530 39 5

405 8 729 (800) 2 142 2 841 709 2 972 524 (230)

(7 120) 89 3 211 2 839 (30) 111 210 3 780 53 2 460 213 (1 000) 3 420 (2 100) 18 3 776 38 0

240 8 160 (800) 1 778 2 477 678 1 207 415 (200)

(7 350) 101 2 450 2 963 (30) 28 160 3 050 0

1 712 196 (1 000) 3 060 2 100 123 2 334 36 0

150 9 297 (955) 1 539 2 149 589 232 430 150 (2 802) 105 1 660 2 965 (23) 28 120 2 640 2 c 1 669 187 1 000 2 170 2 680 126 2 256 34 24 100 9 155 (780) 950 1 730 556 116 380 148 2 700 54 1 679 2 914 (23) 32 (120) 2 697 0

1 699 184 1 000 1 180 2 600 80 2 208 40 106 70 9 647 (780) 541 1 053 650 47 413 155 2 240 72 1 895 2 975 (23) 24 120 2 541 0

1 671 256 1 000 1 279 2 015 65 3 712 25 106 0

10 473 (500) 600 1 016 652 35 210 (155) 1 630 20 2 016 2 974 (23) 18 120 2 160 0

1 421 255 1 000 2 324 1 644 28 4 974 28 0

0 11 788 (500) 598 940 560 40 200 (200) 1 320 0

2 452 3 160 (23) 15 100 2 000 0

1 436 255 500 2 420 1 459 35 5 520 27 0

0 12 029 (500) 590 748 472 40 200 (200) 1 000 0

2 905 3 497 (23) 17 100 (2 000) 0 1 100 255 500 2 170 2 000 Total 49 571 43 987 36 035 33 237 31 611 33 154 34 996 35 692 Table 29 Radon releases in airborne effluents and collective dose from uranium mining and milling Source Release per unit production (GBq t1)

Release rate per unit area (Bq s1 m2)

Normalized release a

[TBq (GWa)1]

Normalized collective effective dose

[man Sv (GWa)1] b Mining 300 75 0.19 Milling 13 3

0.0075 Mill tailings Operational mill Closed mill 10 1

3 c 0.3 c 0.04 d 7.5 e

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 236 Table 30 Worldwide installed capacity and electrical energy generated by nuclear reactors

[I3]

Country Capacity (GW)

Electrical energy generated (GW a) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 PWRs Armenia Armenia 1-2 0.376 0

0 0

0 0

0 0.239 0.163 Belgium Doel 1-4 Tihange 1-3 2.71 2.791 2.191 2.442 2.284 2.359 2.296 2.413 2.080 2.468 1.923 2.489 2.221 2.266 2.235 2.472 2.478 2.643 Brazil Angra 1 0.626 0.235 0.149 0.172 0.046 0.005 0.266 0.261 0.341 Bulgaria Kozloduy 1-6 3.538 1.542 1.387 1.213 1.417 1.612 1.852 1.919 1.877 China Guangdong 1-2 Qinshan Maanshan 1-2 1.812 0.288 1.78 1.397 1.446 1.369 0.199 1.462 1.331 0.188 1.522 1.149 0.236 1.468 1.316 0.237 1.585 1.416 0.230 1.411 Czech Republic Dukovany 1-4 1.632 1.343 1.272 1.398 1.441 1.481 1.396 1.375 1.426 Finland Loviisa 1-2 0.89 0.743 0.776 0.751 0.798 0.756 0.736 0.779 0.868 France Belleville 1-2 Blayais 1-4 Bugey 2-5 Cattenom 1-4 Chinon B1-B4 Chooz-A (Ardennes)

Chooz B1-B2 Cruas 1-4 Dampierre 1-4 Fessenheim 1-2 Flamanville 1-2 Golfech 1-2 Gravelines 1-6 Nogent 1-2 Paluel 1-4 Penly 1-2 St. Alban 1-2 St. Laurent B1-B2 Tricastin 1-4 2.62 3.64 3.64 5.2 3.55 0.305 3.555 3.56 1.76 2.66 2.62 5.46 2.62 5.32 2.66 2.67 1.795 3.66 1.625 2.541 2.076 1.994 2.585 0.169 2.663 2.078 0.980 1.702 0.208 3.995 1.615 3.334 0.330 1.583 1.288 2.554 1.888 2.688 1.908 2.385 2.494 0.152 2.350 2.486 1.069 1.581 1.089 3.918 1.735 3.563 0.963 1.815 1.147 2.381 1.913 2.556 1.380 3.718 2.825 0

2.490 2.461 0.807 1.878 0.807 3.943 1.841 3.195 1.492 1.277 1.268 2.673 1.917 2.582 2.355 3.579 2.598 0

2.579 2.700 1.293 1.973 1.154 3.976 1.929 3.786 1.899 1.576 1.223 2.698 1.691 2.315 2.306 3.624 2.573 0

2.547 2.345 1.311 1.773 1.717 4.012 1.687 3.276 1.910 1.678 1.418 2.703 1.792 2.841 2.415 3.713 2.884 0

2.547 2.513 1.250 1.898 1.704 4.245 1.701 3.742 1.946 1.859 1.114 2.784 1.666 3.081 2.367 4.078 2.789 0

2.802 2.666 1.411 2.053 2.041 4.070 1.907 3.398 2.202 1.880 1.324 2.991 2.088 2.977 2.548 4.038 2.842 0

0.998 2.485 2.486 1.328 1.758 2.032 4.020 1.997 3.814 1.892 1.731 1.266 2.677 Germany Biblis A-B Brokdorf Emsland Grafenrheinfeld Greifswald Grohnde Isar 2 Mülheim-Krlich Neckarwestheim 1-2 Obrigheim Philippsburg 2 Stade Unterweser 2.386 1.326 1.242 1.235 1.632 1.3 1.31 1.219 2.02 0.34 1.268 0.64 1.23 1.616 0.952 1.146 0.903 0

1.156 1.058 0

1.763 0.135 0.972 0.480 0.969 1.238 1.084 1.060 1.113 0

1.137 1.107 0

1.694 0.120 1.131 0.262 0.740 1.657 1.232 1.160 1.102 0

1.190 1.124 0

1.767 0.215 1.073 0.485 0.997 1.790 1.078 1.196 1.010 0

1.219 1.164 0

1.766 0.299 1.196 0.514 1.236 1.765 1.168 1.202 1.104 0

1.172 1.199 0

1.898 0.300 1.174 0.611 0.877 1.183 1.132 1.198 1.135 0

1.230 1.146 0

1.883 0.247 1.204 0.498 0.911 1.355 1.205 1.205 1.088 0

1.209 1.172 0

1.903 0.317 1.281 0.575 1.131 1.880 1.284 1.216 1.157 0

1.354 1.245 0

1.866 0.316 1.269 0.565 1.134 Hungary Paks 1-4 1.84 1.472 1.473 1.594 1.575 1.510 1.507 1.531 1.501

Table 30 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 237 Country Capacity (GW)

Electrical energy generated (GW a) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Japan Genkai 1-4 Ikata 1-3 Mihama 1-3 Ohi 1-4 Sendai 1-2 Takahama 1-4 Tomari 1-2 Tsuruga 2 2.185 1.922 1.57 4.49 1.692 3.22 1.10 1.115 0.843 0.952 1.356 1.385 1.406 2.277 0.514 0.822 0.809 0.904 0.807 1.671 1.285 2.140 0.778 1.057 0.771 0.815 0.655 2.780 1.491 2.462 0.832 0.924 0.964 0.809 0.707 3.614 1.420 2.520 0.987 0.895 1.751 1.198 0.934 3.379 1.295 2.341 0.961 0.892 1.746 1.691 0.768 2.855 1.306 2.552 0.926 1.053 1.759 1.460 1.195 3.845 1.432 2.415 0.877 0.921 2.420 1.648 1.318 3.346 1.503 2.631 0.982 0.745 Netherlands Borssele 0.481 0.329 0.311 0.323 0.380 0.379 0.387 0.402 0.248 Republic of Korea Kori 1-4 Ulchin 1-2 Yonggwang 1-4 2.951 1.84 3.7 2.388 1.337 1.468 2.415 1.588 1.530 2.457 1.604 1.522 2.500 1.622 1.559 2.502 1.572 1.754 2.563 1.708 2.389 2.623 1.686 3.185 2.458 1.582 3.298 Russian Federation Balakovo 1-4 Kalinin 1-2 Kola 1-4 Novovoronezh 2-5 3.8 1.9 1.644 1.72 1.362 1.368 1.317 1.033 1.674 1.280 1.279 1.064 2.038 1.402 1.139 1.049 1.730 1.232 1.085 1.183 1.565 1.016 0.774 0.793 1.428 1.195 0.982 0.940 1.936 1.030 0.938 1.015 1.763 1.036 0.933 1.234 Slovakia Bohunice 1-4 1.632 1.274 1.240 1.261 1.163 1.280 1.296 1.286 1.233 Slovenia Krsko 0.62 0.501 0.539 0.430 0.430 0.503 0.522 0.498 0.547 South Africa Koeberg 1-2 1.844 0.966 1.047 1.062 0.835 1.106 1.289 1.342 1.441 Spain Almaraz 1-2 Asco 1-2 José Cabrera 1 Trillo 1 Vandellos 2 1.86 1.86 0.16 1.07 1.00 1.611 1.549 0.109 0.727 0.837 1.625 1.556 0.120 0.740 0.820 1.515 1.593 0.128 0.906 0.767 1.626 1.542 0.104 0.844 0.789 1.579 1.583 0.002 0.905 0.823 1.530 1.448 0.040 0.853 0.864 1.504 1.596 0.112 0.871 0.857 1.448 1.636 0.093 0.886 0.827 Sweden Ringhals 2-4 2.63 1.987 2.177 1.969 1.790 2.211 1.966 2.153 2.184 Switzerland Beznau 1-2 Gsgen 0.7 0.94 0.593 0.814 0.584 0.815 0.554 0.846 0.549 0.846 0.656 0.875 0.618 0.893 0.629 0.905 0.662 0.910 Ukraine Khmelnitski 1 Rovno 1-3 South Ukraine 1-3 Zaporozhe 1-6 0.95 1.695 2.85 4.75 0.742 1.341 1.556 2.680 0.590 1.197 1.808 2.933 0.694 1.501 2.034 3.500 0.626 1.237 1.886 2.944 0.720 1.238 1.671 2.614 0.651 1.180 1.806 2.645 0.513 1.229 1.814 3.712 0.702 1.317 2.173 3.884 United Kingdom Sizewell B 1.188 0.614 0.966 0.959 United States Arkansas One 1-2 Beaver Valley 1-2 Braidwood 1-2 Byron 1-2 Callaway 1 Calvert Cliffs 1-2 Catawba 1-2 Comanche Peak 1-2 Crystal River 3 Davis-Besse 1 Diablo Canyon 1-2 Donald Cook 1-2 1.694 1.643 2.24 2.21 1.118 1.65 2.258 2.3 0.821 0.86 2.16 2.08 1.287 1.194 1.669 1.485 0.914 0.153 1.530 0.287 0.473 0.475 1.860 1.269 1.446 1.196 1.320 1.723 1.139 1.039 1.593 0.612 0.623 0.667 1.722 1.772 1.294 1.364 1.816 1.825 0.924 1.222 1.864 0.792 0.607 0.873 1.907 0.733 1.538 1.093 1.833 1.711 0.958 1.405 1.801 1.288 0.694 0.694 1.921 1.862 1.589 1.430 1.602 1.861 1.142 1.286 1.994 1.670 0.678 0.729 1.743 1.061 1.333 1.312 1.843 1.814 0.942 1.477 1.904 1.937 0.826 0.876 1.858 1.598 1.524 1.197 1.784 1.678 1.015 1.381 1.778 1.727 0.276 0.737 1.909 1.872 1.622 1.163 1.864 1.857 1.022 1.500 2.030 2.002 0

0.820 1.950 1.190

Table 30 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 238 Country Capacity (GW)

Electrical energy generated (GW a) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 United States (continued)

Farley 1-2 Fort Calhoun 1 R. E. Ginna Haddam Neck Harris 1 Indian Point 1-3 Kewaunee Maine Yankee McGuire 1-2 Millstone 2-3 North Anna 1-2 Oconee 1-2-3 Palisades Palo Verde 1-3 Point Beach 1-2 Prairie Island 1-2 Rancho Seco 1 H. B. Robinson 2 Salem 1-2 San Onofre 1-3 Seabrook 1 Sequoyah 1-2 South Texas 1-2 St. Lucie 1-2 Surry 1-2 Three Mile Island 1 Trojan Turkey Point 3-4 Virgil C. Summer 1 Vogtle 1-2 Waterford 3 Watts Bar Wolf Creek Yankee NPS Zion 1-2 1.654 0.478 0.47 0.565 0.86 1.829 0.503 0.81 2.258 2.005 1.83 2.538 0.73 3.663 0.97 1.003 0.873 0.665 2.212 2.586 1.15 2.296 2.5 1.678 1.562 0.808 1.095 1.332 0.885 2.166 1.075 1.170 1.135 0.167 2.08 1.391 0.276 0.394 0.136 0.724 1.171 0.445 0.555 1.284 1.544 1.508 2.300 0.343 2.351 0.836 0.871 0.004 0.379 1.307 1.881 0.467 1.601 1.430 1.124 1.211 0.607 0.697 0.887 0.698 1.623 0.982 0.901 0.094 0.810 1.388 0.371 0.398 0.423 0.677 1.276 0.420 0.715 1.868 0.779 1.519 2.174 0.556 2.865 0.835 0.967 0

0.547 1.652 1.882 0.778 1.894 1.656 1.509 1.207 0.647 0.171 0.244 0.610 1.872 0.830 0.673 0.113 1.072 1.265 0.290 0.398 0.444 0.620 1.443 0.450 0.612 1.629 1.064 1.334 2.017 0.555 2.923 0.830 0.767 0

0.464 1.148 2.118 0.898 1.790 2.010 1.435 1.330 0.792 0.526 0.921 0.858 1.959 0.870 0.969 0

1.082 1.384 0.354 0.399 0.427 0.859 0.813 0.436 0.655 1.411 1.461 1.360 2.301 0.405 2.515 0.873 0.927 0

0.479 1.307 1.688 1.033 0.386 0.155 1.160 1.230 0.681 0

1.188 0.697 1.973 1.043 0.903 0

1.406 1.508 0.470 0.385 0.434 0.692 0.872 0.452 0.757 1.774 1.495 1.631 2.044 0.515 2.645 0.874 0.944 0

0.531 1.300 2.107 0.708 1.365 1.626 1.346 1.272 0.752 0

1.115 0.509 2.072 0.905 0.976 0

1.176 1.238 0.384 0.415 0.418 0.681 0.727 0.433 0.023 2.049 1.225 1.583 2.261 0.532 3.080 0.819 0.969 0

0.575 0.528 1.598 0.957 1.794 2.195 1.235 1.286 0.729 0

1.256 0.863 2.186 0.886 1.149 0

1.415 1.471 0.357 0.331 0.317 0.807 1.564 0.362 0.578 1.806 0.402 1.492 1.764 0.607 3.293 0.794 0.939 0

0.623 0

1.985 1.124 1.938 2.361 1.393 1.509 0.811 0

1.246 0.817 1.962 1.019 0.633 0.940 0

1.477 1.451 0.436 0.445 0

0.675 0.858 0.270 0

1.559 0

1.711 1.567 0.662 3.369 0.192 0.818 0

0.707 0.293 1.541 0.907 1.946 2.266 1.395 1.380 0.676 0

1.221 0.830 2.121 0.767 0.868 0.964 0

0.123 BWRs China Chin Shan 1-2 Kuosheng 1-2 1.208 1.902 0.731 1.472 0.933 1.488 0.930 1.407 0.954 1.349 0.870 1.430 0.918 1.472 0.921 1.641 1.063 1.526 Finland Olkiluoto 1-2 1.465 1.325 1.325 1.323 1.348 1.337 1.333 1.353 1.421 Germany Brunsbüttel Gundremmingen B,C Isar 1 Krümmel Philippsburg 1 Würgassen 0.771 2.488 0.87 1.26 0.864 0.64 0.546 1.907 0.577 1.008 0.594 0.125 0.436 1.866 0.772 0.883 0.705 0.466 0.398 1.912 0.670 0.950 0.743 0.432 0

1.679 0.636 0.749 0.527 0.449 0

1.864 0.588 0.283 0.750 0.384 0.343 2.061 0.736 1.052 0.721 0

0.536 2.155 0.664 0.941 0.791 0

0.583 2.080 0.685 1.056 0.732 0

India Tarapur 1-2 0.3 0.206 0.162 0.181 0.199 0.128 0.198 0.087 0.201 Japan Fukushima Daiichi 1-6 Fukushima Daini 1-4 Hamaoka 1-4 Kashiwazaki Kariwa 1-7 Onagawa 1-2 Shika 1 Shimane 1-2 Tokai 2 Tsuruga 1 4.546 4.268 3.469 7.965 1.294 0.505 1.23 1.056 0.341 2.780 2.562 1.652 2.201 0.325 1.012 0.832 0.224 3.383 3.202 1.624 2.599 0.382 0.988 0.802 0.258 3.028 3.239 1.552 2.622 0.470 0.932 0.718 0.227 2.453 2.933 2.610 3.405 0.263 0.324 1.062 0.994 0.300 3.248 3.076 2.258 3.969 0.391 0.378 0.970 0.836 0.172 3.837 3.572 3.161 4.552 0.849 0.399 0.953 0.781 0.266 3.321 3.528 2.847 5.151 1.016 0.394 0.291 0.861 0.286 3.295 3.593 2.878 6.613 1.169 0.506 1.122 1.014 0.221

Table 30 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 239 Country Capacity (GW)

Electrical energy generated (GW a) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Mexico Laguna Verde 1-2 1.30 0.232 0.464 0.428 0.539 0.464 0.860 0.858 1.144 Netherlands Dodewaard 0.05 0.047 0.047 0.048 0.049 0.048 0.045 0.045 0.008 Spain Confrentes S. Maria de Garona 0.99 0.46 0.807 0.291 0.799 0.420 0.880 0.305 0.801 0.419 0.798 0.358 0.935 0.437 0.878 0.366 0.787 0.384 Sweden Barsebeck 1-2 Forsmark 1-3 Oskarshamn 1-3 Ringhals 1 1.2 3.008 2.207 0.75 0.974 2.355 1.619 0.517 1.040 2.661 1.871 0.644 0.629 2.484 1.473 0.386 0.682 2.534 1.250 0.456 0.946 2.774 1.477 0.615 0.899 2.674 1.484 0.647 0.903 2.680 1.673 0.741 0.871 2.466 1.862 0.255 Switzerland Leibstadt Mühleberg 0.99 0.322 0.867 0.283 0.806 0.276 0.860 0.276 0.838 0.293 0.798 0.302 0.876 0.305 0.880 0.302 0.886 0.291 United States Big Rock Point Browns Ferry 1-3 Brunswick 1-2 Clinton 1 Cooper Dresden 2-3 Duane Arnold-1 Enrico Fermi 2 Fitzpatrick Grand Gulf 1 Hatch 1-2 Hope Creek 1 Lasalle 1-2 Limerick 1-2 Millstone 1 Monticello Nine Mile Point 1-2 Oyster Creek Peach Bottom 2-3 Perry 1 Pilgrim 1 Quad Cities 1-2 River Bend 1 Susquehanna 1-2 Vermont Yankee WPPSS 2 0.067 3.195 1.58 0.946 0.764 1.545 0.538 1.093 0.757 1.142 1.525 1.031 2.072 1.055 0.654 0.536 1.682 0.62 2.086 1.141 0.67 1.538 0.936 2.07 0.504 1.095 0.049 0.012 0.960 0.411 0.583 1.058 0.345 0.813 0.525 0.845 1.214 0.465 1.696 1.469 0.582 0.514 0.623 0.491 1.625 0.758 0.484 1.109 0.638 1.682 0.413 0.661 0.056 0.434 0.921 0.690 0.548 0.636 0.473 0.706 0.385 1.041 1.100 0.845 1.776 1.744 0.203 0.411 1.191 0.337 1.169 1.025 0.391 1.009 0.763 1.811 0.469 0.488 0.031 0.958 0.364 0.563 0.711 0.829 0.392 0.840 0

0.933 1.239 0.806 1.400 1.681 0.413 0.508 0.922 0.517 1.468 0.818 0.541 0.871 0.315 1.551 0.426 0.651 0.049 0.659 0.457 0.671 0.424 0.916 0.370 0.946 0.542 0.902 1.137 1.007 1.492 1.851 0.602 0.441 1.318 0.533 1.600 0.454 0.496 0.931 0.600 1.549 0.385 0.815 0.047 0.838 1.231 0.846 0.254 0.657 0.469 0

0.568 1.098 1.231 0.813 1.527 1.876 0.376 0.452 1.515 0.415 1.863 0.524 0.437 0.649 0.558 1.749 0.493 0.771 0.059 1.137 1.369 0.697 0.471 0.613 0.427 0.586 0.548 0.892 1.315 0.807 1.615 1.889 0.497 0.543 1.299 0.593 1.888 1.040 0.512 0.957 0.905 1.784 0.440 0.793 0.042 1.923 1.244 0.606 0.724 0.585 0.450 0.547 0.604 1.053 1.455 0.773 1.021 1.957 0

0.442 1.527 0.495 1.950 0.854 0.608 0.839 0.783 1.927 0.434 0.635 0.022 1.929 1.474 0

0.623 1.099 0.474 0.637 0.756 1.235 1.375 0.733 0

2.002 0

0.418 1.322 0.579 1.956 0.931 0.492 0.935 0.779 1.920 0.487 0.700 HWRs Argentina Atucha 1 Embalse 0.335 0.600 0.197 0.571 0.311 0.514 0.255 0.497 0.274 0.545 0.303 0.589 0.305 0.445 0.233 0.558 0.311 0.541 Canada Bruce 1-4 Bruce 5-8 Darlington 1-4 Gentilly-2 Pickering 1-4 Pickering 5-8 Point Lepreau 3.394 3.371 3.524 0.64 2.06 2.064 0.635 1.623 2.759 0.132 0.466 0.804 1.584 0.609 2.163 3.019 0.251 0.448 1.143 1.838 0.621 1.889 2.699 0.258 0.562 1.264 1.522 0.551 1.132 2.277 2.502 0.588 1.650 1.669 0.607 1.612 2.742 3.042 0.617 1.475 1.732 0.598 1.665 2.648 3.153 0.516 0.858 1.705 0.184 1.478 2.857 2.962 0.598 0.746 1.026 0.524 0.973 2.704 2.118 0.481 1.142 1.211 0.394 India Kakrapar 1-2 Kalpakkam 1-2 Narora 1-2 Rajasthan 1-2 0.202 0.44 0.44 0.414 0.222 0.176 0.181 0.051 0.125 0.200 0.150 0.106 0.170 0.048 0.151 0.015 0.210 0.087 0.060 0.219 0.155 0.226 0

0.299 0.192 0.273 0

0.228 0.211 0.360 0.030 Japan Fugen 0.165 0.099 0.128 0.109 0.119 0.110 0.143 0.115 0.077

Table 30 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 240 Country Capacity (GW)

Electrical energy generated (GW a) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Pakistan Karachi 0.125 0.043 0.042 0.057 0.042 0.060 0.053 0.035 0.044 Republic of Korea Wolsong 1 0.629 0.545 0.578 0.553 0.641 0.523 0.530 0.513 1.026 Romania Cernavoda 1 0.650 0.135 0.565 United Kingdom Winfrith 0.092 0.042 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

GCRs France Bugey 1 Chinon A2-3 St. Laurent A1-2 0.54 0.54 0.84 0.229 0.143 0.100 0.155 0

0.282 0.131 0

0.152 0.179 0

0 0.166 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

Japan Tokai 1 0.159 0.103 0.102 0.120 0.021 0.072 0.095 0.134 0.109 Spain Vandellos 1 0.48 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

United Kingdom Berkeley Bradwell Calder Hall Chapelcross Dungeness A Dungeness B1-B2 Hartlepool A1-A2 Heysham 1A-B, 2A-B Hinkley Point A Hinkley Point B, A-B Hunterston A1 Hunterston B1-B2 Oldbury A Sizewell A Torness A-B Trawsfynydd Wylfa 0.138 0.245 0.198 0.192 0.424 0.72 0.84 2.07 0.47 1.25 0.3 1.15 0.434 0.42 1.25 0.39 0.84 0

0.169 0.157 0.163 0.342 0.169 0.564 0.811 0.303 0.864 0

0.910 0.333 0.307 0.444 0.302 0.770 0

0.184 0.155 0.155 0.365 0.471 0.549 1.183 0.326 0.794 0

0.772 0.363 0.314 0.590 0.037 0.851 0

0.135 0.162 0.165 0.428 0.390 0.825 1.586 0.242 0.858 0

0.718 0.390 0.259 0.944 0

0.890 0

0.187 0.168 0.174 0.368 0.662 0.995 1.924 0.391 0.980 0

0.828 0.404 0.345 0.872 0

0.824 0

0.207 0.170 0.177 0.404 0.566 0.913 1.928 0.372 1.025 0

0.968 0.398 0.385 0.891 0

0.698 0

0.176 0.163 0.176 0.382 0.170 0.828 1.803 0.403 1.062 0

0.970 0.389 0.321 0.994 0

0.764 0

0.173 0.159 0.178 0.313 0.689 1.008 1.883 0.307 0.905 0

0.333 0.381 0.045 0.314 0

0.813 0

0.136 0.157 0.405 0.606 0.967 1.989 0.394 0.993 0

0.977 0.402 0.199 1.045 0

0.858 LWGRs Lithuania Ignalina 1-2 2.76 1.792 1.782 1.671 1.260 0.757 1.214 1.446 1.239 Russian Federation Bilibino 1-4 Kursk 1-4 Leningrad 1-4 Smolensk 1-3 0.044 3.7 3.7 1.85 0.034 2.605 2.431 1.999 0.029 2.401 2.395 2.175 0.032 2.120 2.092 2.334 0.024 2.334 2.329 2.228 0.021 1.852 2.111 1.711 0.014 1.857 1.888 1.762 0.015 2.001 2.075 2.088 0.014 1.930 2.409 1.738 Ukraine Chernobyl 1-3 2.575 1.815 1.509 0.602 1.327 1.089 1.228 1.210 0.463 FBRs France Creys-Malville Phenix 1.2 0.233 0.067 0.112 0

0 0

0 0

0.004 0.001 0.003 0.387 0.0003 Kazakhstan Bn-350 0.135 0.053 0.051 0.043 0.009 0.010 0.035 Russian Federation Beloyarsky 3 0.56 0.365 0.387 0.467 0.447 0.435 0.390 0.425 0.405

Table 30 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 241 Country Capacity (GW)

Electrical energy generated (GW a) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 United Kingdom Dounreay PFR 0.25 0.061 0.089 0

0.103 0.038 0

0 0

All reactors All countries PWRS BWRs HWRs GCRs LWGRs FBRs 224.1 72.9 19.8 13.9 15.0 2.4 138.7 48.0 9.9 7.2 10.7 0.61 145.3 51.9 11.4 7.6 10.3 0.48 151.8 49.2 10.7 8.4 8.9 0.52 152.9 51.2 12.4 9.3 9.5 0.61 157.1 52.8 13.8 9.3 7.5 0.52 161.7 60.0 12.8 8.7 8.0 0.40 169.4 59.6 12.5 7.6 8.8 0.82 167.7 61.6 12.4 9.2 7.8 0.44 Total 347.9 215.1 227.0 229.5 236.0 241.0 251.6 258.9 259.2

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 242 Table 31 Noble gases released from reactors in airborne effluents Country / reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 PWRs Armenia [A5]

Armenia 2 25 600 29 000 Belgium [M1]

Doel 1-4 Tihange 1-3 15 600 34 100 31 300 16 600 26 400 10 900 5 190 40 500 972 11 900 4 120 4 120 2 050 14 600 73.8 9 810 Brazil [C7]

Angra 1 318 688 20 100 44 800 176 229 7 720 61 600 Bulgaria [C6]

Kozloduy 1-6 541 000 402 000 202 000 210 000 264 000 250 000 390 000 203 000 China [C8, T2]

Guangdong 1-2 Qinshan Maanshan 1-2 770 354 6.4 148 27.5 74 22 700 30.7 166 80 200 55.2 467 43 600 36.6 866 31 100 15.1 28.4 Czech Republic [N2]

Dukovany 1-4 1 670 10 700 11 800 18 600 20 000 48 300 31 500 5 590 Finland [F1]

Loviisa 1-2 1 000 1 000 1 800 1 600 1 400 24 000 1 100 3 400 France [E1]

Belleville 1-2 Blayais 1-4 Bugey 2-5 Cattenom 1-4 Chinon B1-B4 Chooz-A (Ardennes)

Chooz B1-B2 Cruas 1-4 Dampierre 1-4 Fessenheim 1-2 Flamanville 1-2 Golfech 1-2 Gravelines 1-6 Nogent 1-2 Paluel 1-4 Penly 1-2 St. Alban 1-2 St. Laurent B1-B2 Tricastin 1-4 60 000 179 000 42 000 81 000 139 000 71 000 22 000 179 000 8 200 5 900 6 400 60 000 46 000 129 000 8 600 10 000 4 600 30 000 44 000 149 000 45 000 99 000 169 000 129 000 27 000 75 000 13 000 6 500 10 000 43 000 28 000 129 000 11 000 15 000 1 900 34 000 16 000 29 000 12 000 48 000 76 000 50 000 14 000 34 000 6 200 15 000 7 700 57 000 24 000 40 000 9 400 13 000 8 600 28 000 46 000 53 000 19 000 22 000 40 000 37 000 27 000 38 000 7 900 14 000 10 000 36 000 29 000 40 000 12 000 13 000 9 100 29 000 22 000 67 000 11 000 26 000 41 000 45 000 34 000 56 000 5 500 11 000 16 000 20 000 16 000 30 000 17 000 12 000 9 300 25 000 20 000 57 000 13 000 24 000 44 000 40 000 19 000 34 000 6 800 11 000 14 000 24 000 16 000 29 000 9 900 12 000 18 000 26 000 22 000 17 000 12 000 22 000 34 000 240 16 000 25 000 18 000 9 200 11 000 14 000 25 000 12 000 28 000 13 000 10 000 10 000 26 000 23 000 16 000 10 000 24 000 25 000 210 10 000 17 000 19 000 7 100 31 000 22 000 21 000 15 000 25 000 13 000 13 000 11 000 28 000 Germany [B3]

Biblis A-B Brokdorf Emsland Grafenrheinfeld Greifswald Grohnde Isar 2 Mülheim-Krlich Neckarwestheim 1-2 Obrigheim Philippsburg 2 Stade Unterweser 9 800 410 98 4 800 360 000 140 220 0

18 200 130 110 2 200 3 200 7 000 720 110 51 0

1 100 240 0

13 500 50 480 1 900 2 700 10 500 300 100 150 0

680 280 0

15 500 150 1 800 1 600 4 500 10 600 180 270 0

0 930 330 0

6 100 1 200 360 1 300 4 700 12 100 1 000 610 0

0 4 600 150 0

4 000 430 11 000 2 100 3 100 8 300 35 000 600 0

0 18 000 220 0

3 700 620 1 700 1 700 3 600 2 600 800 120 160 0

25 000 170 0

4 600 330 1 100 1 900 3 500 4 490 3 700 100 0

0 240 170 0

2 150 200 5 800 1 200 3 500 Hungary [F2]

Paks 1-4 178 000 146 800 195 400 166 000 183 700 174 300 81 300 44 200

Table 31 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 243 Country / reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Japan [J1, J5]

Genkai 1-4 Ikata 1-3 Mihama 1-3 Ohi 1-4 Sendai 1-2 Takahama 1-4 Tomari 1-2 Tsuruga 2 650 4.2 250 680 59 350 0.73 9.6 520 28 280 560 32 1 800 3.8 6.5 370 480 1 100 530 38 440 1.6 2.9 230 7.2 200 470 30 620 0.17 2.7 170 0.57 110 600 32 200 0.41 3.6 130 1.1 160 510 39 210 2.5 0.38 85 0.45 190 430 37 330 3.0 3.8 66 0.60 190 430 34 370 2.4 3.0 Netherlands [N7]

Borssele 7 860 4 300 1 130 763 27 900 6 530 1 950 6 410 Republic of Korea [K1]

Kori 1-4 Ulchin 1-2 Yonggwang 1-4 12 600 6 180 5 770 18 500 241 7 290 102 000 104 6 590 206 000 56.6 59 20 14 000 20.0 5 000 4 100 41.0 11 000 6 000 215 5 500 6 790 680 4 220 Russian Federation [M6]

Balakovo 1-4 Kalinin 1-2 Kola 1-4 Novovoronezh 2-5 40 700 56 700 272 000 47 400 26 800 30 300 359 900 44 400 62 900 36 700 275 500 33 500 60 100 31 900 178 300 27 000 15 800 27 000 78 800 24 300 13 500 20 300 129 600 24 300 6 880 18 400 101 300 33 800 6 380 24 700 75 600 38 000 Slovakia [N2, S4]

Bohunice 1-4 20 100 26 600 22 200 17 700 17 600 17 800 24 400 26 400 Slovenia [S1]

Krsko 1 630 620 2 530 5 030 9 960 24 800 12 580 2 500 South Africa [C11]

Koeberg 1-2 14 520 16 970 25 190 44 600 45 480 67 610 132 300 12 200 Spain [C2]

Almaraz 1-2 Asco 1-2 José Cabrera 1 Trillo 1 Vandellos 2 4 790 168 700 45 900 10 800 79 600 7 480 64 110 34 900 17.1 23 400 7 060 13 960 50 100 17.2 4 330 13 200 23 400 56 200 1 260 306 4 830 40 500 4 670 436 57.2 29 700 19 410 31 100 5 060 144 52 900 3 550 21 800 87.2 264 46 700 2 380 15 600 8 030 283 Sweden [N3]

Ringhals 2-4 218 000 69 700 58 700 25 100 18 600 15 300 24 200 1 330 Switzerland [F3]

Beznau 1-2 Gsgen 29 000 7 400 46 000 5 100 30 000 4 500 19 000 11 000 28 000 3 800 2 600 19 000 2 600 13 000 2 500 24 000 Ukraine [G3]

Khmelnitski 1 Rovno 1-3 South Ukraine 1-3 Zaporozhe 1-6 56 200 87 100 51 400 101 000 32 000 69 300 52 800 154 000 74 800 89 800 78 200 200 000 21 300 44 000 98 300 122 000 14 300 113 000 32 800 117 000 57 000 100 000 48 900 122 000 74 100 93 200 70 200 80 600 21 700 89 100 50 400 112 000 United Kingdom [M7]

Sizewell B 6 110 4 360 United States [T3]

Arkansas One 1-2 Beaver Valley 1-2 Braidwood 1-2 Byron 1-2 Callaway 1 Calvert Cliffs 1-2 Catawba 1-2 Comanche Peak 1-2 Crystal River 3 Davis-Besse 1 Diablo Canyon 1-2 Donald Cook 1-2 32 900 3 020 90 300 45 900 33 400 24 900 39 500 33 500 270 000 40 300 2 080 6 960 77 100 5 510 389 000 3 850 5 030 95 100 29 700 218 000 52 200 42 900 1 710 2 620 95 900 5 740 8 620 13 900 14 800 217 000 31 700 65 100 29 100 1 340 91.0 7 570 2 590 20 600 102 000 4 510 29 900 7 920 48 000 7 100 1 410 12 900 79.2 76 200 14 400 7 620 56 100 1 220 5 740 33 400 81 4 320 5 460 7 230 10 730 153 000 5 810 1 100 4 260 1 820 3 130 8 810 1 046 11 100 16 500 5 030 16 650 10 500 1 010 5 150 2 940 5 330 932 386 17 800 6 180 3 860 127 5 660 14 900 7 960 6 310 95 164 82.5 639

Table 31 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 244 Country / reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 United States (continued)

Farley 1-2 Fort Calhoun 1 R. E. Ginna Haddam Neck Harris 1 Indian Point 1-3 Kewaunee Maine Yankee McGuire 1-2 Millstone 2-3 North Anna 1-2 Oconee 1-2-3 Palisades Palo Verde 1-3 Point Beach 1-2 Prairie Island 1-2 Rancho Seco 1 H. B. Robinson 2 Salem 1-2 San Onofre 1-3 Seabrook 1 Sequoyah 1-2 South Texas 1-2 St. Lucie 1-2 Surry 1-2 Three Mile Island 1 Trojan Turkey Point 3-4 Virgil C. Summer 1 Vogtle 1-2 Waterford 3 Watts Bar Wolf Creek Yankee NPS Zion 1-2 4 480 17 000 22 000 54 000 22 100 106 000 85.5 35 000 38 400 114 400 35 300 327 000 4 480 95 600 297 3 060 8.14 258 17 100 110 000 3 960 225 000 10 400 42 700 16 600 24 600 7 620 47 400 27 800 6 960 212 000 37 000 4 250 4 070 17 200 13 200 19 000 226 000 31 900 54 400 67.0 41 800 33 200 15 300 8 300 128 000 2 320 143 000 740 2 070 0

83.6 20 600 140 000 1 080 52 500 4 890 94 000 1 300 4 500 6 140 682 16 100 13 200 79 600 111 000 7 970 10 200 26 200 5 590 20 000 103 50 300 195 000 59.2 14 800 30 000 23 500 45 400 122 000 2 760 91 200 1 870 940 2.56 281 34 900 205 000 33.8 7 660 33 700 36 600 600 21 200 7 660 4 580 12 500 4 200 25 600 11 400 0

12 400 8 140 343 5 180 77 000 12 900 63 700 1 360 1 670 35 800 1 600 9 300 24 300 3 440 38 400 374 1 360 0

12 430 54 100 72 600 4.0 2 850 1 560 12 800 1 500 88 600 1 980 16 800 8 990 8 680 33 800 19 200 0

98 200 7 780 1 960 1 840 7 070 16.2 720 38 300 1 740 1 600 129 500 656 16 500 359 879 2 140 27 500 13 500 4 200 2 020 6 310 10 200 12 500 914 1 090 5 000 2 900 76 800 0

68 600 2 690 20 000 1 660 8 210 6.4 618 9 320 3 650 1 300 47 730 6 180 12 100 910 3 120 99.2 7 130 25 800 1 170 13 900 8 400 22 600 415 103 41 400 64 380 0

49 100 2 530 307 000 3 170 1 590 1.5 456 962 667 700 3 370 2 140 9 810 271 40.3 470 0.39 15 800 1 390 1 170 14 800 55.9 711 21.9 67 800 2 970 7 190 53 600 0

1 710 5 210 1 380 0

1 530 292 0

900 2 340 823 66.2 27.7 36.9 360 8 320 7 210 18 400 540 325 9.4 8 300 20 500 0

132 BWRs China [T2]

Chin Shan 1-2 Kuosheng 1-2 26 700 3 550 33 000 2 910 99 200 1 280 26 500 784 7 510 995 11 900 1 870 2 290 227 1 210 334 Finland [F1]

Olkiluoto 1-2 22 000 43 000 29 000 9 500 41 000 52 000 18 000 1 100 Germany [B3]

Brunsbüttel Gundremmingen B,C Isar 1 Krümmel Philippsburg 1 Würgassen 4 800 7 000 0.2 690 14 610 1 300 130 1.2 450 130 2 100 1 600 11 0

6 100 1 200 1 400 0

2.8 150 540 340 1 000 0

21 93 160 1 800 960 6 600 1.2 400 17 000 880 0

7 200 0

150 14 000 520 21 3 900 310 810 11 000 860 0

India [B4]

Tarapur 1-2 5 940 000 7 629 000 6 348 000 9 410 000 6 560 000 Japan [J1, J5]

Fukushima Daiichi 1-6 Fukushima Daini 1-4 Hamaoka 1-4 Kashiwazaki Kariwa 1-7 Onagawa 1-2 Shika 1 Shimane 1-2 Tokai 2 Tsuruga 1 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0.55 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

3.9 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 190 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

Table 31 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 245 Country / reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Mexico [C5]

Laguna Verde 1-2 3 400 2 240 567 134 25 1 570 374 345 Netherlands [N7]

Dodewaard 33 000 6 410 11 800 13 500 12 800 3 190 3 880 23 300 Spain [C2]

Confrentes S. Maria de Garona 26 700 53 500 119 000 73 700 136 000 58 100 46 100 73 100 21 400 17 100 9 320 7 470 5 150 648 8 000 294 Sweden [N3]

Barsebeck 1-2 Forsmark 1-3 Oskarshamn 1-3 Ringhals 1 59 100 450 000 1 970 000 56 670 407 000 654 000 1 260 000 71 800 24 600 501 000 546 000 1 440 000 16 000 394 000 279 000 12 700 000 20 500 68 300 266 000 24 300 000 22 100 19 800 112 000 15 700 000 17 900 87 000 138 000 6 690 000 7 320 25 600 794 000 1 310 000 Switzerland [F3]

Leibstadt Mühleberg 48 000 110 000 38 000 16 000 19 000 3 600 29 000 3 800 74 000 2 700 17 000 2 000 8 700 2 000 8 500 2 000 United States [T3]

Big Rock Point Browns Ferry 1-3 Brunswick 1-2 Clinton 1 Cooper Dresden 2-3 Duane Arnold 1 Enrico Fermi 2 Fitzpatrick Grand Gulf 1 Hatch 1-2 Hope Creek 1 Lasalle 1-2 Limerick 1-2 Millstone 1 Monticello Nine Mile Point 1-2 Oyster Creek Peach Bottom 2-3 Perry 1 Pilgrim 1 Quad Cities 1-2 River Bend 1 Susquehanna 1-2 Vermont Yankee WPPSS 2 205 000 0

41 400 356 6 920 755 1 690 5 960 50 000 5 030 40 800 30 700 25 400 1 270 4 330 110 000 6 030 27 200 414 000 3 100 33 600 2 950 38 100 2 670 188 000 32 900 167 000 77 700 25 000 26.2 958 466 1 220 2 300 75 900 1 170 10 400 7 100 3 920 2 630 870 73 600 5 570 17 000 888 000 4 110 82 300 1 560 41 400 2 130 112 000 26 800 66 200 618 000 18 100 273 519 488 1 750 7 700 6 330 7 840 38 700 5 140 4 370 31 700 165 48 100 13 800 15 200 312 000 12 100 43 400 1 820 17 200 2 120 219 000 5 590 190 000 148 000 12 600 309 238 1 790 2 110 5 740 15 400 3 490 141 000 2 710 38 600 5 960 12 200 22 200 20 000 8 100 411 000 25 300 34 900 1 410 25 800 625 140 000 5 220 246 000 23 800 17 660 43 1 470 276 1 970 18.1 14 500 1 240 63 800 16.3 1 540 2 910 400 20 100 8 580 12 500 646 000 8 690 68 600 1 110 25 000 439 117 000 259 181 300 159 600 5.62 662 3 260 1 820 888 3 950 2 170 53 700 5 550 145 16 900 13 200 16 700 2 900 656 000 19 700 86 600 2 050 6 150 566 329 888 129 000 26 400 4.80 71 700 2 440 1 490 2 450 23 800 3 460 157 000 960 0

14 400 2 360 35 300 4 150 17 800 1 030 7 510 629 228 666 81 800 35 000 0

536 000 8 970 1 790 30 100 2 510 1 440 183 500 852 0

12 600 810 7 160 998 8 460 667 127 HWRs Argentina [C3]

Atucha 1 Embalse 89 000 660 000 11 000 1 200 000 3 000 150 000 110 000 42 000 240 000 17 000 360 000 44 000 320 000 180 000 960 000 30 000 Canada [A2]

Bruce 1-4 Bruce 5-8 Darlington 1-4 Gentilly 2 Pickering 1-4 Pickering 5-8 Point Lepreau 518 000 37 000 21 000 60 000 407 000 237 000 0

903 000 35 000 67 000 48 000 500 000 212 000 13 000 564 000 41 000 73 000 33 000 326 000 207 000 11 000 435 000 101 000 146 000 69 000 370 000 215 000 4 900 248 000 70 300 141 000 59 000 344 000 222 000 5 100 100 000 67 000 110 000 73 000 310 000 220 000 2 200 88 000 70 000 380 000 54 000 310 000 200 000 5 600 54 000 74 000 295 000 21 000 290 000 210 000 5 900 India [B4]

Kakrapar 1-2 Kalpakkam 1-2 Narora 1-2 Rajasthan 1-2 18 110 000 22 240 11 620 000 12 790 000 34 730 10 380 000 13 910 000 635 000 4 760 000 5 539 000 226 100 12 430 000 11 440 000 2 579 000 4 443 000

Table 31 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 246 Country / reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Japan [J1, J5]

Fugen 0

22 0

0 0

0 0

0 Pakistan [P2]

Karachi 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 Republic of Korea [K1]

Wolsong 1-2 112 000 114 000 65 900 219 000 120 000 750 000 3 200 000 60 300 Romania Cernavoda 1 60 300 61 700 United Kingdom [N5]

Wilfrith 0

3.27 7.85 2.1 0.42 GCRs France [E1]

Bugey 1 Chinon A2-3 St. Laurent A1-2 77 000 32 000 78 000 53 000 9 100 43 000 11 000 6 700 16 000 15 000 110 200 9 200 110 140 3 800 210 250 0

220 Japan [J1, J4]

Tokai 1 270 000 250 000 300 000 0

280 000 250 000 310 000 360 000 Spain [C2]

Vandellos 1 891 432 959 334 0

0 0

U. K. [M7, N4, N5]

Berkeley Bradwell Calder Hall Chapelcross Dungeness A Dungeness B1-B2 Hartlepool A1-A2 Heysham 1A-B, 2A-B Hinkley Point A Hinkley Point B, A-B Hunterston A1 Hunterston B1-B2 Oldbury A Sizewell A Torness A-B Trawsfynydd Wylfa 0

595 000 2 500 000 2 900 000 1 123 000 16 800 6 600 15 300 2 148 000 82 000 86 000 60 000 108 000 1 872 000 5 600 1 489 000 70 500 0

650 000 2 500 000 3 000 000 1 170 000 30 000 12 900 15 600 2 511 000 89 000 0

29 000 81 000 1 8010 00 5 300 219 000 30 000 0

410 000 2 560 000 3 000 000 1 310 000 22 000 12 500 55 200 2 118 000 95 000 0

21 000 143 000 1 676 000 3 800 0

56 000 0

693 000 2 700 000 3 200 000 1 192 000 30 000 20 200 24 000 3 171 000 39 000 0

30 000 207 000 2 0230 00 5 000 0

55 500 773 000 2 800 000 3 200 000 1 244 000 23 000 44 000 23 000 3 060 000 39 000 0

30 000 170 000 2 347 000 8 100 0

36 000 662 000 2 700 000 3 200 000 1 195 000 7 000 13 000 50 000 3 200 000 42 000 0

55 000 250 000 1 952 000 7 000 0

19 000 647 000 3 210 000 1 190 000 27 900 23 900 23 600 33 200 33 200 0

49 500 112 000 295 000 6 990 0

43 900 510 000 2 600 000 2 730 000 977 000 19 300 37 800 28 900 3 030 000 16 700 0

66 100 111 000 1 230 000 12 200 0

51 400 LWGRs Lithuania [E2]

Ignalina 1-2 2 370 000 1 800 000 700 000 480 000 290 000 283 000 158 000 99 700 Russian Federation [M6]

Bilibino 1-4 Kursk 1-4 Leningrad 1-4 Smolensk 1-3 297 300 8 700 000 1 606 000 7 170 000 276 900 6 030 000 1 539 000 4 473 000 345 400 6 075 000 1 392 000 3 815 000 326 000 6 285 000 1 614 000 2 257 000 418 700 3 009 000 1 789 000 1 121 000 293 100 1 113 000 1 073 000 1 022 000 395 700 1 152 000 1 036 000 675 300 270 100 611 700 958 900 686 600 Ukraine [G3]

Chernobyl 1-3 3 730 000 3 770 000 3 200 000 3 800 000 1 700 000 900 000 610 000 91 900 FBRs France [E1]

Creys-Malville Phenix 46 000 43 000 43 000 44 000 45 000 45 000 44 000 43 000 Kazakhstan [A6]

Bn-350 140 000 165 000 139 000 117 000 108 000 48 300 48 400 102 000

Table 31 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 247 Country / reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Russian Federation [M6]

Beloyarsky 3 12 900 11 000 8 100 8 100 13 500 4 070 4 070 8 100 United Kingdom [N5]

Dounreay PFR 12 100 18 900 0

6 050 11 100 0

0 0

Summary parameter Reactor Release (TBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 All reactors Total release (TBq)

PWRs BWRs HWRs GCRs LWGRs FBRs All 5 900 10 090 31 890 13 540 23 870 211 85 500 4 888 11 990 26 310 12 500 17 890 238 73 810 3 714 10 730 20 780 11 820 15 530 190 62 760 3 041 24 280 19 910 13 410 14 760 175 75 570 2 242 32 680 19 930 14 090 8 328 178 77 440 2 393 17 220 2 036 13 610 4 682 97 40 040 2 321 7 499 4 868 6 006 4 027 96 24 820 1 436 3 112 2 062 11 780 2 719 153 21 260 Annual normalized release

[TBq (GW a)-1]

PWRs BWRs HWRs GCRs LWGRs FBRs All 43 210 3 250 1 880 2 240 428 399 34 231 2 310 1 630 1 740 500 327 25 218 1 950 1 410 1 750 365 275 20 474 1 600 1 440 1 550 292 321 15 619 1 450 1 510 1 100 343 329 16 300 167 1 560 588 244 166 14 141 413 803 456 117 102 9.5 59 178 1 280 349 348 93 Average normalized release 1990-1994 and 1995-1997

[TBq (GW a)-1]

PWRs BWRs HWRs GCRs LWGRs FBRs All 27 354 2 050 1 560 1 720 380 330 13 171 252 1 240 465 209 120

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 248 Table 32 Tritium released from reactors in airborne effluents Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 PWRs Armenia Armenia 2 Belgium [M1]

Doel 1-4 Tihange 1-3 752 548 774 2 020 12 800 1 990 4 950 613 5 970 287 4 420 227 5 050 Brazil [C7]

Angra 1 5.85 27.8 2 930 611 2.26 17.4 110 3 480 Bulgaria [C6]

Kozloduy 1-6 N o t r e p o r t e d China [C8, T2]

Guangdong 1-2 Qinshan Maanshan 1-2 847 2 270 5 330 26.6 6 290 330 193 5 110 232 264 6 590 411 405 5 580 8 430 Czech Republic [N2]

Dukovany 1-4 447 432 416 325 466 410 412 308 Finland [F1]

Loviisa 1-2 740 480 230 210 210 190 220 250 France [E1]

Belleville 1-2 Blayais 1-4 Bugey 2-5 Cattenom 1-4 Chinon B1-B4 Chooz-A (Ardennes)

Chooz B1-B2 Cruas 1-4 Dampierre 1-4 Fessenheim 1-2 Flamanville 1-2 Golfech 1-2 Gravelines 1-6 Nogent 1-2 Paluel 1-4 Penly 1-2 St. Alban 1-2 St. Laurent B1-B2 Tricastin 1-4 A m o u n t s i n c l u d e d w i t h n o b l e g a s e s (Table 31)

Germany [B3]

Biblis A-B Brokdorf Emsland Grafenrheinfeld Greifswald Grohnde Isar 2 Mülheim-Krlich Neckarwestheim 1-2 Obrigheim Philippsburg 2 Stade Unterweser 590 110 480 460 0

760 890 270 1 090 230 1 600 1 100 1 100 550 220 670 440 68 730 950 180 1 230 100 1 400 430 1 200 610 180 510 540 10 500 1 300 150 900 130 1 500 340 410 690 210 780 610 12 720 1 400 100 980 130 1 200 400 480 580 330 1 300 520 20 530 1 300 110 630 72 1 100 670 1 100 530 350 1 600 520 7.6 360 1 300 90 600 99 960 790 1 300 220 370 2 000 550 2.6 680 1 300 80 450 150 970 330 560 490 320 1 900 290 1.7 190 970 40 390 130 1 100 2 100 350 Hungary [F2]

Paks 1-4 480 2 100 3 400 4 000 4 500 4 630 4 330 4 780

Table 32 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 249 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Japan [J1, J5]

Genkai 1-4 Ikata 1-3 Mihama 1-3 Ohi 1-4 Sendai 1-2 Takahama 1-4 Tomari 1-2 Tsuruga 2 700 450 6 000 1 900 360 2 600 370 900 540 410 6 500 3 900 320 2 900 270 1 200 580 490 7 100 3 800 530 4 600 500 720 560 710 8 100 4 700 420 5 200 360 1 400 1 100 620 6 900 8 000 550 5 400 280 2 300 690 730 6 800 6 300 640 5 900 350 2 300 850 810 6 700 8 300 750 8 200 430 2 200 880 730 6 200 7 500 650 8 400 510 3 400 Netherlands [N7]

Borssele 446 210 353 565 386 343 371 177 Republic of Korea [K1]

Kori 1-4 Ulchin 1-2 Yonggwang 1-4 10 000 346 592 7 580 825 3 050 12 500 1 250 1 930 8 760 1 120 1 820 9 100 1 900 3 400 14 000 1 900 8 100 15 200 1 900 8 800 14 000 3 590 8 660 Russian Federation [M6]

Balakovo 1-4 Kalinin 1-2 Kola 1-4 Novovoronezh 2-5 R e p o r t e d t o b e 0 Slovakia [N2, S4]

Bohunice 1-4 963 1 045 1 066 924 890 1 090 922 581 Slovenia [S1]

Krsko 2 460 2 050 1 510 1 960 1 720 1 310 1 160 1 050 South Africa [C11]

Koeberg 1-2 3 640 7 070 5 610 5 270 3 130 2 840 4 610 10 200 Spain [C2]

Almaraz 1-2 Asco 1-2 José Cabrera 1 Trillo 1 Vandellos 2 1 300 1 322 517 0

170 4 180 1 144 266 0

85.8 6 970 1 103 661 355 34.7 10 100 1 185 193 239 25.3 5 450 2 121 34.9 904 42.6 5 660 19 410 25.3 902 84.2 5 260 3 550 26.6 877 56.7 6 370 2 290 88.9 743 180 Sweden [N3]

Ringhals 2-4 N o t m e a s u r e d Switzerland [F3]

Beznau 1-2 Gsgen N o t m e a s u r e d Ukraine [G3]

Khmelnitski 1 Rovno 1-3 South Ukraine 1-3 Zaporozhe 1-6 R e p o r t e d t o b e 0 United Kingdom [M7]

Sizewell B 579 565 United States [T3]

Arkansas One 1-2 Beaver Valley 1-2 Braidwood 1-2 Byron 1-2 Callaway 1 Calvert Cliffs 1-2 Catawba 1-2 Comanche Peak 1-2 Crystal River 3 Davis-Besse 1 Diablo Canyon 1-2 Donald Cook 1-2 478 3 240 3 180 39.6 1 370 16.7 3 370 225 980 1 070 2 070 366 869 4 960 3 610 33.3 1 360 428 4 610 86.2 500 2 390 3 470 1 070 1 120 8 030 10 000 114 1 950 362 6 150 112 555 799 5 110 725 644 12 800 1 440 34 3 370 909 4 230 222 488 829 5 770 955 852 12 400 1 280 3 310 46.3 3 450 316 1 550 831 16 900 1 370 1 130 12 800 525 158 3 690 93.0 5 270 857 779 5 440 3 490 959 13 100 1 380 3 240 98.9 6 850 1 625 576 1 350 4 660 3 300 825 9 070 2 980 213 6 280 2 160 1 310 5 110 10 900

Table 32 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 250 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 United States (continued)

Farley 1-2 Fort Calhoun 1 R. E. Ginna Haddam Neck Harris 1 Indian Point 1-3 Kewaunee Maine Yankee McGuire 1-2 Millstone 2-3 North Anna 1-2 Oconee 1-2-3 Palisades Palo Verde 1-3 Point Beach 1-2 Prairie Island 1-2 Rancho Seco 1 H. B. Robinson 2 Salem 1-2 San Onofre 1-3 Seabrook 1 Sequoyah 1-2 South Texas 1-2 St. Lucie 1-2 Surry 1-2 Three Mile Island 1 Trojan Turkey Point 3-4 Virgil C. Summer 1 Vogtle 1-2 Waterford 3 Watts Bar Wolf Creek Yankee NPS Zion 1-2 3 240 273 4 590 2 890 57.7 116 221 1 380 1 850 4 060 1 150 3 740 206 27 900 4 740 4 660 1 080 164 5 710 4 590 9.32 433 1 530 3 910 800 1 220 3 410 2 940 84.4 7 960 7 590 690 138 666 5 140 12.6 3 090 11 500 30.0 281 289 338 2 390 3 570 1 810 4 030 181 49 300 4 180 2 600 703 166 4 110 1 650 507 1 070 847 4 160 900 18 100 7 330 10.8 308 7 230 16 200 555 231 2 630 3 490 225 2 130 6 960 16.2 225 451 147 2 220 3 690 1 830 2 390 231 36 400 3 660 1 570 681 158 5 250 2 870 58.1 1 850 3 970 2 240 900 3 520 1 090 1.47 9.14 7 890 11 500 640 108 2 090 2 680 44 1 910 2 380 1 880 182 60 270 3 060 4 060 1 720 1 640 314 47 100 5 290 2 330 279 294 6 250 2 290 23.4 1 470 541 924 900 6 780 1 600 306 82.9 8 260 3 770 951 48 9 880 3 970 9.9 1 630 0.5 161 770 2 120 1 390 4 100 1 590 233 55 200 3 030 2 480 206 2 530 1 970 548 5 990 1 070 600 601 1 610 53.1 1 120 4 380 5 590 31 4 810 1 410 30.5 1 940 25.5 2 430 1 170 2 180 43.6 7 500 1 600 381 43 800 3 140 1 460 542 1 250 1 580 6 300 2 750 600 694 2 090 345 10 600 4 510 18.6 5 000 1 830 144 1 520 924 819 378 2 570 1 810 1 300 2 650 390 70 000 2 710 1 600 445 6 920 1 080 2 350 5 450 800 388 401 514 6 390 3 330 317 1 490 14.3 10 500 3 360 340 58 1 110 3 010 618 2 900 2 420 420 5 510 1 200 505 11 700 2 460 1 390 1 500 4 800 526 207 3 900 7 290 9.78 87.0 BWRs China [T2]

Chin Shan 1-2 Kuosheng 1-2 833 1 290 1 230 2 500 662 1 760 821 1 540 1 340 1 250 1 250 1 080 1 930 765 1 590 535 Finland [F1]

Olkiluoto 1-2 100 130 350 430 310 130 210 300 Germany [B3]

Brunsbüttel Gundremmingen B,C Isar 1 Krümmel Philippsburg 1 Würgassen 89 200 430 79 52 95 62 380 560 99 61 390 99 470 74 51 130 290 32 300 82 31 66 200 22 470 88 13 75 150 19 1 300 44 45 81 23 40 2 200 56 46 71 9.3 35 1 200 60 42 54 6

India [B4]

Tarapur 1-2 Japan [J1, J5]

Fukushima Daiichi 1-6 Fukushima Daini 1-4 Hamaoka 1-4 Kashiwazaki Kariwa 1-7 Onagawa 1-2 Shika 1 Shimane 1-2 Tokai 2 Tsuruga 1 2 500 1 100 820 510 190 310 580 270 2 100 1 100 730 560 210 410 560 250 1 900 1 200 720 660 190 0

750 570 220 1 500 1 200 780 790 200 13 880 550 160 1 600 1 200 570 1 100 210 66 990 570 140 1 600 1 400 640 1 400 210 90 820 390 170 1 500 1 600 810 1 700 310 79 870 460 160 1 900 1 500 860 2 000 370 100 770 420 160

Table 32 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 251 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Mexico [C5]

Laguna Verde 1-2 0

105 73 540 657 1 520 651 1 180 Netherlands [N7]

Dodewaard 10.8 119 71.8 39.6 15.2 25.9 9.5 11.2 Spain [C2]

Confrentes S. Maria de Garona 35.6 497 33.1 882 178 312 496 347 497 273 290 543 459 370 1 180 264 Sweden [N3]

Barsebeck 1-2 Forsmark 1-3 Oskarshamn 1-3 Ringhals 1 N o t m e a s u r e d Switzerland [F3]

Leibstadt Mühleberg 220 330 590 United States [T3]

Big Rock Point Browns Ferry 1-3 Brunswick 1-2 Clinton 1 Cooper Dresden 2-3 Duane Arnold 1 Enrico Fermi 2 Fitzpatrick Grand Gulf 1 Hatch 1-2 Hope Creek 1 Lasalle 1-2 Limerick 1-2 Millstone 1 Monticello Nine Mile Point 1-2 Oyster Creek Peach Bottom 2-3 Perry 1 Pilgrim 1 Quad Cities 1-2 River Bend 1 Susquehanna 1-2 Vermont Yankee WPPSS 2 179 22 984 70 0

485 603 0

448 123 1 480 3 030 6.29 1 430 3 160 2 060 424 1 150 0

588 4 290 1 670 3 420 3 580 1 370 175 102 718 193 0

236 514 0

188 206 1 260 903 25 1 210 2 380 1 140 283 1 480 0

805 5 550 507 1 710 3 130 448 122 703 400 176 0

191 278 1 070 53 328 1 850 836 1 360 1 450 3 850 2 060 404 1 470 2.11 850 1 670 86.2 1 940 948 1 780 84.7 346 740 422 0

261 1 370 87 293 847 2 450 6 140 4 810 31 944 2 060 3 570 136 844 0

670 1 690 200 1 610 877 5 550 100 1 290 836 1 160 0

213 436 0

295 1 970 2 660 160 4 870 0

218 2 680 4 320 1 310 388 0

1 330 1 050 344 1 990 813 370 77 1 350 570 0

177 547 0

271 1 680 1 610 11.6 4 330 0

10.8 1 570 440 6 170 24.3 1 770 1 150 90 2 300 824 211 96.6 999 440 0

97.4 423 0

701 3 250 793 702 0

807 558 11 400 0

2 690 1 920 106 3 100 902 285 85.5 860 126 0

221 2 690 0

3 770 5 770 630 237 0

556 5 500 1 570 2 720 250 2 050 596 HWRs Argentina [C3]

Atucha 1 Embalse 620 000 75 000 230 000 55 000 410 000 69 000 2 600 000 140 000 1 400 000 130 000 53 000 83 000 1 100 000 69 000 1 300 000 77 000 Canada [A2]

Bruce 1-4 Bruce 5-8 Darlington 1-4 Gentilly 2 Pickering 1-4 Pickering 5-8 Point Lepreau 1 628 000 777 000 118 000 227 000 629 000 277 000 250 000 1 193 000 385 000 231 000 270 000 635 000 183 000 170 000 1 100 000 340 000 110 000 322 000 592 000 192 000 400 000 1 650 000 391 000 130 000 200 000 518 000 244 000 640 000 999 000 366 000 330 000 258 000 481 000 226 000 520 000 610 000 230 000 270 000 310 000 590 000 190 000 310 000 700 000 310 000 200 000 220 000 370 000 190 000 240 000 350 000 270 000 190 000 160 000 440 000 170 000 200 000 India [B4]

Kakrapar 1 Kalpakkam 1-2 Narora 1-2 Rajasthan 1-2 830 000 66 000 2 561 000 854 000 182 500 1 768 000 1 119 000 244 600 820 000 2 100 000 118 400 703 300 1 620 000 264 700 765 900

Table 32 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 252 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Japan [J1, J5]

Fugen 1 200 1 300 1 600 1 200 1 800 1 300 1 000 1 200 Pakistan [P2]

Karachi 89 400 77 300 56 800 281 000 220 000 309 000 184 700 130 900 Republic of Korea [K1]

Wolsong 1-2 231 000 257 000 389 000 368 000 480 000 440 000 310 000 625 000 Romania Cernavoda 1 370 25 500 United Kingdom [N5]

Winfrith 8 390 3 990 4 620 4 250 10 930 366 GCRs France [E1]

Bugey 1 Chinon A2-3 St. Laurent A1-2 A m o u n t s i n c l u d e d w i t h n o b l e g a s e s (Table 31)

Japan [J1, J5]

Tokai 1 480 570 420 170 260 540 480 290 Spain [C2]

Vandellos 1 0

0 0

0 0

0 0.002 U. K. [M7, N4, N5]

Berkeley Bradwell Calder Hall Chapelcross Dungeness A Dungeness B1-B2 Hartlepool A1-A2 Heysham 1A-B, 2A-B Hinkley Point A Hinkley Point B, A-B Hunterston A1 Hunterston B1-B2 Oldbury A Sizewell A-B Torness A-B Trawsfynydd Wylfa 2 760 670 460 5 800 1 300 12 810 2 640 1 170 130 2 900 1 900 10 190 14 3 210 2 530 1 570 897 69 2 600 1 680 1 300 9 030 22 814 3 000 2 000 1 550 1 620 35 4 600 1 960 1 700 79 7 790 51 676 5 100 145 2 540 2 050 2 610 1 830 31 2 900 1 860 990 1 700 134 14 980 11 1 270 5 600 620 2 440 1 120 3 260 2 620 2 500 16 5 000 1 890 1 470 1 300 155 10 300 9.6 786 1 030 1 520 1 560 3 060 2 100 2 100 0.6 2 180 1 730 871 1 260 63 6 700 11 1 100 4 400 570 4 780 1 610 2 720 2 980 1 960 4.9 2 810 1 480 639 1 810 277 5 290 LWGRs Lithuania Ignalina 1-2 O n l y a v e r a g e n o r m a l i z e d r e l e a s e r e p o r t e d Russian Federation [M6]

Bilibino 1-4 Kursk 1-4 Leningrad 1-4 Smolensk 1-3 O n l y a v e r a g e n o r m a l i z e d r e l e a s e r e p o r t e d Ukraine [G3]

Chernobyl 1-3 FBRs France Creys-Malville Phenix Kazakhstan Bn-350

Table 32 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 253 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Russian Federation Beloyarsky 3 United Kingdom [N5]

Dounreay PFR 3 200 3 100 2 300 3 700 2 000 1 700 790 570 Summary parameter Reactor Release (TBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 All reactors Total release (TBq)

PWRs BWRs HWRs GCRs LWGRs FBRs All 168 40.6 8 388 24.3 3.2 8 624 236 35.7 6 496 19.5 3.1 6 791 217 34.6 6 171 23.3 2.3 6 448 239 47.0 10 090 25.3 3.7 10 400 230 40.4 6 615 37.9 2.0 6 925 243 38.7 3 873 40.1 1.7 4 196 260 43.9 3 896 25.5 0.79 4 226 196 42.8 39 400 32.7 0.57 4 212 Annual normalized release

[TBq (GW a)-1]

PWRs BWRs HWRs GCRs LWGRs FBRs All 1.9 1.0 850 7.6 52 62 2.6 0.86 569 5.3 35 46 2.3 0.85 578 3.9 42 2.5 1.1 813 3.8 36 65 2.4 0.90 481 4.7 53 42 2.5 0.75 317 4.7 25 2.6 0.94 331 3.5 25 2.2 0.91 340 3.5 27 Average normalized release 1990-1994 and 1995-1997

[TBq (GW a)-1]

PWRs BWRs HWRs GCRs LWGRs FBRs All 2.3 0.94 650 4.7 26 49 51 2.4 0.86 329 3.9 26 26

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 254 Table 33 Iodine-131 released from reactors in airborne effluents Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 PWRs Armenia [A5]

Armenia 2 0.331 0.365 Belgium [M1]

Doel 1-4 Tihange 1-3 0.485 0.295 0.657 0.086 0.192 0.039 0.097 0.027 0.01 0.016 0.032 0.0055 0.008 0.052 0.0057 0.016 Brazil [C7]

Angra 1 0.00047 0.356 0.481 0.00036 0.299 0.936 Bulgaria [C6]

Kozloduy 1-6 5.6 4.5 10.6 8.0 2.2 1.50 1.98 2.68 China[C8, T2]

Guangdong 1-2 Qinshan Maanshan 1-2 0

0 0

0 0.424 0

0.720 0

0.229 0

0.116 0

Czech Republic [N2]

Dukovany 1-4 0.01 0.014 0.06 0.097 0.024 0.013 0.122 0.011 Finland [F1]

Loviisa 1-2 0.017 0.16 0.025 0.033 0.00017 0.77 0.00087 0.000072 France [E1]

Belleville 1-2 Blayais 1-4 Bugey 2-5 Cattenom 1-4 Chinon B1-B4 Chooz-A (Ardennes)

Chooz B1-B2 Cruas 1-4 Dampierre 1-4 Fessenheim 1-2 Flamanville 1-2 Golfech 1-2 Gravelines 1-6 Nogent 1-2 Paluel 1-4 Penly 1-2 St. Alban 1-2 St. Laurent B1-B2 Tricastin 1-4 A m o u n t s i n c l u d e d w i t h p a r t i c u l a t e s (Table 34)

Germany [B3]

Biblis A-B Brokdorf Emsland Grafenrheinfeld Greifswald Grohnde Isar 2 Mülheim-Krlich Neckarwestheim 1-2 Obrigheim Philippsburg 2 Stade Unterweser 0.0032 0.0007 0

0.0022 5.2 0

0 0

0.0262 0.00004 0

0.0028 0.00029 0.0015 0.00084 0

0.0011 0

0 0

0 0.000082 0.0001 0.00018 0.061 0.000056 0.024 0

0.000074 0.0028 0

0.0013 0.00054 0

0.00096 0

0.00042 0.034 0.00076 0.012 0

0.00034 0

0 0.0007 0

0 0.0067 0.031 0

0.0031 0

0.042 0.00035 0.0026 0.000041 0

0.005 0

0 0.0193 0.000052 0.018 0.00021 0.0001 0.017 0.026 0.0013 0

0 0.031 0

0 0.02 0.0087 0.00074 0.00026 0.0019 0.030 0.0006 0

0.00015 0

0.0082 0

0 0.00071 0.000006 0.00043 0.002 0.000097 0.0069 0.0032 0

0.0013 0

0 0

0 0.0042 0.00007 0.0045 0.004 0.00047 Hungary [F2]

Paks 1-4 0.45 0.63 0.14 0.28 0.14 0.18 0.34 0.36

Table 33 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 255 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Japan [J1, J5]

Genkai 1-4 Ikata 1-3 Mihama 1-3 Ohi 1-4 Sendai 1-2 Takahama 1-4 Tomari 1-2 Tsuruga 2 0

0 0.0015 0.0009 0

0.0003 0

0 0

0 0.0061 0.0011 0

0.22 0

0 0

0.0095 0.019 0.0034 0

0.043 0

0 0

0 0.010 0.0003 0

0.0004 0

0 0

0 0.0003 0.0002 0

0.0003 0

0 0

0 0.0002 0

0 0.0002 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0.0018 0.0009 0

0.0038 0

0 Netherlands [N7]

Borssele 0

0.046 0

0.017 0.029 0.0095 0

0.03 Republic of Korea [K1]

Kori 1-4 Ulchin 1-2 Yonggwang 1-4 0.14 0.19 0.00033 0.19 0.086 0.0077 16.0 0.00022 0.0015 13.2 0.0043 0.0062 0.066 0.00052 0.018 0.0170 0.00019 0.156 0.0046 0.030 0.017 0.0078 0.86 0.011 Russian Federation [M6]

Balakovo 1-4 Kalinin 1-2 Kola 1-4 Novovoronezh 2-5 1.55 1.02 2.07 0.71 0.16 0.11 3.78 2.70 0.32 0.19 11.61 0.27 1.62 0.41 5.54 0.14 0.12 0.54 3.11 0.27 0.14 0.68 3.65 0.41 0.68 0.14 1.89 1.08 0.13 0.07 3.30 1.10 Slovakia [N2, S4]

Bohunice 1-4 1.72 1.79 1.43 1.59 1.38 2.05 1.88 0.87 Slovenia [S1]

Krsko 0.012 0.007 0.096 0.41 0.30 0.75 2.74 1.45 South Africa [C11]

Koeberg 1-2 0.55 1.28 0.56 0.32 0.26 0.31 0.13 0.16 Spain [C2]

Almaraz 1-2 Asco 1-2 José Cabrera 1 Trillo 1 Vandellos 2 0.0006 0.025 0.903 0.021 0.255 0.124 0.0125 1.49 0

0.009 0.026 0.008 4.84 0

0.12 0.011 0.013 0.702 0.007 0.083 0.014 0.007 0.025 0

0.034 0.014 0.048 0.003 0

0.029 0.089 0.0002 0.008 0

0.026 0.095 0.00033 0.18 0.31 0.052 Sweden [N3]

Ringhals 2-4 1.26 0.506 0.882 0.354 0.163 0.093 0.078 0.020 Switzerland [F3]

Beznau 1-2 Gsgen 0.24 0.041 0.015 0.016 0.004 0.015 0.004 0.027 0.007 0.018 0.040 0.025 0.010 0.056 0.073 Ukraine [G3]

Khmelnitski 1 Rovno 1-3 South Ukraine 1-3 Zaporozhe 1-6 0.44 3.92 0.012 0.1 0.45 0.95 0.021 0.27 1.37 1.47 0.012 2.44 0.57 1.10 0.0014 3.33 0.13 0.51 0.007 2.4 0.30 1.39 0.009 1.2 0.57 1.61 0.028 1.89 0.32 0.84 0.011 4.8 United Kingdom [M7]

Sizewell B 0.049 0.034 United States [T3]

Arkansas One 1-2 Beaver Valley 1-2 Braidwood 1-2 Byron 1-2 Callaway 1 Calvert Cliffs 1-2 Catawba 1-2 Comanche Peak 1-2 Crystal River 3 Davis-Besse 1 Diablo Canyon 1-2 Donald Cook 1-2 0.0074 0.0051 0.077 0.15 0.0053 0.054 0.051 0.028 0.087 0.0016 0.12 0.081 0.26 0.40 0.0063 0.0006 0.49 0.067 0.0007 0.0094 0.32 0.022 0.031 0.036 0.028 0.0014 0.016 0.017 0.62 0.021 0.031 0.020 0.011 0.27 0.0002 0.25 0.12 0.016 0.023 0.52 0.027 0.0037 0.0007 0.27 0.0002 0.0028 0.014 0.14 0.00056 0.16 0.016 0

0.00018 0.069 0.15 0.35 0.040 0.091 0.031 0.024 0.0016 0.067 0.014 0

0.021 0.23 0.33 0.007 0.47 0.017 0.0030 0.020 0

0.00005 0.000009 0.094 0.074 0.23 0.00008 0.041 0.0007 0.037 0

0 0.001 0

0.076

Table 33 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 256 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 United States (continued)

Farley 1-2 Fort Calhoun 1 R. E. Ginna Haddam Neck Harris 1 Indian Point 1-3 Kewaunee Maine Yankee McGuire 1-2 Millstone 2-3 North Anna 1-2 Oconee 1-2-3 Palisades Palo Verde 1-3 Point Beach 1-2 Prairie Island 1-2 Rancho Seco 1 H. B. Robinson 2 Salem 1-2 San Onofre 1-3 Seabrook 1 Sequoyah 1-2 South Texas 1-2 St. Lucie 1-2 Surry 1-2 Three Mile Island 1 Trojan Turkey Point 3-4 Virgil C. Summer 1 Vogtle 1-2 Waterford 3 Watts Bar 1 Wolf Creek Yankee NPS Zion 1-2 0.0001 0.065 0.19 0.094 0.17 0.00004 0.16 0.049 1.25 0.23 0.28 0.069 0.20 0.012 0.053 0.000004 0.050 0.51 0.0073 0.019 0.52 0.049 0.057 0.056 0.23 0.016 0.0010 0.022 0.0031 0.0050 0.048 0.060 0.0075 0.059 0.62 0.014 0.00001 0.24 0.044 0.93 0.094 1.50 0.0038 1.22 0.013 0.0044 0.085 0.47 0.0007 0.0002 0.0068 0.27 0.019 0.037 0.016 0.047 0.0087 0.074 0.085 0.089 0.0008 0.28 0.0072 0.011 0.052 0.0002 0.023 0.48 0.14 0.079 0.31 0.50 0.51 0.027 0.46 0.067 0.0070 0.00004 0.014 1.42 0.0001 0.0002 0.082 0.21 0.018 0.18 0.0084 0.0080 0.0079 0.050 0.0007 0.0006 0.00008 1.77 0

0.0008 0.027 0.098 0.0003 0.18 0.15 0.062 0.052 0.090 0.092 0.034 0.42 0.0045 0.025 0.054 0.23 1.79 0.00007 0.0002 0.091 0.023 0.27 0

0.084 0.16 0.017 0.00004 0.026 0

0.41 0.16 0.0015 0.0060 0.013 0

0.028 0.021 0.030 0.015 1.18 0.081 0.22 0.0003 0.001 0.024 0.07 0.0003 0.000001 0.027 0.15 0.049 0

0.18 0.0078 0.030 0.0040 0

0.0099 0.0046 0.11 0.0027 0.0016 0.011 0.0023 0.67 0.009 0.30 0.23 0.36 0.0041 0.019 0.019 1.76 0.0008 0.11 0.081 0.20 0

0.00001 0.030 0.029 0

0.34 0.0002 1.02 0.0061 0.00004 0.14 0.0044 0.00004 0.0036 0.004 0.13 0.31 0.23 0.0013 0

0 0.10 0.00017 0.0014 0.010 0.00011 0

0.00006 0.22 0.00002 0

0.0033 0

0.012 0.0049 0.0020 0

0.0004 0

0 0.007 0.004 0.044 0

0 0

0.30 0.064 0.14 0.00008 0

0.00003 0.076 0.020 0

0 BWRs China [T2]

Chin Shan 1-2 Kuosheng 1-2 11.9 0.102 5.00 0.0053 3.66 0.0011 0.99 0.0024 0.69 0.0034 0.13 0.052 0.091 0.0022 0.137 0.0030 Finland [F1]

Olkiluoto 1-2 0.056 0.25 0.15 0.081 1.1 0.038 0.026 0.017 Germany [B3]

Brunsbüttel Gundremmingen B,C Isar 1 Krümmel Philippsburg 1 Würgassen 0.02 0.015 0.00055 0.06 0.0014 0.019 0.031 0.00092 0.00017 0.077 0.0024 0.16 0.029 0.0021 0.0016 0.32 0.0033 0.098 0

0.00025 0.023 0.15 0.12 0.036 0

0.00036 0.035 0.036 0.59 0.045 0.00094 0.00029 0.013 0.38 0.05 0

0.017 0.00014 0.023 0.22 0.047 0

0.0011 0.00016 0.057 0.14 0.075 0

India [B4]

Tarapur 1-2 5.0 4.7 5.0 4.9 3.6 Japan [J1, J5]

Fukushima Daiichi 1-6 Fukushima Daini 1-4 Hamaoka 1-4 Kashiwazaki Kariwa 1-7 Onagawa 1-2 Shika 1 Shimane 1-2 Tokai 2 Tsuruga 1 0.0083 0

0.037 0

0 0

0 0.0005 0.0091 0

0 0

0 0

0 0.00006 0.0072 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0.0067 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0.0028 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0.0037 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0.0032 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0.00002 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

Table 33 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 257 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Mexico [C5]

Laguna Verde 1-2 0.012 0.12 0.073 0.11 0.057 0.063 0.23 0.18 Netherlands [N7]

Dodewaard 0.038 0.0035 0.0017 0.0014 0.0016 0.028 0.0024 0.0016 Spain [C2]

Confrentes S. Maria de Garona 0.032 0.015 3.05 0.031 1.48 0.012 0.604 0.105 0.38 0.083 0.128 0.091 0.052 0.031 0.24 0.011 Sweden [N3]

Barsebeck 1-2 Forsmark 1-3 Oskarshamn 1-3 Ringhals 1 0.039 0.66 1.90 0.14 0.60 3.50 0.60 0.097 0.057 1.10 0.64 0.063 0.0062 1.04 0.84 20.0 0.0065 0.68 0.73 35.0 0.021 0.58 0.34 12.3 0.0027 0.45 0.45 7.46 0.0079 0.23 0.46 4.20 Switzerland [F3]

Leibstadt Mühleberg 1.40 0.15 1.00 0.018 0.68 0.021 1.2 0.012 2.4 0.013 0.87 0.0054 0.71 0.0053 0.43 0.02 United States [T3]

Big Rock Point Browns Ferry 1-3 Brunswick 1-2 Clinton 1 Cooper Dresden 2-3 Duane Arnold 1 Enrico Fermi 2 Fitzpatrick Grand Gulf 1 Hatch 1-2 Hope Creek 1 Lasalle 1-2 Limerick 1-2 Millstone 1 Monticello Nine Mile Point 1-2 Oyster Creek Peach Bottom 2-3 Perry 1 Pilgrim 1 Quad Cities 1-2 River Bend 1 Susquehanna 1-2 Vermont Yankee WPPSS 2 0.077 0.44 0.0057 0.013 0.0096 0.13 0.073 0.019 0.22 0.044 0.080 0.0012 0.027 1.38 0.053 0.85 0.48 0.36 0.34 0.17 1.79 2.04 3.21 0.049 0.36 0.36 0.0011 0.0037 0.068 0.0047 0.090 0.096 0.075 0.17 0.065 0.016 1.12 0.19 0.94 1.30 0.51 1.42 0.058 1.45 0.0005 2.31 0.79 0.16 0.51 0.18 0.0020 0.0034 0.038 0.0034 0.15 0.0038 0.28 1.37 0.052 0.040 0.0083 1.23 0.090 1.47 1.04 5.62 1.19 0.043 0.30 0.0006 1.57 0.29 0.095 0.19 0.012 0.0047 0.0010 0.037 0.0034 0.23 0.018 0.017 9.25 1.10 0.42 0.052 0.35 0.17 0.37 1.78 1.47 1.14 0.047 0.81 0.42 0.48 0.12 0.50 0.08 0.0022 0.0014 0.011 0.0034 0.0047 0.056 3.33 0

0.12 0.14 0.012 0.32 0.015 0.38 2.01 0.48 0.50 0.026 1.78 0.0004 0.11 0.16 0.04 0.20 0.0036 0.0016 0.023 0.0036 0.044 0.054 0.004 1.51 0.024 0.17 3.54 0.056 0.14 0.11 1.87 1.01 0.23 0.070 1.40 0

0.07 0.11 0.17 0.78 0.016 0.71 0.048 0.0029 0.18 0.072 0.024 1.82 0.015 0

0.21 0.081 0.56 0.30 0.26 0.033 0.51 0

0.035 0.0023 0.02 1.36 0

0.65 0.22 0.0046 0.46 0.007 0.0003 2.24 0.020 0

0.18 0.10 0.21 0.050 0.90 0

0.015 HWRs Argentina [C3]

Atucha 1 Embalse 0.078 1.4 1.3 1.6 0.0089 0.07 0.49 0

0.44 0.26 0.35 1.7 0.041 0.27 0.53 0

Canada [A2]

Bruce 1-4 Bruce 5-8 Darlington 1-4 Gentilly 2 Pickering 1-4 Pickering 5-8 Point Lepreau 0.063 0.12 0.012 0

0.32 0.089 0

0.055 0.13 0.016 0.019 0.12 0.063 0.016 0.040 0.064 0.018 0.0037 0.089 0.052 0.0030 0.033 0.057 0.031 0.0037 0.13 0.048 0.0002 0.030 0.059 0.036 0

0.10 0.085 0.0051 0.027 0.12 0.034 0

0.074 0.10 0

0.019 0.044 0.022 0

0.073 0.098 0.0015 0.014 0.035 0.020 0

0.074 0.099 0.021 India [B4]

Kakrapar 1 Kalpakkam 1-2 Narora 1-2 Rajasthan 1-2 0.16 0

1.43 0.24 0.02 1.00 0.26 1.55 0.46 0.51 2.30 0.78 0.05 2.97 0.31

Table 33 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 258 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Japan [J1, J5]

Fugen 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 Pakistan [P2]

Karachi 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 Republic of Korea [K1]

Wolsong 1-2 0

0.0012 0.00037 0

0 0.052 0.14 0

Romania Cernavoda 0

0.0071 United Kingdom [N5]

Winfrith 0.22 0.38 GCRs France [E1]

Bugey 1 Chinon A2-3 St. Laurent A1-2 A m o u n t s i n c l u d e d w i t h n o b l e g a s e s (Table 31)

Japan [J1, J5]

Tokai1 0.0020 0.0014 0.0006 0.00005 0

0.0016 0.0005 0

Spain [C2]

Vandellos 1 0.0002 0.0001 0

0 0

0 0

U. K. [M7, N4, N5]

Berkeley Bradwell Calder Hall Chapelcross Dungeness A Dungeness B1-B2 Hartlepool A1-A2 Heysham 1A-B, 2A-B Hinkley Point A Hinkley Point B, A-B Hunterston A1 Hunterston B1-B2 Oldbury A Sizewell A Torness A-B Trawsfynydd Wylfa 0.58 1.9 0.3 1.5 0.4 0.57 2.0 0.2 1.5 0.41 1.05 3.0 0.3 1.5 0.14 0.61 6.0 0.3 1.4 0.1 0.4 0.3 1.4 0.1 0.3 0.3 1.5 0.1 0.004 0.3 1.4 0.02 0.004 0.19 1.40 0.02 LWGRs Lithuania [E2]

Ignalina 1-2 4.25 10.0 1.2 0.5 2.9 6.2 11.5 6.3 Russian Federation [M6]

Bilibino 1-4 Kursk 1-4 Leningrad 1-4 Smolensk 1-3 0

7.47 20.7 3.41 0

1.08 36.3 3.92 0

3.51 88.8 9.99 0

7.29 19.6 16.5 0

3.65 30.3 12.2 0

6.75 19.6 6.21 0

9.99 29.2 5.67 0

10.7 17.5 23.8 Ukraine [G3]

Chernobyl 1-3 10.8 6.77 2.85 7.96 4.66 5.40 7.84 1.96 FBRs France [E1]

Creys-Malville Phenix N o t r e p o r t e d Kazakhstan Bn-350

Table 33 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 259 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Russian Federation [M6]

Beloyarsky 3 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

United Kingdom [N5]

Dounreay PFR Summary parameter Reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 All reactors Total release (GBq)

PWRs BWRs HWRs GCRs LWGRs FBRs All 32.3 33.4 3.90 4.68 46.6 121 28.2 30.7 4.96 4.68 58.1 127 60.7 29.1 2.62 5.99 106 205 44.1 49.1 4.39 8.41 51.9 158 15.3 55.6 4.35 2.20 53.7 131 19.7 25.8 2.41 2.20 44.2 94.2 19.4 15.6 0.71 1.72 64.2 102 20.1 12.6 0.80 1.62 60.3 95.4 Annual normalized release

[GBq (GW a)-1]

PWRs BWRs HWRs GCRs LWGRs FBRs All 0.31 0.74 0.39 1.8 4.4 0.70 0.26 0.62 0.44 1.4 5.6 0.69 0.54 0.60 0.25 1.5 12 1.1 0.40 0.98 0.35 1.8 5.5 0.84 0.14 1.1 0.32 0.49 7.1 0.69 0.18 0.45 0.20 0.56 5.5 0.48 0.16 0.30 0.06 0.37 7.3 0.52 0.19 0.26 0.07 0.35 7.7 0.53 Average normalized release 1990-1994 and 1995-1997

[GBq (GW a)-1]

PWRs BWRs HWRs GCRs LWGRs FBRs All 0.33 0.81 0.35 1.4 6.8 0.81 0.17 0.33 0.11 0.42 6.9 0.51

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 260 Table 34 Particulates released from reactors in airborne effluents Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 PWRs Armenia [A5]

Armenia 2 2.34 2.77 Belgium [M1]

Doel 1-4 Tihange 1-3 0.162 0.136 0.1 0.077 0.075 0.017 0.008 0.020 0.0006 0.032 0.0036 0.051 0.0028 0.033 0.0015 0.015 Brazil [C7]

Angra 1 0.000009 0.000007 0.0000001 0

0.01 0.044 Bulgaria [C6]

Kozloduy 1-6 2.4 1.7 3.8 2.3 2.0 1.50 1.92 1.86 China [C8, T2]

Guangdong 1-2 Qinshan Maanshan 1-2 0

0 0.016 0.0044 0.0037 0.011 0.0019 0.011 Czech Republic [N2]

Dukovany 1-4 0.099 0.10 0.21 0.21 0.15 0.13 0.080 0.24 Finland [F1]

Loviisa 1-2 0.2 0.17 0.28 0.081 0.23 0.34 0.22 0.25 France [E1]

Belleville 1-2 Blayais 1-4 Bugey 2-5 Cattenom 1-4 Chinon B1-B4 Chooz-A (Ardennes)

Chooz B1-B2 Cruas 1-4 Dampierre 1-4 Fessenheim 1-2 Flamanville 1-2 Golfech 1-2 Gravelines 1-6 Nogent 1-2 Paluel 1-4 Penly 1-2 St. Alban 1-2 St. Laurent B1-B Tricastin 1-4 0.59 0.52 0.54 0.25 1.0 0.099 0.21 0.55 0.029 0.12 0.049 1.4 0.18 0.26 0.019 0.089 0.089 0.40 0.39 0.33 0.93 0.19 1.4 0.88 0.14 0.37 0.039 0.19 0.029 1.1 0.099 0.39 0.019 0.29 0.029 0.44 0.57 0.53 0.44 0.35 0.90 0.019 0.11 0.37 0.029 0.48 0.019 0.75 0.28 0.24 0.049 0.11 0.039 0.35 2.2 0.31 0.44 0.23 0.30 0.012 0.25 0.84 0.029 0.12 0.028 1.1 0.65 0.18 0.087 0.12 0.039 0.33 0.18 0.44 0.38 0.22 0.86 0.012 0.52 0.69 0.019 0.25 0.019 2.1 0.17 1.3 0.31 0.089 0.039 0.13 0.21 0.80 0.32 0.17 0.41 0.006 0.17 1.1 0.019 0.10 0.039 4.3 0.15 0.54 0.039 0.59 0.079 0.13 0.25 0.33 0.33 0.18 0.099 0.0004 0.039 0.14 0.099 0.039 0.12 0.19 0.55 0.25 0.33 0.096 0.13 0.074 0.11 0.089 0.11 0.38 0.17 0.069 0.0002 0.87 0.059 0.10 0.029 0.12 0.80 0.35 0.15 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.099 0.19 Germany [B3]

Biblis A-B Brokdorf Emsland Grafenrheinfeld Greifswald Grohnde Isar 2 Mülheim-Krlich Neckarwestheim 1-2 Obrigheim Philippsburg 2 Stade Unterweser 0.011 0.00037 0.0006 0.0083 0.62 0.0001 0.000037 0

0.0063 0.004 0.00045 0.046 0.0019 0.024 0.0012 0.00039 0.0033 0.12 0

0.000013 0

0.0034 0.0086 0.00037 0.021 0.0021 0.014 0

0.00037 0.0019 0.063 0.00059 0.00034 0

0.0026 0.0049 0.001 0.0049 0.001 0.01 0.0014 0.000071 0.0015 0.038 0.00029 0.000036 0

0.0016 0.012 0.0018 0.005 0.00099 0.03 0.00045 0.00068 0.0016 0.021 0.0011 0

0 0.0071 0.012 0.0018 0.0042 0.0014 0.0025 0

0.000007 0.0027 0.28 0.00025 0

0 0.0012 0.018 0.00099 0.079 0.0012 0.0020 0

0.00066 0.0026 0.16 0.00096 0.0018 0

0.0029 0.0092 0.00015 0.0010 0.0015 0.0084 0

0.00017 0.002 0.087 0.0012 0.00007 0

0.00027 0.0074 0.00053 0.00024 0.00079 Hungary [F2]

Paks 1-4 1.14 1.30 0.45 1.30 1.28 0.49 0.74 1.30

Table 34 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 261 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Japan [J1, J5]

Genkai 1-4 Ikata 1-3 Mihama 1-3 Ohi 1-4 Sendai 1-2 Takahama 1-4 Tomari 1-2 Tsuruga 2 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 Netherlands [N7]

Borssele 0

0 0

0 0.0011 0

0 0

Republic of Korea [K1]

Kori 1-4 Ulchin 1-2 Yonggwang 1-4 0.12 0.024 0.00078 0.015 0.00004 0.0011 0.0014 0.0016 0.00015 0.95 0.00002 0

0.00007 0.0077 2.7 0.00007 0.015 0.013 0.0027 0.0020 0.023 0

0.021 0.00062 Russian Federation [M6]

Balakovo 1-4 Kalinin 1-2 Kola 1-4 Novovoronezh 2-5 1.49 0.03 8.51 1.88 0.14 0.03 7.16 2.43 0.27 0.03 2.57 0.95 0.41 0.20 3.24 1.07 0.24 0.14 2.97 0.68 0.14 0.05 2.03 2.43 0.18 0.11 0.92 2.30 0.12 0.09 0.20 1.54 Slovakia [N2, S4]

Bohunice 1-4 0.38 0.54 1.46 1.1 0.37 0.53 0.30 0.54 Slovenia [S1]

Krsko 0

0 0

0.0034 0.0004 0.020 0.00017 0.0036 South Africa [C11]

Koeberg 1-2 1.04 4.50 2.18 3.79 4.97 6.22 3.31 4.19 Spain [C2]

Almaraz 1-2 Asco 1-2 José Cabrera 1 Trillo 1 Vandellos 2 0.071 0.032 0.063 0.01 0.019 0.033 0.02 0.25 0.017 0.017 0.006 0.025 0.668 0.006 0.027 0.04 0.028 0.344 0.006 0.021 0.037 0.024 0.007 0.005 0.037 0.011 0.219 0.004 0.006 0.004 0.043 0.016 0.017 0.002 0.008 0.0079 0.036 0.0088 0.0022 0.025 Sweden [N3]

Ringhals 2-4 0.017 0.014 0.0038 0.016 0.014 0.0051 0.00088 0.050 Switzerland [F3]

Beznau 1-2 Gsgen 0.0015 0.0024 0.0018 0.0013 0.0041 0.00067 0.00087 0.006 0.002 0.006 0.006 0.010 0.006 0.010 0.006 0.010 Ukraine [G3]

Khmelnitski 1 Rovno 1-3 South Ukraine 1-3 Zaporozhe 1-6 0.035 0.33 0.012 0.13 0.16 0.30 0.021 0.15 0.10 0.48 0.012 0.28 0.12 0.18 0.0014 0.28 0.076 0.17 0.007 0.17 0.080 0.39 0.009 0.17 0.10 0.13 0.028 0.12 0.076 0.16 0.011 0.08 United Kingdom [M7]

Sizewell B 0.0087 0.0051 United States [T3]

Arkansas One 1-2 Beaver Valley 1-2 Braidwood 1-2 Byron 1-2 Callaway 1 Calvert Cliffs 1-2 Catawba 1-2 Comanche Peak 1-2 Crystal River 3 Davis-Besse 1 Diablo Canyon 1-2 Donald Cook 1-2 0.033 0.019 0.0014 0.0015 0.0001 0.0091 0.013 0.0014 0.0002 0.0011 0.0006 2.60 1.59 0.11 0.012 0.0004 0.00004 0.0001 0.036 0

0.0075 0.0022 0.00026 0.058 1.84 0.029 0

0 0.0058 0.0020 0.036 0

0.0003 0.024 0.095 0.074 0.00022 0.56 0

0.00022 0.039 0.28 0.0073 0.00014 0.00025 0.016 0.0017 0.016 0.0004 0.045 0

0.00051 0.044 0.0034 0

0.00035 0.0020 0.013 0.078 0.15 0.73 0

0.00086 0.057 0.0019 0.14 0

0.00009 0.0038 0.22 0.0004 0.048 0.0039 0.0002 0.00009 0.00056 0.00008 0.00023 0.0052 0.0057 1.10 0.0002 0.029 0.0001 0.00021 0.036 0

0.001 0.001 0.46

Table 34 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 262 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 United States (continued)

Farley 1-2 Fort Calhoun 1 R. E. Ginna Haddam Neck Harris 1 Indian Point 1-3 Kewaunee Maine Yankee McGuire 1-2 Millstone 2-3 North Anna 1-2 Oconee 1-2-3 Palisades Palo Verde 1-3 Point Beach 1-2 Prairie Island 1-2 Rancho Seco 1 H. B. Robinson 2 Salem 1-2 San Onofre 1-3 Seabrook 1 Sequoyah 1-2 South Texas 1-2 St. Lucie 1-2 Surry 1-2 Three Mile Island 1 Trojan Turkey Point 3-4 Virgil C. Summer 1 Vogtle 1-2 Waterford 3 Watts Bar Wolf Creek Yankee NPS Zion 1-2 0

0.0015 0.0011 0.080 0.0029 0.036 0.12 0.51 0.027 0.0030 0.022 0.052 0.010 0.059 0.0083 0.0026 0

0.0050 0.0021 0.024 0

0.0025 0.045 0.0030 0.059 0.00014 0.0048 0.0059 0.0043 0.0020 0

0.0032 0.0010 0.0026 0

0.0044 0.0019 0.34 0.0017 0.064 0.071 0.028 0.028 0.019 0.0059 0.041 0.0073 0.10 0.12 0.014 0

0.0064 0.0031 0.028 0.039 0.021 0.084 0.0070 0.022 0.0029 0.0054 0.0013 0.0018 0.0033 0.0026 0

0.00035 0.0070 0.0086 0.01 0

0.20 0.0070 0.0081 0.00006 0.052 0.0067 0.021 0.0037 0.011 0.0084 0.060 0.41 0.0024 0

0.0051 0.0025 0.019 0.041 0.0032 0.013 0.0085 0.011 0.0012 0.0007 0.0008 0

0.17 0.00037 0.00005 0.00029 0.12 0.0011 0.00006 0.00056 0.36 0.0064 0.041 0.0007 0.060 0.0021 0.026 0.017 0.031 0.0077 0.29 0.54 0.0026 0

0.0033 0.00074 0.069 0.00002 0.00045 0.020 0.0046 0.0065 0.00025 0

0 0.0048 0.0021 0

0 0.00003 0.87 0.50 0.00011 0.00023 0.0041 0.0017 0.037 0.00024 0.0054 0.0026 0.11 0.0029 0.095 0.08 0.0028 0.0001 0.00073 0.021 0

0.0013 0.020 0.012 0.00046 0

0.0016 0.014 0.0040 0.0028 0.00027 0.035 0.00089 0.00084 0.00014 0.34 0.00054 0.037 0.0072 0.0052 0.003 0.015 0.0035 0.056 0.16 0.005 0.0003 0.00077 0.018 0.017 0.0079 0.006 0.00015 0

0.00002 0.0091 0.0027 0.00091 0.14 0.0004 0.00026 0.020 0.0015 0.0013 0.030 0.00006 0.00028 0.012 0.01 0.0041 0.0095 0.0084 0.006 0.0013 0.00098 0.029 0.0016 0.0057 0.007 0.000001 0

0.00025 0.012 0.00019 0

0.00004 0.00076 0.060 0.00024 0.0089 0.00021 0.00095 0.0017 0.0005 0.001 0.014 0.0032 0.00008 0.033 0.0006 0.00012 0.018 0.0052 0.002 0.0012 0

0.0019 0.00090 0.00080 0.00003 0.032 BWRs China [T2]

Chin Shan 1-2 Kuosheng 1-2 0.71 0.0039 0.22 0.075 0.080 0.015 0.039 0.0003 0.11 0.0003 0.038 0.0024 0.020 0

0.012 0.000007 Finland [F1]

Olkilouto 1-2 0.22 0.74 0.3 0.11 0.13 0.033 0.014 0.045 Germany [B3]

Brunsbüttel Gundremmingen B,C Isar 1 Krümmel Philippsburg 1 Würgassen 0.054 0

0.0063 0.0051 0.073 0.045 0.023 0

0.0019 0.039 0.023 0.17 0.075 0

0.0087 0.025 0.022 0.058 0.041 0

0.011 0.028 0.08 0.077 0.034 0

0.018 0.019 0.054 0.053 0.034 0

0.010 0.034 0.032 0.013 0.034 0.000074 0.016 0.086 0.021 0.012 0.026 0.000062 0.013 0.15 0.025 0.041 India [B4]

Tarapur 1-2 8.6 21.6 4.8 8.7 5.8 Japan [J1, J5]

Fukushima Daiichi 1-6 Fukushima Daini 1-4 Hamaoka 1-4 Kashiwazaki Kariwa 1-7 Onagawa 1-2 Shika 1 Shimane 1-2 Tokai 2 Tsuruga 1 0.0081 0

0 0

0 0.0002 0

0 0.0017 0

0 0

0 0.0004 0

0.00005 0.0010 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0.0003 0.0019 0

0 0

0 0

0.0010 0

0.00004 0.0034 0

0 0

0 0

0.0003 0

0.00008 0.0002 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0.0006 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0.0001 0.0020 0

0 0

0 0

0.0004 0

0

Table 34 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 263 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Mexico [C5]

Laguna Verde 1-2 0.12 1.11 0.31 0.55 0.21 16.7 2.01 0.63 Netherlands [N7]

Dodewaard 0.028 0.0086 0.0043 0.0045 0.0052 0.0049 0.0046 0.005 Spain [C2]

Confrentes S. Maria de Garona 0.153 0.071 0.545 0.032 0.415 0.046 0.077 0.139 0.066 0.216 0.049 0.077 0.005 0.127 0.46 0.015 Sweden [N3]

Barsebeck 1-2 Forsmark 1-3 Oskarshamn 1-3 Ringhals 1 0.19 82.7 275 20.2 0.37 139 178 65.0 0.73 199 58.8 0.022 0.48 37.8 53.2 323 0.48 19.5 40.5 43 500 1.00 84.4 14.0 44 700 3.06 1.84 40.8 10 600 1.60 2.77 30.5 1 740 Switzerland [F3]

Leibstadt Mühleberg 0.036 0.049 0.0071 0.078 0.0019 0.013 0.003 0.01 0.011 0.007 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 United States [T3]

Big Rock Point Browns Ferry 1-3 Brunswick 1-2 Clinton 1 Cooper Dresden 2-3 Duane Arnold 1 Enrico Fermi 2 Fitzpatrick Grand Gulf 1 Hatch 1-2 Hope Creek 1 Lasalle 1-2 Limerick 1-2 Millstone 1 Monticello Nine Mile Point 1-2 Oyster Creek Peach Bottom 2-3 Perry 1 Pilgrim 1 Quad Cities 1-2 River Bend 1 Susquehanna 1-2 Vermont Yankee WPPSS 2 0.13 0.0070 1.35 0.32 0.028 5.45 0.16 0.44 0.63 0.018 0.094 0.16 0.047 0.027 0.070 0.22 0.23 0.31 0.19 0.052 0.036 1.06 0.13 0.032 0.64 2.34 0.065 0.69 0.35 0.34 0.017 1.45 0.093 0.12 0.83 0.083 0.044 0.016 0.19 0.0042 0.076 0.22 0.59 0.21 0.28 0.011 0.32 0.38 0.19 0.0085 0.68 1.53 0.026 1.21 0.097 0.091 0.015 0.84 0.11 0.10 0.012 0.046 0.20 0.099 0.048 0.015 0.047 0.25 0.32 0.64 0.14 0

0.52 1.09 0.044 0.17 0.79 1.31 0.046 0.76 0.28 0.68 0.013 1.38 0.077 0.11 0.067 0.0031 3.88 0.072 4.94 0.63 0.14 0.74 0.37 0.086 0.29 0.085 0.47 0.91 0.052 0.048 0.32 0.86 0.12 0.65 0.78 1.70 0.016 0.58 0.030 0.0052 0.77 0.0034 11.4 0.0017 0.14 17.8 0.23 0.10 0.13 0.19 0.52 2.62 0.25 0.10 0.13 0.07 0.07 0.10 0.09 0.83 0.16 0.012 0.52 0.11 0.052 0.45 0.0032 0.45 0.071 0.22 0.17 0.42 0.067 0.1 0.51 0.21 0.87 0.77 0.14 0.06 0.025 0.25 0.13 0.24 0.036 1.58 0.079 0.064 0.056 0.047 0.0014 2.43 0.14 0.021 0.063 0.093 0.15 0.75 0.089 0.77 0.13 0.029 0.007 0.081 0.14 0.36 0.0025 2.42 0.30 0.014 0.12 0.01 0.0059 1.85 0.095 0.016 0.048 0.068 0.087 0.66 0.24 0.054 0.032 HWRs Argentina [C3]

Atucha 1 Embalse 0.0011 0

0.015 0.12 0.015 0.025 0.18 0

0.049 0.0036 0.013 0.077 0.038 0

0.006 0

Canada [A2]

Bruce 1-4 Bruce 5-8 Darlington 1-4 Gentilly 2 Pickering 1-4 Pickering 5-8 Point Lepreau 0.081 0.14 0.012 0.00037 0.29 0.018 0

0.063 0.14 0.046 0.013 0.087 0.019 0

0.072 0.12 0.046 0.074 0.089 0.020 0.0040 0.079 0.12 0.11 0.052 0.085 0.021 0.0013 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.070 0.070 0.041 0.0005 0.12 0.12 0.085 0.045 0.070 0.026 0

0.072 0.075 0.058 0.030 0.051 0.027 0

0.070 0.088 0.065 0.114 0.355 0.039 0.00005 India [B4]

Kakrapar 1 Kalpakkam 1-2 Narora 1-2 Rajasthan 1-2 0

0 0.014 0

0 0.004 0

0 0.004 0

0 0.006 0

0 0.002

Table 34 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 264 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Japan [J1, J5]

Fugen 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 Pakistan [P2]

Karachi 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 Republic of Korea [K1]

Wolsong 1-2 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 Romania Cernavoda 0

0 United Kingdom [N5]

Winfrith 0.19 0.021 0.00002 0.00002 GCRs France [E1]

Bugey 1 Chinon A2-3 St. Laurent A1-2 0.43 0.025 0.21 0.38 0.018 0.13 0.29 0.011 0.14 0.17 0.006 0.011 0.30 0.008 0.005 0.38 0.019 0.002 0.009 0.005 0.001 0.005 0.009 0.0007 Japan [J1, J5]

Tokai 1 0.0021 0.011 0.0002 0.0002 0.0013 0.0001 0.0002 0

Spain [C2]

Vandellos 1 0.02 0.004 0.003 0.002 0.0008 0

0.002 U. K. [M7, N4, N5]

Berkeley Bradwell Calder Hall Chapelcross Dungeness A Dungeness B1-B2 Hartlepool A1-A2 Heysham 1A-B, 2A-B Hinkley Point A Hinkley Point B, A-B Hunterston A1 Hunterston B1-B2 Oldbury A Sizewell A-B Torness A-B Trawsfynydd Wylfa 0.01 0.07 0.17 0.07 0.04 0.05 0.30 0.57 0.008 0.13 0.05 0.33 0.045 0.28 0.11 0.01 0.07 0.11 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.23 0.46 0.0016 0.049 0.07 0.37 0.027 0.04 0.10 0.01 0.03 0.13 0.07 0.04 0.012 0.15 0.32 0.0011 0.12 0.10 0.41 0.013 0.02 0.16 0.01 0.05 0.21 0.07 0.04 0.07 0.23 0.40 0.0036 0.18 0.10 0.55 0.026 0.01 0.13 0.01 0.26 0.26 0.04 0.04 0.07 0.23 0.31 0.0025 0.13 0.08 0.53 0.071 0.01 0.11 0.01 0.16 0.4 0.01 0.04 0.08 0.16 0.08 0.0013 0.074 0.10 0.36 0.014 0.01 0.10 0.004 0.21 0.33 0.049 0.035 0.069 0.077 0.077 0.0002 0.036 0.091 0.022 0.015 0.0016 0.0087 0.004 0.20 0.30 0.035 0.025 0.099 0.17 0.075 0.0002 0.034 0.10 0.073 0.015 0.0023 0.074 LWGRs Lithuania [E2]

Ignalina 1-2 9.8 1.06 2.2 1.5 8.2 4.2 7.8 1.3 Russian Federation [M6]

Bilibino 1-4 Kursk 1-4 Leningrad 1-4 Smolensk 1-3 0

25.9 62.2 9.55 0

11.6 96.2 12.4 0

11.2 98.7 24.0 0

9.18 28.1 8.64 0

8.51 76.4 2.70 0

13.1 42.6 1.76 0

13.5 64.6 2.97 0

19.2 22.9 3.78 Ukraine [G3]

Chernobyl 1-3 51.2 43.2 13.7 13.5 6.85 3.66 4.00 1.89 FBRs France [E1]

Creys-Malville Phenix 0.008 0.012 0.011 0.011 0.012 0.013 0.013 0.013 Kazakhstan [A6]

Bn-350 0.84 0.97 1.25 23.4 0.69 0.67 0.53 0.46

Table 34 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 265 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Russian Federation [M6]

Beloyarsky 3 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 United Kingdom Dounreay PFR Summary parameter Reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 All reactors Total release (GBq)

PWRs BWRs HWRs GCRs LWGRs FBRs All 29.2 402 0.75 2.92 159 0.85 595 29.6 416 0.51 2.33 164 0.98 614 22.9 273 0.49 2.14 150 1.26 450 26.3 442 0.65 2.27 60.9 23.4 555 25.2 43 610 0.55 2.47 103 0.70 43 740 26.5 44 820 0.56 2.00 65.3 0.68 44 920 17.7 10 660 0.35 1.04 92.9 0.54 10 770 18.2 1 783 0.74 1.22 49.0 0.47 1 852 Annual normalized release

[GBq (GW a)-1]

PWRs BWRs HWRs GCRs LWGRs FBRs All 0.21 8.4 0.076 0.43 15 2.0 2.8 0.20 8.0 0.044 0.32 16 2.5 2.7 0.15 5.5 0.046 0.27 17 2.4 2.0 0.17 8.6 0.053 0.25 6.4 47 2.4 0.17 826 0.040 0.27 14 1.5 187 0.17 781 0.046 0.24 8.2 1.7 188 0.11 204 0.030 0.14 11 0.7 45 0.12 36 0.070 0.13 6.3 1.1 8.2 Average normalized release 1990-1994 and 1995-1997

[GBq (GW a)-1]

PWRs BWRs HWRs GCRs LWGRs FBRs All 0.18 178 0.051 0.30 14 12 40 0.13 351 0.048 0.17 8.4 1.0 81

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 266 Table 35 Tritium released from reactors in liquid effluents Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 PWRs Armenia Armenia 2 Belgium [M1]

Doel 1-4 Tihange 1-3 63 000 56 400 38 100 34 500 43 900 34 900 32 800 35 200 32 800 33 100 47 000 41 200 31 300 44 700 38 400 47 300 Brazil [C7]

Angra 1 12 200 11 400 49 300 6 560 587 5 130 4 640 19 500 Bulgaria [C6]

Kozloduy 1-6 N o t r e p o r t e d 11 690 China [C8, T2]

Guangdong 1-2 Qinshan Maanshan 1-2 4 630 6 030 1 690 9 140 1 450 16 900 22 200 6 320 20 500 10 100 4 820 11 700 22 100 3 580 15 300 38 500 2 950 6 790 Czech Republic [N2]

Dukovany 1-4 20 100 18 300 19 300 18 600 15 600 14 500 17 200 14 600 Finland [F1]

Loviisa 1-2 12 000 14 000 10 000 12 000 11 000 12 000 9 400 12 000 France [E1]

Belleville 1-2 Blayais 1-4 Bugey 2-5 Cattenom 1-4 Chinon B1-B4 Chooz-A (Ardennes)

Chooz B1-B2 Cruas 1-4 Dampierre 1-4 Fessenheim 1-2 Flamanville 1-2 Golfech 1-2 Gravelines 1-6 Nogent 1-2 Paluel 1-4 Penly 1-2 St. Alban 1-2 St. Laurent B1-B2 Tricastin 1-4 31 000 58 000 42 000 35 000 62 000 108 000 51 000 52 000 20 000 48 000 500 87 000 23 000 100 000 4 000 30 000 34 000 49 000 39 000 54 000 30 000 47 000 49 000 95 000 37 000 52 000 26 000 37 000 8 000 80 000 18 000 82 000 16 000 24 000 36 000 33 000 37 000 39 000 15 000 86 000 52 000 26 000 34 000 73 000 16 000 34 000 9 000 70 000 18 000 73 000 20 000 9 000 41 000 32 000 38 000 36 000 46 000 66 000 33 000 800 46 000 50 000 17 000 35 000 8 400 43 000 26 000 77 000 33 000 13 000 33 000 34 000 22 000 32 000 35 000 69 000 33 000 1 000 55 000 43 000 20 000 30 000 30 000 60 000 22 000 67 000 23 000 16 000 24 000 38 000 30 000 46 000 33 000 80 000 44 000 600 43 000 44 000 21 000 31 000 27 000 39 000 25 000 75 000 24 000 22 000 16 000 25 000 36 000 53 000 33 000 72 000 44 000 1600 200 50 000 44 000 20 000 35 000 22 000 51 000 32 000 70 000 29 000 43 000 20 000 46 000 33 000 40 000 38 000 74 000 59 000 100 13 000 37 000 38 000 22 000 25 000 33 000 58 000 22 000 81 000 24 000 23 000 17 000 32 000 Germany [B3]

Biblis A-B Brokdorf Emsland Grafenrheinfeld Greifswald Grohnde Isar 2 Mülheim-Krlich Neckarwestheim 1-2 Obrigheim Philippsburg 2 Stade Unterweser 23 000 9 400 8 700 12 000 6 400 14 000 7 200 2 000 27 000 3 500 19 000 3 400 11 000 18 300 15 000 8 300 14 000 200 16 000 8 600 490 32 000 890 17 000 2 900 11 000 25 000 19 000 13 000 14 000 83 14 000 16 000 420 24 000 3 300 15 000 4 800 9 000 30 000 14 000 9 500 13 000 31 15 000 19 000 460 30 000 5 400 13 000 4 800 8 500 26 000 14 000 13 000 13 000 69 18 000 22 000 320 38 000 4 400 13 000 3 600 7 700 21 000 12 000 10 000 13 000 45 12 000 19 000 250 35 000 4 600 17 000 2 700 6 000 15 000 14 000 12 000 16 000 26 10 000 20 000 49 34 000 5 700 15 000 2 900 12 000 25 000 17 000 15 000 16 000 24 7 400 17 000 180 33 000 5 100 16 000 2 700 15 000 Hungary [F2]

Paks 1-4 14 000 16 000 16 000 18 000 18 000 20 000 20 000 15 600

Table 35 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 267 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Japan [J1, J5]

Genkai 1-4 Ikata 1-3 Mihama 1-3 Ohi 1-4 Sendai 1-2 Takahama 1-4 Tomari 1-2 Tsuruga 2 34 000 33 000 20 000 16 000 37 000 35 000 16 000 23 000 26 000 29 000 13 000 20 000 36 000 30 000 11 000 30 000 24 000 25 000 12 000 29 000 48 000 55 000 21 000 7 500 36 000 33 000 18 000 42 000 39 000 69 000 24 000 16 000 50 000 38 000 11 000 63 000 31 000 33 000 21 000 12 000 58 000 53 000 17 000 61 000 42 000 37 000 19 000 18 000 46 000 40 000 17 000 59 000 50 000 57 000 26 000 14 000 61 000 45 000 16 000 46 000 36 000 64 000 30 000 21 000 Netherlands [N7]

Borssele 5 540 2 900 4 370 5 980 5 870 6 161 6 020 4 330 Republic of Korea [K1]

Kori 1-4 Ulchin 1-2 Yonggwang 1-4 76 100 13 100 42 600 85 900 14 300 29 600 48 700 35 300 28 600 66 100 29 900 46 600 58 000 28 000 26 000 31 800 21 300 27 900 32 900 20 800 42 200 36 700 21 900 55 800 Russian Federation Balakovo 1-4 Kalinin 1-2 Kola 1-4 Novovoronezh 2-5 A v e r a g e n o r m a l i z e d r e l e a s e e s t i m a t e d t o b e 30,000 GBq (GW a) -1 Slovakia [N2, S4]

Bohunice 1-4 13 000 15 600 12 800 14 000 12 600 12 400 12 700 9 580 Slovenia [S1]

Krsko 13 500 13 500 14 600 10 900 10 500 8 500 9 300 7 800 South Africa [C11]

Koeberg 1-2 60 700 91 000 83 700 13 500 17 900 11 300 31 800 17 200 Spain [C2]

Almaraz 1-2 Asco 1-2 José Cabrera 1 Trillo 1 Vandellos 2 47 200 42 300 1 740 10 900 14 600 48 600 53 400 1 340 20 000 17 200 53 700 59 300 2 940 11 900 10 400 70 600 55 500 943 19 800 15 700 51 300 35 800 511 19 000 14 700 42 800 85 800 1 020 14 000 13 400 49 300 50 700 2 590 19 400 16 600 54 100 58 000 2 160 28 800 20 700 Sweden [N3]

Ringhals 48 800 45 400 53 100 43 400 34 300 21 000 24 600 22 500 Switzerland [F3]

Beznau 1-2 Gsgen 9 300 11 000 8 900 12 000 7 200 12 000 12 000 13 000 11 000 11 000 12 000 14 000 12 000 13 000 12 000 14 000 Ukraine [G3]

Khmelnitski 1 Rovno 1-3 South Ukraine 1-3 Zaporozhe 1-5 15 13 12 1 600 25 2 050 28 1 810 28 663 39 1 380 23 United Kingdom [M7]

Sizewell B 37 600 44 200 United States [T3]

Arkansas One 1-2 Beaver Valley 1-2 Braidwood 1-2 Byron 1-2 Callaway 1 Calvert Cliffs 1-2 Catawba 1-2 Comanche Peak 1-2 Crystal River 3 Davis-Besse 1 Diablo Canyon 1-2 Donald Cook 1-2 29 600 18 200 48 100 36 900 37 700 2 700 22 000 6 920 18 900 4 700 35 800 57 700 53 900 17 900 25 400 52 900 45 400 37 600 23 900 17 000 16 600 12 100 38 900 57 400 29 700 17 200 70 900 58 500 21 900 65 600 28 600 22 600 13 500 14 100 45 100 16 000 28 100 20 500 59 600 76 200 52 000 23 500 30 600 18 600 21 800 6 700 38 100 22 200 35 400 13 600 45 700 38 100 24 200 21 700 32 900 12 200 16 400 102 000 212 34 100 19 200 69 600 50 000 29 300 28 200 18 100 31 100 6 200 58 090 300 42 400 72 900 52 100 43 300 28 000 23 700 36 500 9 700 19 400 35 500 75 200 26 500 20 100 25 300 33 600 23 900 53 800 25 100 49 600 111 000

Table 35 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 268 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 United States (continued)

Farley 1-2 Fort Calhoun 1 R. E. Ginna Haddam Neck Harris 1 Indian Point 1-3 Kewaunee Maine Yankee McGuire 1-2 Millstone 2-3 North Anna 1-2 Oconee 1-2-3 Palisades Palo Verde 1-3 Point Beach 1-2 Prairie Island 1-2 Rancho Seco 1 H. B. Robinson 2 Salem 1-2 San Onofre 1-3 Seabrook 1 Sequoyah 1-2 South Texas 1-2 St. Lucie 1-2 Surry 1-2 Three Mile Island 1 Trojan Turkey Point 3-4 Virgil C. Summer 1 Vogtle 1-2 Waterford 3 Watts Bar Wolf Creek Yankee NPS Zion 1-2 52 100 6 440 11 900 36 600 26 900 36 100 14 000 8 990 33 900 48 100 61 900 36 700 5 510 0

32 300 14 700 507 13 100 24 300 87 000 4 180 31 600 30 200 21 000 41 000 7 810 8 100 23 800 15 600 43 400 26 300 21 800 7 110 25 200 30 500 6 500 13 900 171 000 10 800 40 100 16 100 14 400 32 500 21 100 42 900 41 800 2 040 0

29 100 20 600 36.4 6 960 38 800 86 300 14 280 61 100 40 300 30 000 33 800 13 300 6 250 7 550 30 100 40 500 12 700 26 500 7 510 34 400 59 500 3 920 7 880 31 900 33 400 42 400 10 700 8 030 32 000 26 000 34 400 36 900 29 90 0

15 400 17 500 895 14 600 17 400 144 000 18 500 53 300 50 400 29 600 36 000 20 700 7 250 16 400 22 500 54 800 18 300 16 700 2 330 19 300 67 300 8 840 6 550 148 000 20 500 21 600 8 730 10 100 28 700 31 300 25 600 40 700 7 770 0

17 200 17 800 275 31 300 33 300 52 700 20 800 20 700 8 360 18 800 48 700 13 900 45 100 19 000 17 700 28 200 18 100 37 000 18.5 45 900 50 100 8 820 5 100 37 400 6 070 14 600 17 800 37 700 45 800 33 600 674 17 200 13 800 7 990 40 600 33 000 18 200 27 900 19 200 36 200 13 200 336 27 800 27 800 38 900 24 700 22.6 25 100 46 700 9 500 3 610 11 800 8 730 1 650 23 900 31 600 36 100 30 900 4 660 19 600 28 900 36 700 14 300 36 200 137 000 27 800 30 800 19 500 106 11 700 11 300 35 800 43 700 7.03 46 300 56 400 18 100 4 400 16 900 11 600 11 000 23 800 14 800 41 500 32 500 7 590 15 500 23 200 36 600 1 720 53 700 46 700 59 800 36 700 6 180 138 21 400 60 500 19 200 8 260 20 000 5.42 46 800 35 800 11 000 15 4 710 21 800 10 700 37 300 22 900 5 100 6 360 20 900 33 300 2 320 11 400 60 600 41 100 27 600 150 34 100 54 400 12 500 2.96 8 550 BWRs China [T2]

Chin Shan 1-2 Kuosheng 1-2 1 890 1 020 1 390 2 670 1 530 3 960 1 090 2 800 973 4 850 1 260 729 1 480 367 350 160 Finland [F1]

Olkiluoto 1-2 1 300 1 900 1 800 3 600 2 800 1 500 2 400 1 300 Germany [B3]

Brunsbüttel Gundremmingen B,C Isar 1 Krümmel Philippsburg 1 Würgassen 170 2 200 460 960 460 330 290 3 000 400 950 630 460 240 2 800 460 650 620 410 74 4 800 640 610 760 440 23 4 500 1 100 130 470 330 120 6 400 1 300 580 570 35 350 11 000 1 000 680 540 38 240 13 000 1 200 470 490 14 India Tarapur 1-2 Japan [J1, J5]

Fukushima Daiichi 1-6 Fukushima Daini 1-4 Hamaoka 1-4 Kashiwazaki Kariwa 1-7 Onagawa 1-2 Shika 1 Shimane 1-2 Tokai 2 Tsuruga 1 2 700 1 100 2 100 150 68 430 980 160 2 400 870 1 300 42 58 510 1 600 470 2 100 460 1 000 390 38 3

430 1 400 380 1 900 580 1 400 160 90 16 570 1 300 210 1 400 580 1 300 160 15 57 1 000 830 97 1 100 490 1 000 130 8.5 140 730 1 500 110 1 100 570 680 170 21 170 1 200 1 700 170 1 400 1 000 600 80 44 200 720 1 200 190

Table 35 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 269 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Mexico [C5]

Laguna Verde 1-2 498 82 158 0.00005 1 970 1 960 531 781 Netherlands [N7]

Dodewaard 147 152 245 163 90 26 19 18 Spain [C2]

Confrentes S. Maria de Garona 64.7 157 235 73.7 310 427 516 177 385 371 99.4 121 160 165 511 231 Sweden [N3]

Barsebeck 1-2 Forsmark 1-3 Oskarshamn 1-3 Ringhals 1 1 100 1 900 2 600 711 1 000 3 500 2 500 882 1 500 2 600 1 700 1 270 580 2 920 740 500 530 2 370 1 130 860 554 2 340 1 190 832 1 100 1 990 1 380 790 760 2 000 1 360 490 Switzerland [F3]

Leibstadt Mühleberg 930 330 810 380 950 200 620 300 570 200 470 340 710 290 1 100 320 United States [T3]

Big Rock Point Browns Ferry 1-3 Brunswick 1-2 Clinton 1 Cooper Dresden 2-3 Duane Arnold 1 Enrico Fermi 2 Fitzpatrick Grand Gulf 1 Hatch 1-2 Hope Creek 1 Lasalle 1-2 Limerick 1-2 Millstone 1 Monticello Nine Mile Point 1-2 Oyster Creek Peach Bottom 2-3 Perry 1 Pilgrim 1 Quad Cities 1-2 River Bend 1 Susquehanna 1-2 Vermont Yankee WPPSS 2 21.8 7.66 1 830 96.2 188 755 27.6 114 699 836 437 13.8 1 120 749 0

229 870 325 136 966 3 090 2 150 0

27.9 9.29 221 2 960 165 335 474 74.7 282 799 1 080 907 0

507 311 0

288 22.3 540 392 377 164 1 130 1 710 0

67.0 40.0 1 050 1 570 87.3 541 158 13.0 105 851 1 650 4 630 0.0011 389 272 0

331 655 343 0.54 463 866 2 850 0.0015 400 5.85 459 1 750 0

400 862 0

13.8 53.3 2 330 1 880 2 280 0

951 907 0.0007 877 0

267 346 139 1 360 1 120 2 510 0

1 260 1.55 1 630 2 580 0

129 551 0

90.0 23.9 5 980 1 700 6 070 5.37 2 100 747 0

654 0

95.2 343 34.7 1 740 2 400 3 760 0

307 3.99 2 040 0

2 780 96.1 0

0 13.5 4 850 1 700 1 710 0

1 650 485 0

707 1 480 650 834 758 2 940 0

192 8.79 1 750 0

198 425 0

0 168 7 990 1 180 418 271 0

226 3 420 542 818 202 1 240 0

152 5.03 962 0

218 462 0

0 0

6 360 890 457 30 0

0.37 875 1 040 296 1 280 0

HWRs Argentina [C3]

Atucha 1 Embalse 530 000 220 000 550 000 520 000 770 000 160 000 920 000 200 000 2 200 000 140 000 500 000 230 000 550 000 320 000 1 200 000 160 000 Canada [A2]

Bruce 1-4 Bruce 5-8 Darlington 1-4 Gentilly 2 Pickering 1-4 Pickering 5-8 Point Lepreau 1 221 000 481 000 12 600 163 000 407 000 30 000 160 000 3 241 000 488 000 71 000 248 000 395 000 32 000 110 000 1 700 000 410 000 46 000 263 000 3 034 000 44 000 320 000 1 480 000 658 000 57 700 241 000 518 000 12 600 470 000 1 440 000 555 000 130 000 134 000 555 000 118 000 260 000 1 900 000 380 000 140 000 200 000 440 000 110 000 170 000 1 200 000 230 000 120 000 120 000 430 000 160 000 480 000 310 000 680 000 112 000 140 000 350 000 50 000 500 000 India [B4]

Kakrapar 1-2 Kalpakkam 1-2 Narora 1-2 Rajasthan 1-2 142 800 9 950 23 690 211 500 15 380 31 170 366 000 34 200 30 190 428 600 58 680 65 450 266 400 49 020 19 010

Table 35 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 270 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Japan [J1, J5]

Fugen 3 100 1 600 3 400 3 200 4 200 3 800 5 500 5 100 Pakistan [P2]

Karachi 127 000 94 300 46 300 56 200 118 000 168 000 105 000 39 100 Republic of Korea [K1]

Wolsong 1-2 51 800 93 200 42 000 46 300 180 000 170 000 50 000 94 700 Romania Cernavoda 8 210 11 600 United Kingdom [M7, N5]

Winfrith 39 330 13 280 13 790 74 010 59 980 1 610 3 900 GCRs France [E1]

Bugey 1 Chinon A2-3 St. Laurent A1-2 0

2 000 0

0 0

0 0

0 9 600 0

100 0

2 800 0

8 200 0

Japan [J1, J5]

Tokai 1 0.037 1.4 0.83 24 5.1 9.2 16 20 Spain [C2]

Vandellos 1 141 74.3 18 300 105 114 45.6 206 U. K. [M7, N4, N5]

Berkeley Bradwell Calder Hall Chapelcross Dungeness A Dungeness B1-B2 Hartlepool A1-A2 Heysham 1A-B, 2A-B Hinkley Point A Hinkley Point B, A-B Hunterston A1 Hunterston B1-B2 Oldbury A Sizewell A Torness A-B Trawsfynydd Wylfa 1 350 1 380 280 713 7 200 166 100 202 100 913 295 600 520 353 000 1 750 5 010 82 000 2 520 5 380 272 1 370 1 870 492 76 100 140 900 416 000 780 277 000 250 257 000 271 5 610 132 000 360 5 680 157 3 920 690 451 93 300 276 900 525 000 706 317 000 170 245 000 215 5 080 250 000 222 2 750 265 3 030 500 4 430 268 900 349 800 854 700 779 390 000 360 362 000 229 2 790 235 000 74.7 5 920 29.1 2 170 490 547 236 200 289 400 732 600 713 336 000 200 423 000 263 3 570 220 000 122 6 980 39.5 2 080 500 296 15 080 239 000 584 800 757 431 000 41.0 449 000 233 17 400 270 000 232 7 560 37.2 1 360 368 1 380 252 000 353 000 710 000 670 319 000 22.9 399 000 186 1 130 298 000 103 9 880 55.2 1 460 198 135 247 000 367 000 816 000 810 385 000 9.9 413 000 178 5 060 324 000 298 7 020 LWGRs Lithuania Ignalina 1-2 Russian Federation [M6]

Bilibino 1-4 Kursk 1-4 Leningrad 1-4 Smolensk 1-3 O n l y a v e r a g e n o r m a l i z e d r e l e a s e r e p o r t e d Ukraine [G3]

Chernobyl 1-3 O n l y a v e r a g e n o r m a l i z e d r e l e a s e r e p o r t e d FBRs France [E1]

Creys-Malville Phenix 70 20 10 1

22 28 630 1

Kazakhstan Bn-350

Table 35 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 271 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Russian Federation Beloyarsky 3 United Kingdom Dounreay PFR Summary parameter Reactor Release (TBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 All reactors Total release (TBq)

PWRs BWRs HWRs GCRs LWGRs FBRs All 2 935 39.6 3 622 1 128 0

0.070 7 725 3 084 41.4 6 115 1 316 0

0.020 10 560 2 995 45.3 7 283 1 740 0

0.010 12 060 2 954 47.3 5 290 2 479 0

0.001 10 770 2 560 60.0 6 225 2 262 0

0.022 11 110 2 677 48.5 4 412 2 018 0

0.028 9 155 2 814 49.8 3 780 2 349 0

0.63 8 994 2 551 43.1 3 656 2 575 0

0.001 8 814 Annual normalized release

[TBq (GW a)-1]

PWRs BWRs HWRs GCRs LWGRs FBRs All 23 0.85 367 163 1.0 41 24 0.81 536 183 53 22 0.95 682 215 60 21 0.93 426 271 51 18 1.14 452 247 26 52 19 0.85 361 236 42 19 0.95 321 314 1.6 41 18 0.82 316 284 41 Average normalized release 1990-1994 and 1995-1997

[TBq (GW a)-1]

PWRs BWRs HWRs GCRs LWGRs FBRs All 22 0.94 490 220 1.8 51 19 0.87 330 280 1.7 41

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 272 Table 36 Other radionuclides released from reactors in liquid effluents Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 PWRs Armenia [A5]

Armenia 2 22.9 15.4 Belgium [M1]

Doel 1-4 Tihange 1-3 15.5 41.5 22.3 43.7 4.4 53.6 23.6 40.9 8.6 23.8 37.8 22.5 18.9 52.3 26.4 24.3 Brazil [C7]

Angra 1 0.430 0.197 0.167 0.548 0.182 0.214 0.19 1.08 Bulgaria [C6]

Kozloduy 1-6 2.07 2.46 2.03 2.07 1.63 3.61 2.53 2.38 China [C8, T2]

Guangdong 1-2 Qinshan Maanshan 1-2 0.313 0.736 0.732 2.75 0.650 4.11 89.2 0.45 0.433 28.9 0.412 0.336 9.32 0.500 0.168 11.3 0.336 0.522 Czech Republic [N2]

Dukovany 1-4 0.19 0.34 0.094 0.41 0.31 0.17 0.095 0.077 Finland [F1]

Loviisa 1-2 18 5.2 3.5 1.9 0.41 0.073 0.056 0.012 France [E1]

Belleville 1-2 Blayais 1-4 Bugey 2-5 Cattenom 1-4 Chinon B1-B4 Chooz-A (Ardennes)

Chooz B1-B2 Cruas 1-4 Dampierre 1-4 Fessenheim 1-2 Flamanville 1-2 Golfech 1-2 Gravelines 1-6 Nogent 1-2 Paluel 1-4 Penly 1-2 St. Alban 1-2 St. Laurent B1-B2 Tricastin 1-4 25 73 255 12 107 18 17 46 34 32 0.28 173 28 180 26 61 23 83 10 40 104 13 96 13 13 20 18 40 0.07 73 6.0 62 2.0 30 20 40 11 25 51 15 20 10 9.0 10 13 11 0.7 23 3.0 24 4.0 6.0 6.0 24 16 11 26 9.0 9.5 5.5 5.9 7.6 6.8 6.9 1.1 12 3.0 9.9 3.8 3.4 8.6 8.9 7.9 10 18 16 7.3 7.5 6.1 9.6 5.9 7.9 2.3 9.5 1.7 8.5 3.3 2.8 5.4 6.7 4.0 14 9.6 7.0 10 20 3.9 9.0 2.2 3.4 4.8 18 3.0 9.2 1.8 3.0 2.3 6.4 6.1 4.9 12 3.8 10 4.4 0.2 4.4 7.0 2.7 2.0 1.7 14 3.0 4.6 1.6 3.0 2.0 5.2 3.3 2.2 9.6 2.3 3.2 1.8 1.9 2.8 7.8 6.1 2.8 2.8 5.8 3.2 6.5 1.7 5.4 3.0 8.6 Germany [B3]

Biblis A-B Brokdorf Emsland Grafenrheinfeld Greifswald Grohnde Isar 2 Mülheim-Krlich Neckarwestheim 1-2 Obrigheim Philippsburg 2 Stade Unterweser 0.52 0

0.0087 0.044 3.7 0.03 0.06 0.32 0.091 0.23 0.39 0.52 0.15 0.56 0

0.0033 0.047 0.62 0.093 0.0039 0.066 0.098 0.15 0.18 0.49 0.36 0.46 0

0.00065 0.012 0.32 0.013 0.0095 0.24 0.045 0.21 0.49 0.45 0.21 0.48 0

0.0006 0.032 0.17 0.04 0.0083 0.14 0.021 0.11 0.61 0.32 0.23 0.83 0

0.0007 0.017 0.16 0.049 0.0004 0.15 0.016 0.24 0.92 0.049 0.11 0.73 0.11 0.00021 0.017 0.038 0.13 0.036 0.028 0.52 0.44 0.37 0.16 0.52 0.026 0.00001 0.011 0.16 0.11 0.00029 0.0089 0.104 0.36 0.29 0.18 0.20 0.34 0.022 0

0.03 0.16 0.046 0.012 0.0084 0.026 0.23 0.43 0.13 0.12 Hungary [F2]

Paks 1-4 2.03 3.51 2.24 1.82 2.40 1.20 0.81 0.67

Table 36 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 273 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Japan [J1, J5]

Genkai 1-4 Ikata 1-3 Mihama 1-3 Ohi 1-4 Sendai 1-2 Takahama 1-4 Tomari 1-2 Tsuruga 2 0

0 0.016 0.0007 0

0 0

0.0043 0

0 0.0005 0

0 0

0 0.00004 0

0 0.0030 0.00008 0

0 0

0 0

0 0.0003 0.0001 0

0 0

0.0002 0

0 0.0001 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0.0005 0

0 0

0 0.00009 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 Netherlands [N7]

Borssele 1.9 1.3 0.83 0.58 0.73 0.62 0.38 1.3 Republic of Korea [K1]

Kori 1-4 Ulchin 1-2 Yonggwang 1-4 48.7 1.48 1.18 0.61 1.67 0.41 4.94 0.54 0.24 1.03 0.93 0.13 1.80 1.40 0.23 0.86 0.57 0.21 0.43 0.26 0.22 0.11 0

0.016 Russian Federation [M6]

Balakovo 1-4 Kalinin 1-2 Kola 1-4 Novovoronezh 2-5 0.17 0.25 0.15 0.16 0.21 0.46 0.09 0.19 0.25 1.60 0.17 0.37 0.13 1.68 0.16 0.34 0.74 1.64 0.07 0.34 0.33 1.53 0.01 0.16 0.19 1.46 0.12 0.10 0.65 1.18 0.15 0.70 Slovakia [N2, S4]

Bohunice 1-4 0.15 0.97 0.29 0.2 0.14 0.15 0.085 0.078 Slovenia [S1]

Krsko 1.54 1.53 2.50 2.90 1.60 0.70 7.90 1.20 South Africa [C11]

Koeberg 1-2 1.56 1.16 2.49 21.3 59.8 59.7 57.5 47.4 Spain [C2]

Almaraz 1-2 Asco 1-2 José Cabrera 1 Trillo 1 Vandellos 2 28.7 33.2 12.6 0.74 15.6 17.6 33.3 7.53 0.25 8.95 12.4 24.68 4.66 0.43 14.6 7.87 28.4 1.69 1.05 10 17.4 31.9 3.84 0.97 30.9 24.4 52.1 0.231 0.685 17.3 14.4 12.4 0.194 0.761 11.2 12.7 19.8 0.202 1.34 19.3 Sweden [N3]

Ringhals 2-4 235 75.9 102 91.4 98.1 81.1 48.2 47.3 Switzerland [F3]

Beznau 1-2 Gsgen 6.2 0.011 4.3 0.0014 12 0.0034 8.5 0.13 3

0.005 2.1 0.20 3.0 0.20 1.8 0.20 Ukraine [G3]

Khmelnitski 1 Rovno 1-3 South Ukraine 1-3 Zaporozhe 1-6 0.0096 0.48 0.023 0.0093 0.55 0.024 0.0078 0.48 0.018 0.13 0.0071 0.99 0.014 0.42 0.0067 3.05 0.0067 0.17 0.0033 8.10 0.0083 0.81 0.0062 2.61 0.01 0.20 0.0016 1.94 0.0086 0.47 United Kingdom [M7]

Sizewell B 19.9 21.3 United States [T3]

Arkansas One 1-2 Beaver Valley 1-2 Braidwood 1-2 Byron 1-2 Callaway 1 Calvert Cliffs 1-2 Catawba 1-2 Comanche Peak 1-2 Crystal River 3 Davis-Besse 1 Diablo Canyon 1-2 Donald Cook 1-2 96.6 94.1 158 43.7 1.43 52.3 72.4 0.44 22.9 5.22 104 59.6 142 11.6 747 24.8 0.59 58.8 28.2 1.80 6.66 6.81 31.3 38.1 201 12.6 38.7 152 0.17 53.1 34.4 14.8 60.3 4.07 27.5 41.4 82.4 14.7 35.3 46.6 1.48 57.0 33.1 15.5 19.6 1.93 36.4 19.9 52.4 7.62 38.2 0.36 38.9 22.2 9.2 43.3 59.9 84.7 2.46 82.9 14.8 29.7 66.8 0.38 20.6 23.2 4.6 2.90 40.5 10.9 49.1 41.4 29.5 12.7 11.4 5.5 23.0 91.2 14.3 79.4 24.6 13.7 7.19 17.8 4.9 4.2 9.94 8.6 49.3

Table 36 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 274 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 United States (continued)

Farley 1-2 Fort Calhoun 1 R. E. Ginna Haddam Neck Harris 1 Indian Point 1-3 Kewaunee Maine Yankee McGuire 1-2 Millstone 2-3 North Anna 1-2 Oconee 1-2-3 Palisades Palo Verde 1-3 Point Beach 1-2 Prairie Island 1-2 Rancho Seco 1 H. B. Robinson 2 Salem 1-2 San Onofre 1-3 Seabrook 1 Sequoyah 1-2 South Texas 1-2 St. Lucie 1-2 Surry 1-2 Three Mile Island 1 Trojan Turkey Point 3-4 Virgil C. Summer 1 Vogtle 1-2 Waterford 3 Watts Bar Wolf Creek Yankee NPS Zion 1-2 6.18 29.8 5.55 99.5 27.0 50.7 7.62 6.92 148 416 25.0 115 0.29 0

0.43 4.81 0.0077 13.3 227 22.4 0.082 45.1 485 59.0 170 0.88 5.33 10.4 13.2 47.3 27.0 11.7 2.20 132 17.4 77.0 5.62 27.5 24.5 58.7 8.70 15.3 77.0 187 11.8 51.8 0.42 0

2.18 6.85 0.0075 8.73 209 19.6 4.51 54.8 370 26.2 105 1.30 2.15 27.2 22.5 11.3 33.7 78.4 0.49 62.2 13.9 21.8 12.7 6.40 11.6 64.5 2.38 9.29 24.2 168 18.4 95.5 0.14 0

15.9 24.6 0.018 8.14 255 17.3 4.40 53.7 143 37.9 14.6 0.96 3.31 22.1 8.25 7.12 48.5 10.8 0.23 67.0 13.3 19.2 5.07 30.9 2.88 30.7 4.44 5.99 21.1 127 17.9 17.4 0.52 0

8.58 7.22 0.015 2.02 254 53.0 3.40 56.2 32.1 53.1 0.77 3.28 3.92 17.6 7.14 56.3 22.3 26.1 0.027 38.2 11.3 13.3 3.38 5.9 3.32 6.27 32.2 47.9 19.8 13.5 0.52 5.56 19.5 1.97 185 10.5 74.1 18.0 120 2.4 1.92 0.48 22.5 17.3 28.3 389 0.011 41.6 11.0 52.1 1.46 6.0 3.04 9.12 2.98 61.6 13.0 14.4 0.55 5.59 16.5 3.25 126 12.1 32.7 76.3 2.1 2.55 4.08 2.76 4.23 15.0 140 0.014 40.1 5.03 114 4.79 2.7 2.15 5.91 3.52 26.5 24.4 12.7 0.10 1.78 20.7 2.95 18.4 6.9 88.1 38.9 7.2 0.16 1.82 5.83 37.6 30.2 1.81 406 0.016 33.1 7.37 2.4 0.58 3.29 2.85 10.8 4.6 12.6 0.40 8.95 32.3 0.99 21.5 12.2 23.5 15.0 0.26 0.73 2.34 21.3 50.0 0.008 6.22 BWRs China [T2]

Chin Shan 1-2 Kuosheng 1-2 20.3 9.06 6.15 42.2 3.39 17.3 2.13 8.70 2.97 25.8 2.29 5.39 2.08 2.34 2.25 3.52 Finland [F1]

Olkiluoto 1-2 31 22 17 9.5 11 24 16 9.5 Germany [B3]

Brunsbüttel Gundremmingen B,C Isar 1 Krümmel Philippsburg 1 Würgassen 0.17 0.49 0.28 0.016 0.65 0.4 0.46 0.5 0.069 0.015 0.25 0.52 0.17 0.51 0.16 0.012 0.18 0.61 0.088 0.55 0.25 0.012 0.52 0.42 0.023 0.99 0.25 0.009 0.42 1

0.058 0.48 0.15 0.016 0.25 0.12 0.11 0.64 0.16 0.014 0.84 0.11 0.037 1.1 0.14 0.0028 0.92 0.098 India [B4]

Tarapur 1-2 1 430 1 420 1 120 1 210 762 Japan [J1, J5]

Fukushima Daiichi 1-6 Fukushima Daini 1-4 Hamaoka 1-4 Kashiwazaki Kariwa 1-7 Onagawa 1-2 Shika 1 Shimane 1-2 Tokai 2 Tsuruga 1 0

0 0.0091 0

0 0.0006 0

0.0013 0

0 0.0052 0

0 0.0015 0

0.0065 0

0 0.0024 0

0 0

0.0024 0

0.0025 0

0 0.0006 0

0 0

0.0022 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0.0005 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0.00007 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0

Table 36 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 275 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Mexico [C5]

Laguna Verde 1-2 18.8 9.5 11.2 5.66 23.5 20.1 1.14 0.88 Netherlands [N7]

Dodewaard 9.12 9.24 8.35 6.68 8.89 12.9 13.3 5.5 Spain [C2]

Confrentes S. Maria de Garona 0.1 0.57 0.18 0.24 0.15 3.58 0.13 0.58 0.11 1.64 0.063 0.591 0.119 0.765 0.392 0.650 Sweden [N3]

Barsebeck 1-2 Forsmark 1-3 Oskarshamn 1-3 Ringhals 1 45.4 230 140 70.0 104 245 167 54.0 105 118 129 111 26.1 156 102 118 26.6 118 68.3 247 57.8 60.5 97.6 69.5 194 72.4 130 47.9 58.3 115 51.1 155 Switzerland [F3]

Leibstadt Mühleberg 0.49 4.7 0.24 2

0.17 1.8 0.18 3.7 0.5 1.9 0.4 1.7 0.4 2.0 0.4 3.7 United States [T3]

Big Rock Point Browns Ferry 1-3 Brunswick 1-2 Clinton 1 Cooper Dresden 2-3 Duane Arnold 1 Enrico Fermi 2 Fitzpatrick Grand Gulf 1 Hatch 1-2 Hope Creek 1 Lasalle 1-2 Limerick 1-2 Millstone 1 Monticello Nine Mile Point 1-2 Oyster Creek Peach Bottom 2-3 Perry 1 Pilgrim 1 Quad Cities 1-2 River Bend 1 Susquehanna 1-2 Vermont Yankee WPPSS 2 1.35 11.2 16.9 0.92 75.4 26.3 0

8.07 1.01 23.9 12.6 55.1 0.91 12.7 5.22 0

2.42 0.0025 0.50 22.6 0.59 4.18 27.3 6.29 0

0.57 4.51 31.0 16.1 1.26 84.8 28.2 0

7.96 1.14 32.4 28.2 29.2 0

1.24 50.3 0

6.22 0.89 1.38 4.37 1.48 27.1 13.4 2.30 0

1.28 5.55 89.2 1.83 0.67 147 0.82 0

0.0056 0.43 4.44 34.2 11.3 0.011 1.09 17.1 0

9.62 0.97 2.21 0.12 1.45 61.4 1.79 0.001 3.51 3.59 178 3.85 0

85.7 5.99 0

0.055 0.070 6.14 31.3 13.4 0

5.37 4.74 0

4.33 0

2.09 5.74 0.85 2.27 36.0 1.82 0

7.62 5.30 41.5 1.67 0.00004 12.5 1.48 0

0.40 0.028 8.87 36.8 3.32 0.16 18.3 2.20 0

3.96 0

5.95 425 0.10 2.22 168 4.44 0

1.05 3.83 15.4 0

49.3 2.30 0

0 0.002 13.1 14.3 52.0 0

16.5 0.95 0

1.80 1.78 2.83 2.32 109 21.5 0

0.96 8.98 1.48 0.00003 41.8 0.98 0

0 0.33 14.2 14.5 28.9 1.06 0

0.10 1.25 1.45 0.34 0.93 16.9 2.07 0

0.41 0.90 0.54 0

48.1 0.53 0

0 0

4.81 10.8 10.1 0.88 0

0 4.89 1.08 19.6 0.36 0

HWRs Argentina [C3]

Atucha 1 Embalse 130 3.5 93 20 93 2

60 2

660 1.6 330 4.3 680 4.6 230 2.0 Canada [A2]

Bruce 1-4 Bruce 5-8 Darlington 1-4 Gentilly 2 Pickering 1-4 Pickering 5-8 Point Lepreau 20 4.0 330 4.2 52 10 2.0 20 3.0 710 3.0 44 10 4.0 30 5.0 27 14 48 2.2 2.0 26.5 5.15 11 9.0 34.8 5.55 5.24 44.4 5.9 16 6.9 37 6.7 7.3 29 9.6 12 42 17 6.7 5.9 20 4.5 20 6.5 13 0

3.2 21 14.8 9.8 5.0 7.3 5.2 2.7 India [B4]

Kakrapar 1-2 Kalpakkam 1-2 Narora 1-2 Rajasthan 1-2 26.4 0.04 3.63 23.6 0.94 2.93 26.3 14.5 2.09 35.3 11.3 2.40 25.5 3.14 1.77

Table 36 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 276 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Japan [J1, J5]

Fugen 0.014 0.0047 0.011 0.0016 0

0 0

0 Pakistan [P2]

Karachi 8.5 13.3 13.0 22.2 8.9 5.2 4.8 5.3 Republic of Korea [K1]

Wolsong 1-2 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.55 0.43 0.17 0

0 Romania Cernavoda 1 0.04 7.15 United Kingdom [N5]

Winfrith 3 994 665 115 55 63 29 GCRs France [E1]

Bugey 1 Chinon A2-3 St. Laurent A1-2 0.2 0.9 2

1 1

2 0.9 1.4 3.7 3.3 0.6 4.0 2.5 0.6 6.9 0.4 Japan [J1, J5]

Tokai 1 0.034 0.016 0.016 0.0067 0.0015 0.0089 0.0064 0.0029 Spain [C2]

Vandellos 1 8.77 9.29 30.7 17.9 30.4 19.8 58.3 U. K. [M7, N4, N5]

Berkeley Bradwell Calder Hall Chapelcross Dungeness A Dungeness B1-B2 Hartlepool A1-A2 Heysham 1A-B, 2A-B Hinkley Point A Hinkley Point B, A-B Hunterston A1 Hunterston B1-B2 Oldbury A Sizewell A-B Torness A-B Trawsfynydd Wylfa 329 324 110 395 8.9 20 73 751 38 320 50 429 428 1.8 334 72 496 453 110 374 10.3 36 34 729 27 280 40 372 467 7.0 259 88 156 1 380 70 507 8.0 49 55 610 16 210 20 397 383 15 167 44 378 603 270 1 720 19 52 48 686 15 290 34 505 274 9.8 41 68 144 725 310 996 51 11 53 724 21 210 31 394 292 1.5 24 54 134 809 160 802 27 8.1 18 981 17 150 23 363 411 2.3 25 53 49 756 111 836 18 20 6 910 570 9.0 141 5.9 186 589 1.8 21 61 72 849 40 792 27 11 19.7 707 15 165 4.1 273 233 3.8 10 46 LWGRs Lithuania [E2]

Ignalina 1-2 25.8 3.1 22.6 4.2 7.7 16.6 5.9 6.1 Russian Federation [M6]

Bilibino 1-4 Kursk 1-4 Leningrad 1-4 Smolensk 1-3 0.10 0.03 0.003 0.09 0.10 0.0004 0.0004 0.08 0.11 0.002 0.003 0.04 0.06 0.001 0.003 0.02 0.07 0.007 0.008 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.001 0.02 0.08 0.007 0.003 0.03 0.04 0.004 0.003 0.03 Ukraine [G3]

Chernobyl 1-3 61.8 36.3 24.8 17.0 18.9 28.1 45.1 40.0 FBRs France [E1]

Creys-Malville Phenix 0.10 0.11 0.083 0.013 0.017 0.010 0.021 0.017 Kazakhstan [A6]

Bn-350 22.6 21.5 17.4 15.2 14.1 7.8 7.4 7.4

Table 36 (continued)

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 277 Country/reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Russian Federation [M6]

Beloyarsky 3 3.47 5.46 8.79 3.51 1.89 1.59 1.23 2.67 United Kingdom Dounreay PFR Summary parameter Reactor Release (GBq) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 All reactors Total release (GBq)

PWRs BWRs HWRs GCRs LWGRs FBRs All 4 609 2 329 4 588 3 693 87.8 26.2 15 330 3 546 2 461 1 613 3 794 39.6 27.1 11 480 2 356 2 040 394 4 125 47.6 26.3 8 989 1 718 2 055 286 5 030 21.3 18.7 9 130 1 980 2 044 888 4 079 26.7 16.0 9 034 1 454 662 462 4 008 44.8 9.4 6 640 1 605 620 786 10 350 51.1 8.7 13 420 685 511 310 3 275 46.2 10.1 4 837 Annual normalized release

[GBq (GW a)-1]

PWRs BWRs HWRs GCRs LWGRs FBRs All 34 48 465 533 8.2 61 72 25 47 141 526 3.8 70 51 16 41 37 511 5.4 50 39 11 40 23 550 2.2 38 39 13 39 65 445 3.5 33 39 10 12 38 470 5.6 24 28 10 12 67 1 380 5.8 22 56 4.5 10 27 361 5.9 23 21 Average normalized release 1990-1994 and 1995-1997

[GBq (GW a)-1]

PWRs BWRs HWRs GCRs LWGRs FBRs All 19 43 130 510 4.8 49 48 8.1 11 44 700 5.8 23 35

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 278 a

Weighted by the fraction of energy generated by the reactor types.

b Estimated value.

c Data available for one year only.

Table 37 Normalized releases of radionuclides from nuclear reactors Release Year Normalized release [TBq (GW a)-1]

PWR BWR GCR HWR LWGR FBR Total a Noble gases 1970-1974 1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1997 530 430 220 81 27 13 44 000 8 800 2 200 290 350 180 580 3 200 2 300 2 100 1 600 1 200 4 800 460 210 170 2 100 250 5 000 b 5 000 b 5 500 2 000 1 700 460 150 b 150 b 150 b 820 380 210 13 000 3 300 1 200 330 330 130 Tritium 1970-1974 1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1997 5.4 7.8 5.9 2.7 2.3 2.4 1.8 3.4 3.4 2.1 0.94 0.86 9.9 7.6 b 5.4 8.1 4.7 3.9 680 540 670 690 650 330 26 b 26 b 26 b 26 b 26 b 26 96 b 96 b 96 b 44 49 49 b 48 38 44 40 36 16 Carbon-14 1970-1974 1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 0.22 b 0.22 0.35 0.12 0.22 0.52 b 0.52 c 0.33 0.45 0.51 0.22 b 0.22 b 0.35 b 0.54 1.4 6.3 b 6.3 b 6.3 4.8 1.6 1.3 b 1.3 b 1.3 b 1.3 1.3 b 0.12 b 0.12 b 0.12 b 0.12 b 0.12 b 0.71 0.70 0.74 0.53 0.44 Iodine-131 1970-1974 1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1997 0.0033 0.0050 0.0018 0.0009 0.0003 0.0002 0.15 0.41 0.093 0.0018 0.0008 0.0003 0.0014 b 0.0014 b 0.0014 0.0014 0.0014 0.0004 0.0014 0.0031 0.0002 0.0002 0.0004 0.0001 0.080 b 0.080 b 0.080 0.014 0.007 0.007 0.0033 b 0.0050 b 0.0018 b 0.0009 b 0.0003 b 0.0002 0.047 0.12 0.030 0.002 0.0007 0.0004 Particulates 1970-1974 1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1997 0.018 c 0.0022 0.0045 0.0020 0.0002 0.0001 0.040 c 0.053 0.043 0.0091 0.18 0.35 0.0010 b 0.0010 0.0014 0.0007 0.0003 0.0002 0.00004 b 0.00004 0.00004 0.0002 0.00005 0.00005 0.015 b 0.015 b 0.016 0.012 0.014 0.008 0.0002 b 0.0002 b 0.0002 b 0.0002 0.012 0.001 0.019 0.017 0.014 0.004 0.040 0.085 Tritium (liquid) 1970-1974 1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1997 11 38 27 25 22 19 3.9 1.4 2.1 0.78 0.94 0.87 9.9 25 96 120 220 280 180 350 290 380 490 340 11 b 11 b 11 b 11 b 11 b 11 b 2.9 b 2.9 b 2.9 b 0.4 1.8 1.7 19 42 38 41 48 38 Other (liquid) 1970-1974 1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1997 0.20 b 0.18 0.13 0.056 0.019 0.008 2.0 c 0.29 0.12 0.036 0.043 0.011 5.5 c 4.8 4.5 1.2 0.51 0.70 0.60 0.47 0.026 0.030 0.13 0.044 0.20 b 0.18 b 0.13 b 0.045 b 0.005 0.006 0.20 b 0.18 b 0.13 b 0.004 0.049 0.023 2.1 0.70 0.38 0.095 0.047 0.040

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 279 a

Previously assessed values [U3] indicated in parentheses unless unchanged.

b Also assumed for LWGRs and FBRs.

c Also assumed for HWRs.

d Local and regional.

e Expressed in terms of 131I.

a Local and regional components only.

Table 38 Collective effective dose per unit release of radionuclides from reactors Type of release Radionuclide Pathway Collective dose per unit release a (man Sv PBq-1)

Airborne Noble gases PWR BWR GCR Immersion Immersion Immersion 0.11 b c (0.12) 0.43 (0.26) 0.90 (0.011)

Tritium Ingestion 2.1 (11)

Carbon-14 Ingestion 270 d (1 800)

Iodine e External Ingestion Inhalation All pathways 4.5 250 49 300 (340-510)

Particulates External Ingestion Inhalation All pathways 1 080 830 33 2 000 (5 400)

Liquid Tritium Ingestion 0.65 (0.81)

Particulates Ingestion 330 (20-170)

Table 39 Normalized collective effective doses from radionuclides released from reactors, 1990-1994 Reactor type Electrical energy generated

(%)

Collective effective dose per unit electrical energy generated [man Sv (GW a)-1]

Airborne effluents Liquid effluents Noble gases 3H 14C a 131I Particulates 3H Other PWR BWR GCR HWR LWGR FBR 65.04 21.95 3.65 5.04 4.09 0.24 0.003 0.15 1.44 0.23 0.19 0.042 0.005 0.002 0.010 1.4 0.05 0.10 0.059 0.14 0.38 0.43 0.35 0.032 0.0001 0.0002 0.0004 0.0001 0.002 0.00009 0.0004 0.36 0.0006 0.0001 0.028 0.024 0.014 0.0006 0.14 0.32 0.007 0.0012 0.006 0.014 0.17 0.043 0.002 0.016 Weighted average 0.11 0.075 0.12 0.0002 0.080 0.031 0.016 Total 0.43

Table 40 Radionuclides released from fuel reprocessing plants Year Fuel reprocessed (GW a)

Release in airborne effluents (TBq)

Release in liquid effluents (TBq) 3H 14C 85Kr 129I 131I 137Cs 3H 14C 90Sr 106Ru 129I 137Cs France (Cap de La Hague) [C4]

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1.4 1.6 2.9 2.8 3.3 3.7 5.2 4.8 9.3 7.2 9.1 7.1 10.8 12.3 18.5 16.4 21.5 34.3 43.4 43.0 49.8 a 0.9 3.1 2.6 7.1 3.3 1.8 2.3 4.4 7.1 9.2 10 6.3 8.3 8.5 33 6.1 15 21 25 25 28 30 42 55 84 75 76 2.6 2.3 2

3.8 5.4 8.5 12 17 2 300 4 400 8 900 8 500 27 000 24 000 13 000 25 000 29 000 24 000 30 000 36 000 51 000 50 000 27 000 71 000 29 000 35 000 27 000 42 000 63 000 100 000 95 000 120 000 180 000 230 000 260 000 300 000 0.00021 0.0022 0.01 0.0074 0.017 0.0098 0.015 0.021 0.027 0.021 0.011 0.014 0.021 0.027 0.018 0.023 0.011 0.010 0.021 0.032 0.038 0.017 0.00026 0.0074 0.1 0.026 0.019 0.067 0.011 0.00007 0.0001 0.028 0.00033 0.00031 0.00018 0.0005 0.00051 0.00057 0.00041 0.00054 0.00059 0.00077 0.00053 0.00074 0.00038 0.00058 0.00049 0.00078 0.0015 0.0012 0.00081

<0.00001

<0.00001

<0.00001

<0.00001

<0.00001

<0.00001

<0.00001 0.00008

<0.00001

<0.00001

<0.00001

<0.00001

<0.00001

<0.00001

<0.00001

<0.00001

<0.00001

<0.00001

<0.00001 61 78 84 110 281 411 264 331 729 539 539 710 810 1 170 1 460 2 600 2 310 2 960 2 540 3 720 3 260 4 710 3 770 5 150 8 090 9 610 10 500 11 900 9.94 9.65 2

8.3 16 19 52 37.6 20 36.4 70 56 29.4 27.1 86.3 141.8 109.6 47 68.5 57 39.5 28.5 15.8 29.8 17.5 24.6 15.6 29.6 10.6 3.7 100 143 140 132 269 415 278 270 401 374 387 331 469 337 351 437 403 525 259 275 150 18 11 8

14 15.2 16.9 19.6 0.1 0.1 0.13 0.13 0.20 0.26 0.33 0.46 0.48 0.65 1.1 1.5 1.7 1.6 89 243 33 69 56 34 35 51 39 23 27 39 51 23 30 29 10 7.6 8.5 13 13 5.6 3.0 4.4 11 4.6 2.4 2.5 Japan (Tokai) [J1, J5]

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 0.04 0.11 0.18 0.61 0.60 0.54 0.01 0.12 1.2 0.25 0.93 0.85 3.5 3.6 4.1 1.5 0.67 2.8 810 1 800 1 800 7 400 7 800 7 800 180 1 300 10 000 0.00016 0.00081 0.00032 0.0007 0.00041 0.00056 0.00009 0.00004 0.001 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

4.8 30 59 160 140 200 5.6 32 260 0.00014 0.00004 0.00009 0.00002 0

0.00001

<0.00001 0.00006

<0.00001 0

0.0044 0.0025 0.00044 0.00033 0.00023 0

0 0

0 0.0011 0.0018 0.00017 0.00004 0.00001

<0.0001

<0.00001 0.00009 0.00093 0.0010 0.00028 0.00022 0.00017 0.00014 0.00002 0

0.00008 ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 280

Table 40 (continued)

Year Fuel reprocessed (GW a)

Release in airborne effluents (TBq)

Release in liquid effluents (TBq) 3H 14C 85Kr 129I 131I 137Cs 3H 14C 90Sr 106Ru 129I 137Cs a

Estimated based on normalized 85Kr release of 6,020 TBq (GW a)-1.

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1.2 0.93 0.17 1.1 1.5 1.5 1.5 0.8 1.5 1.0 1.5 0

2.7 3.7 2.5 3.7 4.2 3.2 2.8 2.2 5.4 3.8 3.7 1.5 0.34 0.78 0.31 0.80 0.44 0.48 0.0047 13 000 12 000 2 700 9 800 13 000 15 000 9 800 5 300 18 000 8 600 12 000 1.6 0.0023 0.00014 0.00009 0.00024 0.000024 0.00030 0.00030 0.00024 0.00033 0.00016 0.00016 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0.001

240 260 74 240 360 330 380 160 490 220 240 3.6

0.00003

<0.00001 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0

<0.00001

<0.00001 0

0.00001 0.00004 0.00003 0.00007 0.00005 0.00007 0.00008 0.00005 0.00001 0.00017 0.00015 0.00009 0.00004 0

0.00003 0.00007 0.00005 0.00007 0

0 0

United Kingdom (Sellafield) [B5, J2]

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 2.6 3.2 3.2 2.1 1.8 2.5 2.2 3.7 3.1 3.0 2.7 1.7 3.8 2.4 2.8 3.7 3.8 4.5 2.7 5.7 3.8 6.9 7.1 6.8 443 443 303 443 443 444 444 296 222 290 252 459 360 268 349 268 171 78.3 186 677 593 619 324 860 550 580 530 170 9.0 10.0 17.3 24.3 17.3 20.3 32.3 26.3 8.6 7.3 8.5 19.3 9.5 7.3 7.3 7.3 5.7 9.8 3.6 4.2 4.1 5.8 2.5 11.4 4.2 4.2 3.8 1.8 37 000 44 000 44 000 33 000 26 000 35 000 31 000 52 000 44 000 41 800 37 100 23 800 53 300 34 000 39 700 51 700 37 600 44 600 27 400 57 000 38 000 97 000 100 000 95 000 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.024 0.018 0.0078 0.017 0.045 0.027 0.033 0.027 0.030 0.021 0.030 0.019 0.024 0.024 0.012 0.012 0.019 0.039 0.024 0.020 0.025 0.025 0.027 0.069 2.4 0.13 0.0013 0.0011 0.009 0.0078 0.045 0.091 0.0033 0.90 0.017 0.015 0.006 0.006 0.003 0.0035 0.0022 0.0021 0.0012 0.0019 0.0016 0.0020 0.0017 0.0011 0.0023 0.0026 0.066 0.13 0.015 0.068 0.038 0.096 0.11 0.49 0.51 0.51 0.93 0.19 0.054 0.046 0.040 0.036 0.038 0.0071 0.0038 0.0026 0.0028 0.0036 0.0020 0.0007 0.0007 0.0006 0.0009 0.0006 6 200 1 200 1 240 740 1 200 1 400 1 200 910 1 000 1 200 1 280 1 966 1 750 1 831 1 586 1 062 2 150 1 375 1 724 2 144 1 699 1 803 1 199 2 309 1 680 2 700 3 000 2 600 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.3 2.6 2.1 3

2 2.0 2.4 0.8 2.0 8.2 12 11 4.4 230 460 562 280 390 466 381 427 597 250 352 277 319 204 72 52 18.3 15 10.1 9.2 4.2 4.1 4.2 17.1 28.9 28 16 37 1 000 1 400 1 130 1 400 1 100 762 766 816 810 390 340 530 420 553 348 81 28 22.1 23.6 25 16.5 18.7 12.6 17.1 6.7 7.3 9.0 9.8 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.13 0.096 0.074 0.12 0.14 0.19 0.10 0.20 0.10 0.10 0.12 0.10 0.13 0.17 0.11 0.16 0.07 0.16 0.16 0.25 0.41 0.52 1 200 1 300 1 289 770 4 100 5 230 4 289 4 480 4 090 2 600 2 970 2 360 2 000 1 200 434 325 17.9 11.8 13.3 28.6 23.5 15.6 15.3 21.9 13.8 12 10 7.9 ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 281

a Collective doses prior to 1970 and in 1970-1974 and 1975-1979 are estimated using the normalized release estimates of 1970-1979.

b Estimated to be 8% of electrical energy generated.

Table 41 Normalized releases and collective doses in fuel reprocessing Year Fuel reprocessed (GWa)

Normalized release [TBq (GW a)-1]

Airborne effluents Liquid effluents 3H 14C 85Kr 129I 131I 137Cs 3H 14C 90Sr 106Ru 129I 137Cs 1970-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1997 29.2 36.3 62.5 131 160 93 48 24 24 9.6 7.3 3.5 2.1 0.4 0.3 13 920 11 690 7 263 6 300 6 900 0.006 0.007 0.003 0.001 0.001 0.12 0.03 0.0003 0.00009 0.00005 0.09 0.04 0.002 0.00008 0.00001 399 376 378 270 255 0.4 0.3 0.8 0.8 0.4 131 45 7.5 2.0 0.8 264 112 33 2.1 0.5 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.04 1 020 252 7.4 1.0 0.2 Collective effective dose per unit release (man Sv TBq-1)

Year Fuel reprocessed (GWa)

Airborne effluents Liquid effluents 3H 14C 85Kr 129I 131I 137Cs 3H 14C 90Sr 106Ru 129I 137Cs 0.0021 0.27 0.0000074 44 0.3 7.4 0.0000014 1.0 0.0047 0.0033 0.099 0.098 Collective effective dose (man Sv) a Year Fuel reprocessed (GWa)

Airborne effluents Liquid effluents 3H 14C 85Kr 129I 131I 137Cs 3H 14C 90Sr 106Ru 129I 137Cs Pre-1970 1970-1974 1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1997 2.3 b 7.0 22.2 36.3 62.5 131 160 0.5 1.4 4.3 3.7 3.1 6.6 3.2 4.5 14 44 35 36 13 13 0.2 0.7 2.3 3.1 3.4 6.1 8.2 0.6 1.9 5.9 11 9.5 8.4 6.9 0.08 0.25 0.79 0.28 0.006 0.003 0.002 1.6 4.9 15 11 0.80 0.08 0.02 0.001 0.004 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.9 2.7 8.7 12 48 98 66 1.4 4.3 14 7.6 2.2 1.2 0.6 2.0 6.1 19 13 6.9 0.9 0.3 0.009 0.03 0.09 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 230 704 2 220 895 46 12 3.9 Total 420 23 158 24 44 1.4 34 0.18 236 31 49 1.4 4 110 280 4 430 4 710 ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 282

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 283 a

Estimated value.

a Collective dose per unit release (man Sv TBq-1): 3H, 0.002; 3H (to sea), 0.0002; 14C: 70; 85Kr, 0.002; 129I, 20.

b Assumes world population at time of release: 5 109 (for 3H and 85Kr); 1010 (for 14C and 129I).

Table 42 Normalized activity releases of globally dispersed radionuclides from reactors and reprocessing plants Years Normalized release [TBq (GW a)-1]

From reactors From reprocessing plants 3H 14C 3H 3H (to sea) 14C 85Kr 129I Pre-1970 1970-1974 1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1997 67 67 80 83 82 84 54 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.74 0.53 0.44 0.44 a 93 93 93 48 24 24 9.6 399 399 399 376 378 272 255 7.7 7.7 7.7 3.9 2.9 1.1 0.7 13 920 13 920 13 920 11 690 7 260 6 330 6 900 0.046 0.046 0.046 0.042 0.029 0.030 0.038 Table 43 Activity releases of globally dispersed radionuclides from reactors and reprocessing plants Years Electrical energy generated (GW a)

Fuel reprocessed (GW a)

Release (TBq) 3H 3H (to sea) 14C 85Kr 129I Pre-1970 1970-1974 1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1997 28.8 87.7 277 514 937 1 147 767 2.30 7.04 22.2 36.3 62.5 130 160 2 146 6 543 24 200 44 330 77 960 98 900 42 830 919 2 809 8 858 13 640 23 660 35 390 40 770 38 116 364 523 672 650 442 32 060 97 970 308 900 424 400 454 000 823 700 1 102 000 0.11 0.32 1.01 1.53 1.79 3.87 6.14 Total 3 757 420 296 900 126 000 2 805 3 243 000 14.8 Table 44 Collective dose commitment (10,000 years) from globally dispersed radionuclides released from reactors and reprocessing plants Years Collective effective dose (man Sv) a b Normalized collective effective dose

[man Sv (GW a)-1]

3H 3H (to sea) 14C 85Kr 129I Total Pre-1970 1970-1974 1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1997 4.3 13 48 89 156 198 86 0.2 0.6 1.8 2.7 4.7 7.1 8.1 2 670 8 140 25 510 36 580 47 070 45 470 30 930 64 196 618 849 908 1 650 2 200 2.1 6.4 20 31 36 77 123 2 740 8 350 26 200 37 550 48 180 47 400 33 350 95 95 95 73 51 41 43 Total 594 25 196 400 6 490 295 203 800 54

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 284 a

Analysis is based on reported releases per unit electrical energy generated and presently adopted dose coefficients. These results may, therefore, differ somewhat from earlier evaluations by the Committee.

Table 45 Normalized collective effective dose to members of the public from radionuclides released in effluents from the nuclear fuel cycle a Source Normalized collective effective dose [man Sv (GW a)-1]

1970-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1997 Local and regional component Mining 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.19 Milling 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 Mine and mill tailings (releases over five years) 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 Fuel fabrication 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 Reactor operation Atmospheric Aquatic 2.8 0.4 0.7 0.2 0.4 0.06 0.4 0.05 0.4 0.04 Reprocessing Atmospheric Aquatic 0.3 8.2 0.1 1.8 0.06 0.11 0.03 0.10 0.04 0.09 Transportation

<0.1

<0.1

<0.1

<0.1

<0.1 Total (rounded) 12 3.1 0.97 0.92 0.91 Solid waste disposal and global component Mine and mill tailings (releases of radon over 10,000 years) 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 Reactor operation Low-level waste disposal Intermediate-level waste disposal 0.00005 0.5 0.00005 0.5 0.00005 0.5 0.00005 0.5 0.00005 0.5 Reprocessing solid waste disposal 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 Globally dispersed radionuclides (truncated to 10,000 years) 95 70 50 40 40 Total (rounded) 100 80 60 50 50

ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 285 a

Assumes total world population of 6 109 and average amounts administered per treatment of 5 GBq (thyroid cancer) and 0.5 GBq (hyperthyroidism).

Table 46 Local and regional component of the collective effective dose to members of the public from radionuclides released in effluents from the nuclear fuel cycle Years Electrical energy generated (GW a)

Normalized collective effective dose

[man Sv (GW a)-1]

Collective effective dose (man Sv)

Mining, milling, fuel fabrication, transportation Reactor operation Fuel reprocessing Mining, milling, fuel fabrication, transportation Reactor operation Fuel reprocessing Pre-1970 1970-1974 1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1997 28.8 87.7 276.6 513.7 936.0 1146.7 767.2 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 3.9 6.7 2.0 0.9 0.4 0.4 0.4 8.4 8.4 8.4 1.9 0.2 0.1 0.1 7

21 66 120 220 280 180 110 590 550 460 390 490 320 240 740 2 330 990 150 150 100 Total 900 2 900 4 700 Table 47 Estimated amount of 131I used in medical radiation therapy Health care level Fraction of world population Treatments per 1,000 population Total activity administered a (TBq)

Thyroid cancer Hyperthyroidism I

II III IV 0.26 0.53 0.11 0.10 0.038 0.01 0.0027 0

0.15 0.02 0.017 0.0004 410 190 15 Total (rounded) 600

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