ML12334A798
| ML12334A798 | |
| Person / Time | |
|---|---|
| Site: | Indian Point  |
| Issue date: | 05/31/2008 |
| From: | Bedoll D, Haughwout A, Orr J State of NY, US Federal Reserve Bank |
| To: | Atomic Safety and Licensing Board Panel |
| SECY RAS | |
| References | |
| RAS 21597, 50-247-LR, 50-286-LR, ASLBP 07-858-03-LR-BD01 | |
| Download: ML12334A798 (7) | |
Text
United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission Official Hearing Exhibit Entergy Nuclear Operations, Inc.
In the Matter of:
(Indian Point Nuclear Generating Units 2 and 3)
ASLBP #: 07-858-03-LR-BD01 Docket #: 05000247 l 05000286 Exhibit #: NYS000277-00-BD01 Identified: 10/15/2012 Admitted: 10/15/2012 Withdrawn:
NYS000277 Rejected: Stricken:
Other: Submitted: December 21, 2011 Volume 14, Number? 3
?, Number April/May Month 200? 2008 F E D E R A L R E S E RV E B A N K O F N E W Y O R K Current Issues IN ECONOMICS AND FINANCE SECOND DISTRICT HIGHLIGHTS The Price of Land in the New York Metropolitan Area Andrew Haughwout, James Orr, and David Bedoll The price of vacant land in an urban area is a fundamental indicator of an areas attractiveness.
However, because the value of vacant land is hard to measure, indirect methods are typically used to gauge prices. A more direct approach to measuring land prices, using a unique data set, reveals that the price of unimproved land in the New York area is high, and rose sharply from 1999 to 2006. The rising trend suggests the underlying strength of the areas economy and the increasing value of the areas productivity and amenities.
.n November 1, 2000, a 3.4-acre parcel of land Although comprehensive data on the price of residential O at 10 Columbus Circle in Manhattan sold for
$345 million, or roughly $2,300 per square foot. 1 The parcel is located 1.3 miles from the Empire State land are sparse, there is a common belief that prices rose sharply in the United States in recent years. Over the ten-year period ending in 2007, the widely cited Office of Federal Building at the southwest corner of Central Park, and housed Housing Enterprise Oversight (OFHEO) measure of home an exposition and convention center known as the New York prices almost doubled nationally and rose 160 percent in the Coliseum. The buyers quickly demolished that complex New York metropolitan areasubstantial increases that sug-to make way for construction of the Time Warner Center, gest a jump in both the price of land and the price of houses.2 a 2.8-million-square-foot, largely commercial development While some of the factors that account for the rapid run-up that includes two office towers, a hotel, retail stores, and a in residential property prices, such as significant improve-parking garage. The Time Warner Center is now one of the ments to the housing stock in the form of renovations and most valuable properties in New York. additions, reflect the increasing amount of capital on the Physical space is a requirement for all types of economic land, other factorsincluding market optimism, low inter-activity, from housing to manufacturing and service pro- est rates, and generally sound economic fundamentals duction, making the value of land an important feature of would also drive up the value of land.3 any economy. The high price of the Columbus Circle prop- Precise data on land sales have largely been lacking, erty reminds us that the price of land in an urban area is a however, and analysts have turned to indirect methods to fundamental measure of the areas attractiveness. Moreover, measure land prices. Recent studies, for example, have sought changes in the value of land over time and space can provide to capture changes in the price of residential land as a insight into a host of important regional and macroeconomic weighted difference between changes in overall house price issues. However, because land often comes bundled with a appreciation and changes in home construction costs.4 structureand thus is generally not priced separately in a real estate transactionits value is difficult to measure. 2 The OFHEO index is a measure of home price appreciation that controls for the quality of units by using a repeat-sale methodology.
1 Source: CoStar Group (<http://www.costar.com>). 3 See McCarthy and Peach (2004).
CURRENT ISSUES IN ECONOMICS AND FINANCE VOLUME 14, NUMBER 3 In this issue of Second District Highlights, we take a more Box 1 direct approach to measuring land prices. Specifically, we rely Data Set and Methodology on a unique data setone that, to date, has been used primarily by brokers, developers, owners, and appraisersto calculate Our analysis of land transactions uses COMPS, a micro data and analyze the price of land in the New York metropolitan area set of commercial real estate transactions produced by the (Box 1).5 The data sets detailed information on land transac- CoStar Group.a The CoStar Group compiles the data including information on both the terms of the sales and the tions in the area from 1999 on allows us to identify purchases of characteristics of the properties soldfrom the public records vacant parcels of land or parcels with structures that the buyer of buildings departments and other government agencies, intends to remove.6 Isolating these purchases from the larger supplemented by selected field surveys of the properties and pool of land transactions is important because in these by telephone interviews of parties to the transaction.
instances, the asset that the buyer values is strictly the land, not Transactions are added to the data set as they are identified, any structure that may be present. Apart from any demolition making the data as timely as possible. Sales below $250,000 costs, the price of these properties thus provides a pure meas- are largely omitted. The data set is thus a rich and unique ure of the value of a particular location at a point in time. source of detailed information.
Moreover, because the purchase of land gives the new owner an Although COMPS covers real estate transactions of option to build the optimal structure, subject to local regula- many kinds, we restrict our analysis to land purchases tions, the price of the parcel reflects the buyers expected return transactions in which the buyer is solely or primarily inter-on the development of the site. Changes in the price of land over ested in the parcel of land rather than any structures on it.
time thus potentially offer insight into expectations of the This set of transactions involves vacant plots or plots with future state of a local economy and the real estate market. unoccupied structures slated for demolition and replacement We find that the price of raw, or unimproved, land in New York by new construction; we exclude any property with occupied is very high. Indeed, we estimate that the price of an acre of structures. Our sample, for the period from 1999 to mid-raw land near the Empire State Building rose sharply between 2006, consists of more than 6,000 individual land transac-tions in the New York metropolitan area.
1999 and 2006 and was more than $90 million in mid-2006.7 Moreover, proximity to the center of the metro area is extremely The characteristics of the land transactions that we obtain valuable, and firms and households are willing to pay a sizable from the data set include the sales price and size of the prop-premium to locate in or near Midtown Manhattan. erty, the transaction date, and the exact location (latitude and longitude as well as political jurisdiction) of the property.
These data allow us to calculate a price per square foot of land Land Transactions in the New York Metropolitan Area at a particular location at a particular date. In addition, for Conventional wisdom holds that vacant land is rare in urban each transaction, the data set reveals whether the land has areas, particularly in the New York area. Of the 6,186 land sales been graded, paved, finished, or improved in any way; and we examine between 1999 and mid-2006, 623 transactions or what use is planned for the landfor example, residential, roughly 10 percent, were in Manhattan and 1,639, or about commercial, or industrial development; investment; or open 25 percent, took place in the other parts of New York City; the space. The data set also includes information on whether the remaining sales took place in northern and central New Jersey. transaction represents an exercise of eminent domain, a con-Overall, vacant land transactions occurred throughout the demnation, or an estate or bankruptcy sale.
region, with a heavy concentration in the most densely developed areas (see map). aThe CoStar Group is a provider of information services to commercial real estate professionals in the United States and the United Kingdom Prices reflect the relative scarcity and desirability of vacant (see <http://www.costar.com/>).
land. In the New York area, the average price of land transactions rose sharply during our sample period (see table). Note, how-ever, that the figures in the table are not adjusted for any charac- teristics of the land being sold, and thus should be interpreted with caution. For example, as we observe later, the value of land 4 See Davis and Heathcote (2007) and Davis and Palumbo (2006). is influenced significantly by its level of preparation for building.
If the earlier years of our sample were dominated by sales of raw 5 For this article, we define the New York metro area as four boroughs of land and the later ones by more finished parcels, then the figures New York Citythe Bronx, Brooklyn, Manhattan, and Queensand ten would overstate the true growth in land values over the period counties in northern and central New Jersey. We exclude Staten Island, the fifth New York City borough, because transaction data are unavailable. by reflecting in part the value of site preparation.
6 The earliest year for which there is adequate coverage of land transactions is A key feature of a parcel of land typically associated with its 1999; we end the sample period at June 30, 2006. price per square foot is distance from the city centerparcels 7 Note that because our sample period ends in 2006, we do not address the effects closer to the center are expected to command a higher price. To of the current turmoil in the housing market. gauge whether this distance gradient is present in our data, we 2
Location and Price of Land Transactions in the New York Metro Area, 1999 through Mid-2006 Rockland Westchester Passaic Sussex Bergen Suffolk Bronx Morris Manhattan Nassau Queens Warren Hudson Essex Brooklyn Staten Island Union Hunterdon Middlesex Price per sq. ft.
Somerset Price per square$0.00 - $1.99 foot (quintiles)
$0.00 - $1.99
$2.00 - $19.22
$2.00 - $19.22
$19.23 - $168.40
$19.23 - $168.4
$168.41 - $1,460.28 Monmouth
$168.41 - $1,46
$1,460.29 - $12,647.53 Mercer
$1,460.29 - $12 Bucks (Pennsylvania) Ocean Burlington Source: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, based on an analysis of CoStar Group data, April 2008.
Note: The New York metro area considered is the region defined in footnote 5.
plot the price per square foot of land and the distance, in kilo- from the city center.8 While the chart, like the table, does not meters, from the center of the New York metropolit an area control for any characteristics of the transaction, the land, or (Chart 1). We designate the Empire State Building as the center the lands surroundings, it is interesting to note that the dis-because it is the site of the most intensive land use in the region, tance gradient is evident even when one does not account for with 2.8 million square feet of office space on less than two any of these factors.
acres, or 87,120 square feet, of land. The chart indeed shows a generally inverse, nonlinear relationship between price 8 Because the area described at a given distance from a fixed point grows and distance from the city center, with prices highest very as distance grows, we would expect variation to increase with distance. Not close to the Empire State Building. The chart also suggests a surprisingly, local conditions, and thus prices per square foot, are also more wide and growing variation in prices at any given distance variable at greater distances from the city center.
w w w. n e w y o r k f e d . o r g / r e s e a r c h / c u r r e n t _ i s s u e s 3
CURRENT ISSUES IN ECONOMICS AND FINANCE VOLUME 14, NUMBER 3 Average Price of Land in the New York Metro Area, Chart 1 1999-2006 Land Prices and Distance of Property from Empire State Building Natural logarithm of land price per square foot Year Price (Dollars per Square Foot) 12 1999 46.65 10 2000 55.65 2001 88.94 8 2002 71.95 2003 103.71 6 2004 150.63 4
2005 248.30 2006 366.08 2 Source: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, based on an analysis of CoStar Group data, 0 April 2008.
Notes: Data for 2006 are through June 30. The New York metro area considered is the region -2 defined in footnote 5.
-4 0 20 40 60 80 100 Distance from Empire State Building (kilometers)
Determinants of Land Prices Land brings with it a broad range of attributes, and purchasers Source: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, based on an analysis of CoStar Group data, of land make bids that reflect their evaluation of these attri- April 2008.
butes. The set of relevant attributes includes the characteristics Note: Land prices in the data set range from $.04 to more than $12,000 per square foot.
of the land, such as its topography and acreage, as well as access to valuable nonland attributes such as jobs, schools, and con- whether the property had an existing structure.10 The presence sumption opportunities. The price of a parcel of land therefore of a structure that will be removed has complex effects on land measures not only demand for the land as an input into the prices. Because the structure will be costly to remove, its pres-production of residential or commercial buildings, but also ence should serve to reduce prices. However, the fact that demand for these nonland attributes. In addition, because land someone has already invested in a structure on a particular is very durable, its price at any time has a forward-looking plot indicates a particularly good location, implying a higher component associated with expected future changes in both the price. Our location variablescounty and distance from the supply of these attributes and their value to users. Empire State Buildingare imperfect measures of this loca-Vacant land is a unique commodity because, in addition to tional effect. Because the differences among locations are the attributes described, it offers its owner a low-cost option to largest near the fringe of the metro area, this locational effect build the optimal structure at the optimal time. The value of should also grow in distance from the center. Accordingly, this option, reflected in the difference in price between devel- as a proxy for the unobserved quality of a location, we also oped and vacant land, will rise in times of uncertainty.9 Recent separately estimate the distance effect for properties that have evidence of an increase in teardownsthe process by which structures present at the time of sale.
developed land can be converted back to vacant landsuggests To account for the fact that the transactions in our data set that the value of this option has also increased in recent years, occurred in different time periods, we include variables in our an idea that we consider later. regression for the year and quarter in which the transaction took place. Estimates of these time effects control for the char-An Empirical Model of Land Prices acteristics of the properties being sold each quarter and thus To analyze the determinants of land prices, we rely on a regres-capture the pure increases in the price of land over time. We sion framework that relates the sales price of a particular plot to also control for the distance of the plot from the center of the the attributes of the land and to any special conditions of the metro area, the Empire State Building. These estimates provide sale (Box 2). This framework enables us to isolate changes in the price of raw land over space and time. Specifically, our data on insight into the usefulness of the land-value data set we have land sales between 1999 and mid-2006 enable us to estimate constructed and enable us to isolate the way in which land how the price paid for the land is affected by the propertys prices evolve over time and space.
observable characteristics, including its condition and the The findings derived from our model and estimates are con-county where it is located; details of the transaction, such as sistent with conventional theory on land price determination.
whether the land was sold as part of a foreclosure; the expected Residential property was found to sell for a slightly higher price use of the landindustrial, commercial, or residential; and 10 Approximately 10 percent of parcels are identified as having an existing 9 See Titman (1985). structure at the time of sale.
4
Box 2 Land Price Model We estimate the determinants of land prices in the New and k is a set of coefficients that summarize the relationship York metropolitan area by using a straightforward linear between the sales price and the kth property characteristic; regression model of land prices: and i,j,t is a random error term.
i,j,t = c + j + t + j,t + j d + k Xi,k + i,j,t , The coefficients on the time dummies, t, give the change in the average price of vacant land each quarter rela-where the dependent variable, i,j,t , is the natural loga- tive to 1999:1, controlling for the characteristics of the rithm of the price paid per square foot for property i of type property. Because a potentially large number of property j in time period t; j is the price effect for property type j characteristics and interactions exist, we estimated a variety (j= commercial, industrial, and residential); t is a separate of specifications and used statistical tests to select among price effect for each quarter (t) in our time period (t=1999:1- them. The variables (Xi) and the estimated coefficients ()
2006:2; 1999:1 is the omitted quarter); j,t is the combined for this preferred specification are presented in the table price effect of property type and time (j, t combinations are, below. Note that this specification includes time dummies for example, residential property in 1999:2, residential for only the quarter and year of the transaction and does not property in 1999:3, commercial property in 1999:2); d is include interactions of time with the property characteris-the distance in kilometers of the property from the Empire tics. The regression is weighted to control for the possibility State Building and j is the effect of distance on the price that the variability of prices increases with distance from the of type j property; Xi,k is a set of k property characteristics city center, as explained above.
Model Estimates: Regression Results for Land Prices in the New York Metro Area Dependent Variable: Natural Logarithm of Land Price per Square Foot Constant 6.82 Characteristics of transaction (0.19) Lot sold as part of expansion plans by buyer 0.17 Type of property (commercial land is omitted category) (0.07)
Residential land 0.09 Foreclosure transaction -0.38 (0.25) (0.17)
Industrial land -0.75 Eminent domain transaction 0.38 (0.23) (0.18)
Condition of property (unimproved is omitted category) Lot has significant environmental problems -0.81 Lot is graded 0.45 (0.14)
(0.06) Lot was not sold on the open market 0.04 Lot is paved 0.45 (0.06)
(0.09) Intended use (private development is omitted category)
Lot is finished 0.45 Buyer intends to hold lot for investment -0.21 (0.05) (0.07)
Lot is fully improved 0.38 Lot is intended for public use -0.48 (0.07) (0.08)
Lot was previously developed 0.55 Lot will be held as open space -1.24 (0.06) (0.08)
Lot is currently partially developed 0.55 Intended use unknown -0.19 (0.31) (0.07)
Lot is platted and engineered 0.23 Location (0.37) Natural logarithm of distance from ESB -0.95 Lot has a structure present -.11 (0.05)
(0.19) Natural logarithm of distance from ESB residential land -0.32 Structure present natural logarithm of distance from ESB 0.03 (0.04)
(0.07)
Improvements not available 0.23 (0.05)
Source: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, based on an analysis of CoStar Group data, April 2008.
Notes: Standard errors are in parentheses. ESB is Empire State Building. The adjusted R2 of the regression is 0.76. A regression replacing the quarterly dummy variables with separate time trends for commercial, industrial, and residential properties yields similar results, with quarterly appreciation rates of 3.4 percent for the commercial and industrial parcels and 5.5 percent for the residential parcels. All regressions also include county dummies. The estimated quarterly dummies are plotted in Chart 2. The New York metro area considered is the region defined in footnote 5.
w w w. n e w y o r k f e d . o r g / r e s e a r c h / c u r r e n t _ i s s u e s 5
CURRENT ISSUES IN ECONOMICS AND FINANCE VOLUME 14, NUMBER 3 than commercial property; industrial land commanded a holds are willing to pay a large premium to locate in or near significantly lower price than land designated commercial or Midtown. The unique features of the regions geography residential. Land that was improvedgraded, engineered, or namely, the citys Hudson River border with New Jerseyalso finishedwas worth more than unimproved land, with the suggest a sharp drop-off in price in the first few miles, as loca-price differential depending on the extent of the improvement. tions near the Empire State Building and within the city can Land with an existing structure sold for less than unimproved access the core while avoiding a river crossing.12 The proximity land, although the effect was not statistically significant, while premium is especially high for land to be used for residential land with an existing structure further from the city core sold purposes, perhaps reflecting the fact that space for residences is for more than unimproved land. Although this last finding sug- relatively sparse in Manhattan and nearby.13 gests that the presence of a structure on parcels further from A second factor worth noting is that, even after we control the core proxies for unobserved location quality, the effect is for the changing characteristics of the property sold, the price also statistically insignificant. of land rose sharply during our sample period. Commercial and We also found that land that was known to have environmen- industrial land began the period rather sluggishly, with growth tal problems, that was being purchased for public use or for open slow or negative until about mid-2003 (Chart 2). As of 2003:1, space, or that was expected to be held for investment purposes the price of a square foot of raw land intended for commercial was significantly less valuable than land intended for immediate use in Midtown Manhattan was almost precisely the same as in private development. More surprisingly perhaps, when we con- 1999:1. Indeed, the only statistically and economically signifi-trolled for the lands intended use, our calculations showed that cant deviations from the 1999:1 price were declines in 2000:4 land purchased through exercise of the public sectors power of and 2001:1, quarters that coincide with the onset of a local eminent domain sold for a somewhat higher price than land recession (the shaded band in the chart), and in 2001:3 and purchased on the open market.11 Land that was the subject of a 2001:4 in the wake of the September 11 attack on the World foreclosure sold at a discount. Moreover, after controlling for dis- Trade Center.14 In both instances, prices bounced back rela-tance from the city center, we found that the county in which the tively quickly, and by mid-2002 they had largely returned to parcel was located had a significant effect on price, suggesting their baseline level. Then, in 2003:3, as the local economy began that county-specific factors such as zoning, impact fees, and to recover from the recession, commercial and industrial land permit costs play an important role in determining land prices. prices began to rise fairly steadily, and by mid-2004 these dif-ferences were statistically and economically significant. Note Significantly, even after we controlled for all of these features that there were a number of zoning changes over this period of the property and the transaction, vacant land prices in the that could have raised the value of commercial and industrial New York metropolitan area were seen to decline with distance land.15 At the close of the period, vacant land designated for from the core, and the magnitude of the effect suggests a rela- both commercial and industrial use had more than doubled in tively rapid depreciation. In addition, the price of unimproved value from 1999:1 levels.
land increases sharply over our seven-and-a-half-year sample at all locations for which we have data. Our full analysis, however, According to our estimates, vacant land intended for residen-suggests that the average price increases reported in the table tial use increased even more sharply in value, rising more than indeed overstate the actual increases in raw land prices over the five-fold in the New York metropolitan area between 1999:1 and period. We now consider these results in more detail. 2006:2. This increase far exceeds the roughly 130 percent jump in residential property prices over the period. 16 The rise in Factors Driving New York Metro Area Land Prices 12 Technically, we measure the effect of Two factors affecting land prices merit special attention. The increasing distance within each county, first is the strong declining distance gradient that we find. This which partially controls for the effect of river crossings.
distance effect is consistent with the conventional economic 13 Our finding that land prices decline as distance from the center increases is not view that the value of proximity to a central business district is a direct test of the validity of the monocentricity of the New York metropolitan area. Indeed, such a test would also involve looking for local peaks in land prices.
capitalized into the price of a parcel of land. The effect is very See Anas, Arnott, and Small (1998).
strong in New York. We estimate that a parcel located five miles 14 An index of coincident economic indicators developed by economists at the from the Empire State Building commands a price that is about Federal Reserve Bank of New York shows that a cyclical peak in activity occurred twice as high as the price of a parcel ten miles away, all else in November 2000 in New Jersey and in January 2001 in New York City; being equal. This steep distance gradient reflects the unique the recovery began in February 2003 in New Jersey and in June 2003 in New York role that Manhattan plays in the regions economy. Proximity to City. The index is available at <http://www.newyorkfed.org/research/regional the center of the region is very valuable, and firms and house- _economy/coincident_summary.html>.
15 For a discussion of the shortage of residential space in New York City, 11 Note, however, that see Glaeser, Gyourko, and Saks (2005).
land purchased through eminent domain and intended 16 The figure is based on the repeat home sales data reported by OFHEO.
for public use is less valuable than land bought for private development.
6
Chart 2 10 percent of sales occurred in Manhattan and more than Index of Land Prices in the New York Metro Area 25 percent took place within New York City. The detailed char-Index: Empire State Building =100 Percent acteristics of each transaction enabled us to obtain a relatively 700 9 pure measure of the price of land for residential, industrial, and 8 commercial use, and to demonstrate how the price of land 600 Thirty-year mortgage rate varies over space and time. In particular, we observe a relatively 7
500 Scale sharp decline in land prices with distance from the Empire 6 State Building, our assumed center of the metropolitan area, 400 Residential 5 and an upward movement in prices over time.
price index Scale 4 We interpret the rising price of sites for constructing busi-300 nesses and residences as a key indicator of the strength of the 3
200 areas economy and the increasing value of the productivity and 2 amenities of a location in the region. Our estimated price trends 100 Commercial and industrial 1
suggest that the areas desirability for all types of activities price index Scale increased sharply beginning in mid-2002, as the region emerged 0 0 1999 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 from a recession and the disruptions of the September 11 attack on the World Trade Center. The regions increasing land prices Sources: Federal Reserve Bank of New York, based on an analysis of CoStar Group also indicate a rise in the perceived value of owning vacant data, April 2008; Moodys economy.com.
parcels as potential building sites to meet future property Notes: The New York metro area considered is the region defined in footnote 5. demands. The numerous ongoing conversions of existing prop-The shaded band indicates the downturn in the New York City economy, which began in 2000:4 and ended in 2003:2. erty throughout New York City suggest that the value of this option may be particularly high in the city.
residential land values began in 2001, somewhat earlier than References the increase in commercial and industrial land values, and was Anas, Alex, Richard Arnott, and Kenneth A. Small. 1998. Urban Spatial more consistent over the period. Rising residential land prices Structure. Journal of Economic Literature 36, no. 3 (September): 1426-64.
throughout the local recession are consistent with the expected Davis, Morris A., and Jonathan Heathcote. 2007. The Price and Quantity of effects of the roughly 150 basis point decline in residential Residential Land in the United States. Journal of Monetary Economics 54, mortgage rates over the period (the thirty-year mortgage rate no. 8 (November): 2595-620.
in Chart 2). Indeed, the only major departure from this steadily Davis, Morris A., and Michael G. Palumbo. 2006. The Price of Residential Land rising trend occurred in 2005:4, and was quickly reversed. The in Large U.S. Cities. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System relatively flat prices for commercial and industrial land that Finance and Economics Discussion Series, no. 2006-25, June.
held until the local economy rebounded in 2003, however, sug- Glaeser, Edward L., Joseph Gyourko, and Raven Saks. 2005. Why Have Housing gest that improved economic growth contributed importantly Prices Gone Up? NBER Working Paper no. 11129, February.
to the rise in the value of these parcels.
McCarthy, Jonathan, and Richard W. Peach. 2004. Are Home Prices the Next Bubble? Federal Reserve Bank of New York Economic Policy Review 10, Conclusion no. 3 (December): 1-17.
Our analysis of vacant land transactions in the New York metro- Titman, Sheridan. 1985. Urban Land Prices under Uncertainty. American politan area between 1999 and mid-2006 finds that about Economic Review 75, no. 3 (June): 505-14.
About the Authors Andrew Haughwout and James Orr are assistant vice presidents in the Microeconomic and Regional Studies Function of the Research and Statistics Group; David Bedoll was a research associate in the Function at the time the data set supporting this article was created.
Current Issues in Economics and Finance is published by the Research and Statistics Group of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York.
Leonardo Bartolini and Charles Steindel are the editors.
The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the position of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York or the Federal Reserve System.
w w w. n e w y o r k f e d . o r g / r e s e a r c h / c u r r e n t _ i s s u e s 7