ML20138E520
| ML20138E520 | |
| Person / Time | |
|---|---|
| Issue date: | 04/30/1997 |
| From: | NRC |
| To: | |
| References | |
| NUREG-BR-0164, NUREG-BR-0164-R02, NUREG-BR-164, NUREG-BR-164-R2, NUDOCS 9705020298 | |
| Download: ML20138E520 (27) | |
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NRC-REGULATOR OF NUCLEAR SAFETY The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Com-hearings, public meetings in local mission (NRC) was formed in 1975 to areas, and discussions with individu-regulate the various commercial and als and organizations. institutional uses of nuclear energy, including nuclear power plants. The agency succeeded the Atomic Energy WHY REGULATE? - Commission, which previously had People are responsibility for both developing and C""II""""ilJ regulating nuclear activities. Federal he nuclear industry is strictly regu- exposed to research and development work for all lated because of the potential hazards radiationfroin energy sources, as well as nuclear involved in using radioactive materials. niany sources-- , weapons production, is now conducted These radioactive materials give off cosnne radiation by the U.S. Department of Energy. radiation, which can be hazardous to /C'"' l',"C people if they are exposed to it in . Under its responsibility to protect public health and safety, the NRC significant amounts. The extent of the " #"'"##".I risk depends on the type and amount ,c[',,(fadiilssri has three principal regulatory func-of radiation emitted by the radioactive tions: (1) establish standards and material, the distance between the froniinedicaland regulations, (2) issue licenses for dentalx-rays and source of the radiation and a person, otherinedical nuclear facilities and users of nuclear and the length of time a person is procedures. matenals, and (3) inspect facilities exposed to the radiation. and users of nuclear matenals to ensure compliance with the require- The risks can be lessened ments. These regulatory functions by reducing any or all of these ,. relate to both nuclear power f plants and to other uses of ,. nuclear materials -like nuclear 9 medicine programs at hospitals, . academic activities at educa- %dk 43 tional institutions, research work, and such industrial appli- > Y[y "d g{A; pq[j) cations as gauges and , a; ' testing equipment. jg ? 4'- ' The NRC places a Tf dg% high priority on keeping the public informed of 'I its work. The agency 9 recognizes the interest V of citizens in what it does through such i r ;, activities as maintain - _ ing public document "
- l rooms across the coun-try and holding public _. !
M
factors. Tha hazard is I:ss if th:ro is h:adquart:rs in Rockvilla, Maryland, a shielding material like lead or con- or nearby offices. The remainder are crete to block some of the radiation, located in four regional offices and one if a person moves farther from the field office throughout the country or at radiation source, or if the exposure resident inspector offices at each time is reduced. commercial nuclear power plant. If radioactive materials are properly handled and regulated, they do not NRC REGULATIONS pose a significant risk to the public or to workers. Radioactivity from natural sources .Lhe NRC sets the rules that users is present throughout the world. of radioactive materials must follow. People are continuously exposed to These rules are intended to protect the low-level radiation from radioactive persons using the radioactive materials materials in the earth and from cos- and the general public from the poten-mic rays from space. Exposure to tial hazards of radioactivity. Many NRC natural radiation can be affected by regulations have been established or geography as well as lifestyle. For changed, as necessary, based on the example, radiation levels are higher in recommendations of the NRC staff. the mountains, and travel by airplane Members of the public and interested contributes additional exposure be- organizations can also request changes cause of increased cosmic radiation in regulations. The views of the public, ; at high altitudes. Most people also of the industry being regulated, and of receive some radiation exposure from other interested parties are usually medical and dental x-rays and other solicited before new rules or changes medical procedures. The NRC's are adopted. regulatory program establishes limits for radiation exposure to workers and the general public as a result of the REGULATORY RESEARCH various uses of radioactive materials licensed by the NRC. , addition, the NRC requires users to take steps to s part of its regulatory program, keep exposures well below the limits. the NRC conducts an extensive re-search program to provide indepen-dent information and expertise to NRC ORGANIZATION support its safety decisionmaking and to assess potential technical issues. he NRC is headed by a five- mem- This NRC research is performed by ber Commission. The Commissioners emmenHabora ons, unusqs, and other research { institutions. Topics are appointed to 5-year terms by the of inquiry include such subjects as the President of the United States with conf,rmation i by the Senate. A Cha.ir- durability and integrity of reactor com-man is designated by the President. onents, the impact of natural phe-nomena like earthquakes and torna-The NRC staff numbers approxi- does on nuclear facilities, radioactive mately 3,000 with a budget of about waste disposal technology, and the ( $500 million. Roughly two-thirds of the way workers react to instruments and 2 NRC employees work in the agency's systems in nuclear facilities.
UCENSES " *"S*Sd*S 'ibh*' "" ' " S* - the training and qualifications of work-ers, specific procedures for using the Any organization orindividual materials, and any special safety intending to possess or use radioac- precautions required. The license tive materials must obtain a license. holder must follow the specific license The use of very small amounts of requirements as well as the more radioactive materials -like the tiny general NRC regulations. radiation source inside many smoke detectors -is exempt from licensing or is authorized by a generallicense, POWER PLANT UCENSES which does not require active control to assure safety. However, for the manufacturing of these and similar n the past, nuclear power plants items, a specific license involving required two licenses - a construction regulatory controlis required. permit, which allowed the facility to be built, and an operating license, which Licenses for nuclear power plants permitted operation of the facility once and their operators are issued by the it was completed. NRC. Licenses for other uses of radio- In 1989 the NRC adopted a stream-active materials are issued either by the NRC or by State Governments lined licensing process that encour-under NRC-approved regulatory pro- ages the use of standardized and pre-grams. About 6,000 licenses for radio- approved designs for any future plant active materials are under the jurisdic- proposals and provides for the issu- NRC tion of the NRC, and about 15,500 are ance of a combined construction Headquarters and under the jurisdiction of those States permit and operating license. Another regionaloffice feature of the streamlined process is known as Agreement locations States that regulate P ~ ~"" " '"""T 7 y g d , certain radioactive materials under agree-
'p . wAl h nf "' ' K{* ]' b {h O 'Kgg g;Y"""" A ,y
- ments with the NRC. A States also have e
W J~ ND. ylN:4 [Vr' %MEf . iSD regulatory jurisdiction ( p '# MNY over certain radioactive [gg NV . g p . MAL substances that occur naturally (primarily h / NS\ ( { f 9 p [' ,
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1 WD radium and radon) or - H lNy; H .g]ygA are produced by ma- ![- i OK ~ Agx . Nc' chines called particle
.p acenlerators.
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- 1.
a. us & GA4sc: The NRC or State I $j'" (I ~
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' REGION il '
license specifies the R D Headquarters - types and quantities of radioactive materials Note: Alaska and Hawall are included in Region IV. that may be possessed and used, as well as any specific h restrictions on their use. Typically, , l b.
individuals must compInta an ext:n-possible early approval of sites for sive training program conducted by the nuclear plants. This combined licens-utility and pass license examinations ing process provides for the early resolution of virtually allissues before administered by NRC examiners, Once licensed, the operators continue construction begins. This combined to receive training and are periodically license also incorporates a program tested to show they remain qualified to of tests, inspections, and related acceptance criteria that are neces- operate the piant. sary and sufficient to show that the plant has been properly built. These criteria must be met before operation INSPECTIONS can begin. This process provides for public e NRC periodically inspects all hearings on the certification of the facilities it licenses to ensure that standard design. It also provides for their activities meet NRC regulations public hearings on the s,tei approval and the terms of their licenses. These and on the issuance of a combined inspe> Ons vary in scope and fre-construction permit and operating quency according to the relative license. As the plant nears completion, hazard of the authorized activities. a public hearing could be held if a Throughout the construction period significant question exists on whether and operating life of a nuclear power the criteria of the combined license lant, for example, numerous inspec-have been met. tions are conducted each year. A The licenses for nuclear power small medical or research facility, plants are issued for a 40-year period. using limited quantities of radioactive Licenses for currently operating materials, might be inspected every plants will begin to expire after the few years. year 2000. The NRC has developed For a nuclear power plant, the NRC criteria to be used if utilities seek t inspection program includes the work have the licenses extended. of NRC resident inspectors, who are Licensec for nuclear power plants stationed at the nuclear plants on a can be amended and updated as the full-time basis; inspections by special-result of operating experiences at that ists based in regional offices and NRC plant or at other plants. When neces- headquarters; and special team in-sary, the NRC can impose new regu- spections made up of personnel from lations or require changes in operat- the regional offices and from NRC ing procedures or equipment to im- headquarters. Normalinspections prove the safety of nuclear power consist of examination of a sample of plant operations. the work being performed by a utility. lf evidence of problems is found, the In addition to licensing the facility, . the NRC also licenses the individuals !nspector will focus on that work area in more detail. ! who operate the controls of the reac-l tor. Licenses fall into two categories - The core of the NRC inspection l reactor operator and senior reactor program for nuclear power plants is l operator. The second category is carried out by the resident inspectors; necessary for supervisory positions. at least two inspectors are assigned to 4 Before operator licenses are issued, each site.
l The inspection special- 1 F ' '
'~
ists, based in regional -*- 4 offices, review plant l 8
/'
security, emergency / 6 planning, radiation protec- 1 M
- tion, environmental moni- d %
toring, periodic testing of ' plant equipment and systems, fire protection, e construction activities, and other more special-ized areas. During the course of a year, NRC specialists mayconduct 10 to 25 routine inspections at each nuclear power plant, depending on '~~+ - e g' ~ the activities at the plants m and problems that
- f may occur. "# '"
The special team inspections may For more serious violations or re- NRC resident focus on a specific plant activity, like petitive ones, the NRC may fine utili- inspectors are maintenance or security, or a team ties and other licensees up to assigned to cach may be sent to the plant to look at a $110,000 a day for each violation. nuc/carpower specific operating problem or accident. If serious questions exist about the plant; specialists Allinspections and the findings by safety of NRC-licensed activities, the from NRC regional the inspectors are documented in NRC may issue orders requiring that offices and inspection reports. These reports are licensed activities be halted or an headquarters sent to the facility to inform the utility of individual be removed from work c,,nduct additional the findings. Inspection reports are involving NRC-licensed materials. inspectit,ns. also maintained for public review in a NRC orders also may modify, sus-public library near each plant site and pend, or revoke a license. at the NRC Public Document Room in Washington, D.C. (Certain sensitive Licensed activities,if halted, may information - pr ncipally on nuclear not be resumed until the safety and facility security - may be withheld management problems are corrected from public disclosure.) and the NRC approves the resumption g, When the inspections uncover viola-tions of NRC requ,rements, i the agency A licensee or individual who chooses has a range of enforcement actions. to contest a fine or an order has the right to a hearing before the NRC. The basic action is issuance of a notice of violation, which requires the licensee The results of the NRC inspection to correct the problem and take steps to program for each nuclear power plant prevent a recurrence of the violation. are periodically compiled with other The licensee's response must be agency evaluations in a review called acceptable to the NRC. a Systematic Assessment of Licensee .5
1 1 OTHER USES OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS l 1 ; Smoke Detectors , Generators Static Eliminator Gun & Luminous Watch Dials M.~ Bow - Sights D! - U ns Wood Flooring Radioactive niaterials are used abrasion, and certain Each of these uses requires an in a seide variety of applicat ions gernstones such as blue topa- NRC or Agreensent State bnidesfuelfior nuclearpower , ,,, g,, , ,,_,.,g ,.,,g,. , license, and the activities are plants. paiocHeaHy inspecial by NRC using scaled radiation These applications include: or State penannel. Molations sources to inake x-ray-like of NRC requirernents are pictures of heavyincial o Sledicalradiation theraIa.v subject to the sarne and diagnmtic ints asing og.jn.ts y e pipes anc, y,gres. g, ,_g,,,,,,,,,,.,,,,,,_ 9 radioactive pharntaceuticals. o Otherconnnercialand nuclear poseer plants, o Consuinerproducts like industrial uses, including although the level offines sinoke detecton. " Exit" toting devices and gauges to hnposed are nonnally signs, static clhnination incasure such characteristics substantially lascer. devico, and lutninous as soildensity or levels of a scatch dials, substance in processing o \\ oodflooring treated seith "I" 'I"" '" gannna radiation to resist c \ 'arious research activities. 6 l
Pcrformance (SALP) report. These The turbine is connected to a g:n-reports, issued every 12 to 24 months, erator. As the turbine shaft spins, the ara public documents and are reviewed generator turns and produces electric-with the utility in a meeting open to ity. This electricity is then carried by tha public. wires to the homes, businesses, and On occasion, the NRC receives institutions where the electricity is used. allegations of wrongdoing involving Electricity is one of the few forms of misconduct by licensees or their con- energy that can easily be moved from tractors. Allegations of possible crimi- one place to another. Electrical energy nal activities are handled by the pro- can be produced in large quantities at f:ssionalinvestigative staff of the NRC one location and transported by wires Office of Investigations. These investi- to many different places, gations may result in civil enforcement action or criminal prosecution against We can see coal, oil, or gas burning licensees, individuals, or others. - and we know from experience that , it produces heat. This is the sort of :ncrgy,is n case energy many people use to heat their when an aloin splits homes. Some furnaces heat air, which into smal/crpieces. HOW A NUCLEAR PO is blown through ducts into each room: These smaller PLANT WORKS others heat water, which is piped pieces strike other throughout the house into radiators atoms, releasing where the water gives off some of the more energy. This Power plants change one form heat it absorbed of from the burning fuel. continuous splitting en:rgy into another. Electrical generat- Nuclear energy - as it is used in a of atoms in a ing plants convert heat, the energy of nuclear power plant - cannot be seen. reactoris cal /cd wind or falling water, or solar energy There is no buming of fuelin the usual chain reaction. into electricity, A nuclear power plant i Vis@WiM77-is one of those plants a , , qg gg( , l that converts heat into j . M 9 3 J
~
clectricity. Other types of ' heat-conversion plants fIh I i %vdht ' ' bum coal, oil, or gas for a i ( ybbh heat source that is used
- JMsM ' a ~g K ,
to produce electricity. l . g4 The heat - no matter . what the source -is ! 3" 4 normally used to heat wat:r to the boiling point
.Q[,f
, N d, Q]9 J % .
cnd produce steam. g b.g%ggg;g . [ hg*~p ' This steam is then if ww.%
- ~ '
y- J h'~ %[y), W [) *[.e. carried by pipes to a I' V"l( D T (~
. ,4 turbine - which has a [ ,,
, L seri;s of fan blades on '
[ a shaft. The force of the ( sinm pushes against the blades, turning the turbine. 7
Thefuelrods in the sense. Rather, energy is given off by Water in the reactor is heated by the reactor contain the nuclear fuel as certain types of nuclear reaction - and the heat is hundreds of atoms split into pieces. This energy is carried off to spin the turbine. ceramic pellets of in the form of fast-moving particles and invisible radiation. As the particles and uraniumfuel. Each radiation move through the fuel and URANIU +EC rod is scaled to
. surrounding water, the energy is prerent radm.actire converted into heat.
byproductsfrom he fuel of a nuclear plant is ura-entering the cooling The heat is the useful energy result- nium, but only a certain type of uranium water surrounding ing from the splitting of atoms. The atom can be easily split to produce radiation energy itself can be hazard- energy. This type of uranium atom - thefuel. Thefuel us and requires special precautions called uranium-235 -is less than rods are grouped
, to protect people and the environment. 1 percent of uranium as it is mined.
into hundles or To understand this process let,s look To make fuel for reactors, the uranium assemblics. Control rods in the reactor at a nuclear reactor- which is a large is Mfied W h messM b water-filled vessel containing the incease me pememe of maniuw regulate the energy 235 to 2 to 4 percent of nuclear fuel. being produced. the uranium. This per-centage is enough for a
' M7; ) . conwd ned continuous splitting of
,; < . ud.1ruba
=
uranium atoms - but g" [ ,- much less than the
' 87 : 1L ,
percentage necessary
> I-y for a nuclear weapon,
.Q- f/ .
g which requires almost
< v. '
1 100-percent pure ura- 1
/
7 , nium-235. The low g zhg/ , ou,a w_ j percentage of uranium-
- q. y<f c seoss. ' , m 4 235 in reactor fuelis one p gd y j of the reasons a plant ym yr,/ E, m can never explode like
[ ff/ f an atomic bomb. 4 l l; 3 h
~Q g f t
/ j. 9% > id Uranium fuelis kM1:/ j l l,y M d formed into small cylin-
,. ,g , q m ^ f drical pellets, each 4
n g jy , n . -- , about the size of a finger tip. These pellets are then loaded into metal tubes about 12 feet long. These tubes, called fuel s rods, are sealed and grouped into
, - i; O bundles or assemblies. The fuel assemblies are produced at several
"" - commercial facilities for shipment to the nuclear plants to be loaded into the reactor.
When a uranium-235 atom splits - or " fissions," to use the technical term l b -it gives off energy in the form of
\
radiation and as also fast-moving large cylinders called steam g3nera-pieces of the original atom. One of tors. The heated reactor water flows 1 th:se pieces, which is called a neu- through thousands of tubes in the tron, can collide with another ura- steam generator. The tubes are sur-nium-235 atom and cause it to split, rounded by a secondary water supply too. A continuing series of these that boils and produces steam, which atomic splits, each triggering another is carried away by pipes to spin the one, is called a chain reaction. turbine generator. Uranium-235 will split, or " fission," The reactor cooling water then spontaneously, but these spontane- returns to the reactor to be reheated ous atomic splits aren't frequent or and circulated back to the stearn reliable enough to use as an energy generator, again in a continuous loop. source. The pieces fly away too fast and don't cause the fission of another The BWR is a single-stage system atom. The pieces need to be slowed that allows the water in the reactor to down so that they can collide with boil and produce steam, which is then another uranium-235 atom and con- p ped directly to the turbine generator. tinue the chain reaction. In both types of reactors, once the Several types of materials can be steam loses its energy in spinning the turbine, it flows into a condenser. used to slow down the atomic par-ticles, but most nuclear power plants Because not all the heat energy in the (including all of those now operating steam can be converted into electric-ity, the leftover heat must be carried in the United States) use water as the away by cooling water pumped
" moderator"- the material that slows down the particles to allow the chain through the condenser. The condenser reaction to continue. contains thousands of tubes carrying cool water, which causes the steam to To control the chain reaction, condense back to water. The water is reactors have control rods which collected in the condenser and can be inserted into the reactor to pumped back to be reheated, either in absorb the heutrons as they are the reactor itself for a BWR or in the given off, thus slowing or stopping PWR steam generator.
the chain reaction. The condenser cooling water is drawn from a lake, river, or ocean. This water does not actually pass MO REACTOR TYPES through the reactor, but only through the condenser tubes to cool the Two main types of reactorssteam areafter in it goes through the tur-bine. There is no contact between the operation in the United States - the condenser cooling water and the pressurized water reactor (PWR) and reactor cooling water or the reactor the boiling water reactor (BWR). About components themselves. two-thirds of the reactors are PWRs, and one-third are BWRs. This outside cooling water, heated as it passes through the condenser, is The PWR is a two-stage system that returned to the source lake, river, or keeps the water in the reactor under ocean. Many nuclear plants as well as ( high pressure so that it does not boil, other types of power plants or indus-Piping carries this heated water to trial facilities use cooling towers, h
- Radioactive materials sp7p-rge fyg r y: e g e N % ,
m; _m > s., m ' '" ' require careful use m,- distuumipseung x .AdhntadW a'7 m,j 9* because they produce y.,m,, 7 IL, % g
-. P a; r radiation - a form of
$N,h'hdbrj ci 1 /9p (
energy that can damage
; human cells and, de-Pe e '
v
' p :
pending on the amount I E_J . . E , , and duration of the
,igg hp _ y:
n I"! g pa yn ,--. j exposure, can poten-
., ' y ~.qs w> ' punip ? .
- 1 tially cause cancer over pq M 'i hOvy Ch Turbine -
long periods of time. A Person can be exposed y p cor. - ' ^- 2 (4 f' . I W ggggggg to radiation in two ways. of)U Fu", h, - . wdzwmn - rihmswww , e t, Internal exposures Q-1= B M W a _G GmM w r -- occur if a radioactive N ald m ingested and remains Pressurized Water Reactor. deposited in the body. External exposures can result from a person A pressurized water cooling lakes or ponds, or other tech- being close to a radioactive material reactor circulates niques to reduce the effects of heated without adequate shielding. water through the water discharged directly back into the In the reactor, most of these haz-reactor under river, lake, or ocean. With cooling
, ardous radioactive substances -
towers, the water, once cooled, is pressure. The called fission byproducts - are usually pumoed back into the con- trapped in the fuel pellets themselves heated water goes denser to be used again to carry off or in the sealed metal tubes holding to a large #}linder heat. Only a small portion of the water called a steam the fuel. Small amounts of these twned to the natwal water somce. i generator where it radioactive fission byproducts, princi-Once the steam is produced, the pally gases, however, become mixed heats another water pr cess and equipment used to gen- with the water passing through the , system to make , erate electricity are similar in nuclear reactor. Other impunties in the water steam. T.in.s steam are also made radioactive as they ower plants and fossil-fueled power spins the turbmc p ants. Fossil-fueled plants also pass through the reactor. The water is generator to make discharge heated water to the envi- processed and filtered to remove electricity. ronment or use cooling towers or these radioactive impurities and then other means to cool the water from returned to the reactor cooling sys-the condenser. tem. Small quantities of radioactive gases and liquids are ultimately
. . ., released to the environment under controlled and monitored conditions.
Radioactive materials lose their B ecause the fission reaction radioactive properties over time. Some produces radioactive materials, which are short-lived and become nonradio-can be hazardous, nuclear power active forms in seconds or minutes. plants are equipped with safety sys- Other radioactive elements take much tems to protect workers, the public, longer to lose their radioactivity. This 1.0 and the environment. process is called radioactive decay. l 1
The NRC has estab- fe 7 e " " "~ ""r n ;' % - "W
" '* a ~% i 7ETE lished limits for the release of radioactivity N &^$<'.v'+i Qk M
- GP 1
~ ' M. ' .9L
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t during routine opera- A pDO " M hh, k '
"[
]' T u. g. jbf*h x
tions. These limits are
} h ', #1 based on guidelines set e '
,.a f W N 4 Ali : gM]p
- by the Environmental L ^
' n..etor 3 ~# ./ " p p '
Protection Agency and b ~~ by national and interna- l ' .
'dl lI tional standard-setting 3*
groups. Although the i
,, Fump-o p p p" [5 Q gj #
-- 'e effects of verylow
~
levels of radiation are 2-fr< $g Tumine difficult to detect, the N u bl ggy 3 .. a. _ NRC limits are based "l j
~
on the conservative assumption that radia-e,ja,3,,,n, 3 y,,,,,
]E nd3EFEU lf y~~ % Q Q"
~-
tion exposures to mem-bers of the public Boiling water Reactor should only be a small fraction of what they receive from The environmentalimpact of routine A boiling water natural environmental radiation, operations at a nuclear plant is very reactor sends stcain Experience has shown that nuclear small. But because of the radioactivity froin the reactor plants typically release only a small remaining in the reactor fuel, the plant directly to the portion of the NRC limits during normal must have effective safety systems t turbine generator to operations. A person spending a ful prevent an accident that would lead t produce electricity. year at a nuclear plant boundary would a large amount of that radioactivity being released from the plant. The Afterpassing receive an additional radiation expo-sure of less than 1 percent of the radia- likelihood of such an accident is re- thronAh the tion exposure everyone receives from mote, but the possibility that one could turbine, the stcain is naturally occurring radiation. (Natural occur leads to special care in design, cooled, becoining environmental radiation exposures construction, and operation of nuclear wateragain. This average 300 millirems per year.) Year- power plants. . wateris then round exposure at the plant boundary is puinped back to the an additional 1 to 2 millirems or less. The NRC also sets limits for radia-REACTORSAFETYSYSTEMS' ir'%'ltk'" *" tion exposure to individuals working at nuclear plants and other facilities using nuclear power plant is equipped radioactive materials. Because these with four major types of safety systems individuals receive the radiation expo- to prevent accidents and reduce their sure as part of their employment and effects if one should occur: because they receive special training on radiation protection, the occupa- 1. A system to quickly shut down a tionallimits are higher than those reactor and stop the fission permitted for the general public. Ra- chain reaction. diation workers must wear devices to 2. Numerous systems to control ( measure the radiation to which they reactor pressure and to continue are exposed. 11 1 cooling the reactor fuel- that is,
COOU AND PRESSURE - CO' SYSTEMS hen a reactor is operating, the heat energy from the fission reaction is carried off in the cooling water. That energy is used as steam to spin the turbine generator, mak-e e pymmm.- :
, s%'> j ing electricity. A reactor a' ..$.*g. #
, ; shutdown stops the
. , **..5 * }, . }
$ ~ ; *'4j q}
fission reaction, but heat is still generated by the
.jg . ' -
~,
radioactive fission A nuclearpower byproducts, which have piant includes the built up in the reactor g building housing fuel. Much less heat is created than when the the reactor and reactor is operating, but cooling system the heat is still sufficient components, the auxiliary building ?*U~9*'h*f"'i is not cooled. As time with the control to carry away the heat that passes after the reactor shutdown, , room and unportant continues to be generated even the amount of heat produced in the safety equipment, after the reactor is shut down. fuel in the reactor core decreases. and the turbine Continued cooling of the fuel remains
- 3. Electrical, control, and instru-
'"' '"# #h" ment systems for safety sys-necessary, however. Both normal electricity is tems and for monitoring reactor cooling systems and emergency produced. Many conditiors. cooling systems are available. Each nuclearplants also system has at least two parallel parts
- 4. System of barriers to conta.in so that if one fails, the other part
, hare cooling towers r dioactivity if it should escape would still be available to continue to to cool water that he reactor fuel, m an has been used to cool the reactor. accident. condense steam The emergency core cooling system F"*ng through t/n' SHUTDOWN SYSTEMS (ECCS) consists of pumps and valves turbm, e. Waterfor and pipes that are independent of the this condensin# normal cooling system. The ECCS function comes ach reactor has a system to insert contains equipment that can pump at from a rircr, lake or the control rods into the reactor core high pressure to inject water into the ocean and does not within seconds to stop the fission reactor when the pressure inside is at pass through the reaction. This immediate shutdown - the high levels maintained during reactor itself, called a reactor " scram" or reactor operation. In addition, low pressure
'1 rip"- can be triggered by a reactor systems pump water at lower pres-operator or by automatic controls that sures, such as those that might occur if protect the reactor from any unusual a cooling water pipe broke and allowed 3g 14 conditions in the plant. pressure inside the reactor to drop.
The reactor systems also contain banks of batteries provide DC power if valves that can be opened to reduce there is an interrupticn in the normal pressure by releasing steam. These sources of electricity. relief valves open automatically if pressure gets too high in the reactor system. Some of the valves can be CONTAINING , opened using controls in the reactor control room. These pressure-reduction RADIOACTIVITY systems can also be used to reduce - -. reactor pressure so that the low pres-sure cooling systems can function. _ uclear power plants have three The reactor principal barriers to prevent the release , , , , of radioactivity - the sealed fuel rods, scaled reinforced-SAETY SYSTEM POWER . the reactor vessel and associated com. concrete and steel ponents, and the structure housing the structure which reactor, called the reactor containment. surrounds the ost of the safety systems are A serious reactor accident could "'"'1#^
- powered by electricity, although some
###'#""I '" ##"'""'
damage the fuel rods, which form the pumps do use steam to drive them first barrier,if adequate cooling does radu,ractire gases in order to have an alternative source not occur. Overheated fuel rods could that inight be of power. Because of this reliance leak or break apart and eventually rc/ cased by a pipe on electrical power, nuclear plants melt. Possible damage to the reactor break or other are required to have multiple sources cooling system piping could breach the nuijar reactor of electricity. second barrier. accident. A nuclear plant uses a portion of the power it [y" F~ -- M%
~~
generates to run plant , le S vV equipment. A plant also e bo2 - , ?W must have at least two > i*
- connections to the .N.A 4 utility's electrical distribu- -
N*~$[ % tion system so that it can ' w h immediately shift to [g.p <4 g, , offsite power sources if a b~ ^
' ' - (appmimanwy; i 8 5 W ***)
shutdown occurs. Should _
^
there be a failure in the L offsite power connec- i tions, each plant has ' x smergency diesel gen- l , srators with sufficient (
'g ,
g- ' capacity to supply elec-tricity to the critical safety [' < b ' systems. , The control and instru- ' ~
. Example of a PWR Containmentc ment systems normally Lmm _ _ _. ._ - a_ ;,m ,mi mm use direct current (DC) ,.
r slectricity, the kind of power found in batteries. For these systems, large l N
Even with the failure of those first Although somo radioactivity was two barriers, the reactor containment released to the atmosphere by an is designed to hold radioactive mate- indirect route, the containment itseif rial that might otherwise be released performed as designed and kept the to the outside environment. One type radioactivity safely bottled up inside. of reactor containment is a large The effectiveness of the containment cylinder-shaped building made out of was the major factor in preventing the reinforced concrete with a steel lining. release of large amounts of radioactive it is designed to withstand the pres- materials to the environment. sures that might build up inside as in 1986 a much more serious acci-steam and gases escape from the dent occurred at Chomobylin the reactor during an accident. Another former Soviet Union. The reactor was type of containment, called a pres- very different from those used in the sure suppression containment, has a United States. The plant had no con-large water-filled pool to cool the tainment system like that of U.S. plants. steam and reduce the pressure I The Chornobyl accident severely buildup ,n i the containment. damaged the reactor core, releasing l The NRC requires that the reactor large quantities of radioactivity to the containment be periodically tested to environment. Radioactive material was show it meets requirements to prevent deposited in nearby countries, and leakage from inside the structure. radioactivity was detectable at very low Although reactor containments were levels in the United States. ( designed to cope with many types of serious reactor accidents, they may not g p-withstand the conditions that result from } an extremely unlikely accident in which l all cooling capability is lost in the reac-l tor. Under these circumstances, the Ithough a major reactor accident f energy produced by the radioactivity is unlikely and each plant is equipped remaining in the fuel could cause the with safety systems to prevent or cope l fuel to melt. Melting of the fuel could with an accident, additional measures eventually lead to a pressure buildup in help protect public heath and safety. the containment that could cause The first is special training given to f radioactive gases to leak through seals the reactor operators in the handling of l and gaskets around the containment. emergency situations. One of the The molten fuel could also damage the lessons leamed as a result of the Three concrete base of the conta,nment, i Mile Island accident was that reactor leading to a possible release of radio- operators needed to practice how they activity. Even in these cases, however, would handle emergencies. Detailed most of the long-term hazardous radio- emergency operating procedures have active material would remain inside the been prepared and the operators have containment structure. been trained to use them. In addition, in the only major commercial power most nuclear power plants use com-reactor accident in the United States, puter-based simulators for training in l I the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, both routine and abnormal situations, there was extensive fuel damage. These simulators are laid out just like Radioactive gases and contaminated the plant's control room with all of the N I cooling water filled the containment. controls and instrumentation. Comput-
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a,:m= - ers let the operators practice dealing recommendations. State and local Each nuclearplant with emergencies as they occur in the governments have detailed plans for has a warning simulator's control room. sheltering and evacuation of residents system to notify The Three Mile Island accident also jf necessary. Federal emergency plans nearby residents of pointed out the need for improved include Federal personnel, equipment, einergency planning by Federal, State, and local and resources needed to respond to a nuclear power plant accident. Th o didons. governments to deal with possible NRC would closely follow the handling de M dw reactor accidents. The NRC now , requires that emergency plans be f an accident by a utility and investi-gate the causes of the accident. o, nergency, wou prepared for evacuation or other actions to protect the residents in the These emergency plans are tested cornefrom State andlocalofficials vicinity of nuclear plants. These plans through emergency exercises that usually cover an area about 10 miles simulate a serious reactor accident. using the emergency in all directions around each nuclear Utility personnel and government broadcast system. plant. The utility has its 0e.'n emer- officials follow their emergency plans gency plan to notify government offi- in gathering information, consulting cials of a possible emergency and to with each other, and issuing instruc-provide them with information and tions to the public. These emergency 15
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anau- -- m.r.mm v::.cuarm nm me ers let the operators practice dealing recommendations. State and local Each nuclearplant with emergencies as they occur in the governments have detailed plans for has a warning simulator's control room. sheltering and evacuation of residents systein to notify The Three Mile Island accident also .4 necessary. Federal emergency plans ricarby residciits of pointed out the need for improved include Federal personnel, equipment, g yy,,.g,,,y. y planning by Federal, State, and loca and resources needed to respond to a nuclear power plant accident. The oirdidoE governments to deal with possible NRC would closely follow the handling d i dn> reactor accidents. The NRC now requires that emergency plans be of an accident by a utility and investi-prepared for evacuation or other gate the causes of the accident. cint,rge,nc,y n,onld actions to protect the residents in the These emergency plans are tested coinefroin State vicinity of nuclear plants. These plans through emergency exercises that and localolJicials usually cover an area about 10 miles simulate a serious reactor accident. using dn> cnurgency in all directions around each nuclear Utility personnel and government broadcast systein. plant. The utility has its own emer- officials follow their emergency plans gency plan to notify government offi- in gathering information, consulting cials of a possible emergency and to with each other, and issuing instruc-I provide them with information and tions to the public. These emergency 15
exercises sometimes include small- ance program, initiated under the scale evacuation drills for schools, Price-Anderson Act, combines com-nursing homes, and other institutions. mercial insurance and self-insurance The NRC must determine that there by the nuclear industry. Large is reasonable assurance that evacua- nuclear plants are required to have tion or other steps can be taken to the maximum amount of liability protect area residents in the event of a insurance that is commercially avail-A. I"it of the highly major reactor accident. To make this able, currently $200 million. In addi-radioactive spent tion, each licensed reactor is liable determination, the NRC reviews the fuelreinoredfrom utility's plans, conducts inspections, for a $75.5 million assessment to carthan nuclear and considers the assessrnent of State provide funds in the event of a major powerplants is and local planning by the Federal accident at a plant in the United storedin special/J Emergency Management Agency. States. (No reactor would be as-designed water ser, sed more than $10 million in any basins at the one year.) unetor des. When a Federalhigh-leret f CLEAR INSURANCE with about 110 nuciear power plants in the United States, the com-waste site becomes bination of commercialinsurance arallable, the used ongress has established a sys- and industry self insurance exceeds fuel willbe moved tem of "no-fault" insurance to provide $8 billion. This is the totalliability thereforpermanent liability coverage in the event of a limit for an accident under the Price-divposal. major reactor accident. This insur- Anderson Act and no claims are required to be paid in excess of this amount.
'j W. Congress, however, will !
6 WO b# 0 M' ~ ', s consider the need for ) providing an additional source of funds should
$8 billion prove inad- I
- . equate.
" The Price-Anderson I Act provides for liability
-r ,
insurance coverage , e n, _ for actual damages I incurred by anyone (d ' " J affected by a major
/ ', N;- reactor accident. Be-kg '
o
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M sides the coverage q g 7
,y for offsite public liability {
r . 1 A n 1 , 1 claims, the NRC u . - l fi j - requires that utilities f maintain $1 billion in onsite property dam-
.) hing
~
i , . . age insurance to provide funds to deal with cleanup of the reactor site 16 after an accident. _ . o
RADIOACTIVE WASTE ' ' ' di
' N * '" ' * "* '" ' "
DISPOSAL
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decays or loses its radioactivity at a set rate. Each radioactive component has a different rate of decay called its half-life - the time it takes the mate-D uring normal operations, rial to lose ahalf of its radioactivity. nuclear power plant generates two Some fission byproducts have a half-types of radioactive wastes - high- life of a few seconds; others have half-level waste, which consists of used fuel lives of hundreds or thousands of years. (usdally called spent fuel), and low- f level wastes, which include contami- - eh h me I e n ited equipment, filters, maintenance materials are still present. But over rnaterials, and resins used in purifying water for the reactor cooling system. mese sMmes dem le@ the longer-lived materials as the princi-Other users of radioactive materials al substances for disposal. These also generate low-level wastes. materials include cobalt-60 (5-year half-Each type of waste is handled I fe), cesium-137 (30-year half-life), and differently. plutonium-239 (24,400-year half-life). Special procedures are needed in HIGH-LEVEL WASJE the handling of the spent fuel, since the radiation levels can be very dan. Proposed gerous without proper shielding. The luk/e/crel waste The spent fuel from nuclear power water in the spent fuel storage pool disposalsite at plants is stored in water-filled pools at provides cooling and adequate shield. Fucca Mountain, each reactor site and at ing from the radiation to protect workers Nerada one storage facility in ' Illinois. Several utilities have recently begun using dry cask storage pending final disposal. In this way spent fuelis stored in heavy metal or concrete containers O {j i placed on concrete pads gg a djacent to the reactor _ Ng
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facility. From one-fourth to one-third of the f' reactor fuelis removed a nd replaced during i re fueling. Reactors are " ~~ n m ormally refueled every , , 12 to 18 months. ,
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Federal requirements, and the De-in a nuclear plant. Concrete and steel partment of Transportation sets the in dry casks provide adequate protec-rules for actual transportation of the tion, too. spent fuel. Although most of the spent fuel I Some of the components in spent remains stored at individual plants, f fuel remain hazardous for a long time. Diagrau of a spent some spent fuel has been shipped to ' Permanent disposal of spent fuel, offsite interim storage facilities. One fuelstorage cask offsite storage therefore, requires a disposal facility that provides reasonable assurance
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] shipments have ig The Department of Energy (DOE) j used heavily gp fB" is developing plans for a permanent Q.wg ,
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- - stand the cond.i- the high-level waste produced by tions that might the Nation's nuclear weapons produc-ccur during a tion activities.
. m $. shipping acci-dent. Spent fuel Congress has directed DOE to
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has been shipped focus on a proposed site at Yucca by rail and by Mountain in southern Nevada for this waste disposal facility. Site studies 5 truck. The NRC are still under way to determine if the certifies each site is adequate for long-term dis-b , shipping con-tainer that meets posal of the high-level waste.
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DOE would design,
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@i site is available for disposal, other plants, particularly the older ones, may soon run out of storage space in their spent fuel pools. DOE and the nuclear industry are consider-Storage casks at the Surry NucIcar ing various options to store additional
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spent fuel, including dry storage, the availability of disposal capacity for construction of additional offsite in- commercial low-level waste produced terim storage facilities, and techniques in the State. States could provide for for storing more fuelin the existing disposal either individually or as a spent fuel storage pools. group by joining together in a regional agreement. The individual States or Through theyears, State gmups am in the pmcess of ,,y,y,,,,f,f f,,_ LOW-LEVEL WASTE selecting new bunal sites or,in some cases, will use the facilities that have Ierclradioactive been operating. waste has been Low-level radioactive waste, . whether from a nuclear power plant or S'"'" ~ from other users of radioactive mate- TRANSPORTATION "'"Shi"It'""> S""'h rial, is shipped to licensed commercial Carolina, Nevada, disposal facilities where it is packaged Illinois, Kentucky, and placed in burial trenches and andNew York. Sita bout 3 million packages of radio-covered with soil. Less than half of the active materials are shipped each year in the latter three waste volume ,s i from nuclear power States have been in the United States - by highway, plants; the remainder is generated by shut downfor many rail, air, and water. Regulating the hospitals, research institutes, and safety of these shipments is the joint years, and the other users of radioactive materials. responsibility of the U.S. Department Nerada site ceased in 1980 Congress mandated that of Transportation (DOT) and operation on the each State be responsible for assuring the NRC. first day of1993. 7mn.-,,,me,nx ne,g-,.,7nywy; -,mq7; p - g,y, ey w~g 9p 7 (Top.Souz Q' w g' B gqvm h Waste - Concrete Blocks g,g?? ,-
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1 Typical of small-l quantity shipments - l ~ using packages meeting I DOT requirements-are radioactive materials for medical diagnostic tests and therapy. we g gf These shipments constitute the major t
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ht..- e i p t, g o h ~' each year. For these shipments, packaging i _ (classified as " Type A") is used that is expected to withstand the rigors of
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without incurring any damage. The packages for Spent reactorfisel The Federal regulatory system larger quantities of radioactive materials is carriedin protects transport workers and the are designed to withstand accident , containers that are publ;c by setting performance stan- conditions without relea sing their con-specially designed dards for the packages and by setting tents. These packages, designated as limits on the radioactive contents and " Type B," are used for sh;pping industrial j to withstand radiation levels for packages and irradiators, medical radiation therapy accident conditions devices, and some radioactive wastes. vehicles. Information on radioactive ' without icleasing shipments is provided by package The accident evaluation cnteria for these their radioactive packages include impact, puncture, marking and labeling, vehicle plac.
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ards, and shipping papers describing the materials. A specialized Type B package is DOT has regulatory jurisdiction over the spent fuel shipping cask, which is radioactive shipments while the mate- used to transport used fuel from rial is in transit. DOT also establishes nuclear reactors. These large ship-shipping categories, sets the stan. ping casks are carried on trucks or dards for labeling of radioactive ship. rail cars. Like all Type B packages, ments, and establishes criteria for they are sealed to prevent leakage packages used for smaller quantities and heavily shielded to minimize the of radioactive materials. The NRC, radiation levels. which licenses the organizations The NRC also imposes security shipping and receiving the radioactive requirements on shipments of spent materials, assures that its licensees fuel and on shipments of larger quanti-comply with the DOT shipping require- ties of highly enriched uranium or I ments. The NRC also establishes the plutonium. These security measures ) requirements for the design and manu- include route evaluation, escort per-facture of packages for larger quanti- sonnel and vehicles, communications M ties of radioactive materials. capabilities, and emergency plans.
l State governments are notified in that may require cleanup procedures advance of spent fuel shipments and when the facility is closed. Careful those large-quantity shipments of radiation surveys must also be per-radioactive waste requiring Type B formed before the site can be released packages. for other uses. The regulatory system for transpor- During the operating life of a tation of radioactive materials has nuclear power plant, many plant been successfulin minimizing the components associated with the safety impact from accidents involving reactor become radioactive, either the shipments. Few accidents have through contamination or as a result occurred involving shipments of radio-of the radiation from the fission reac-active materials (averaging less than tion. Therefore, care is needed in the 50 out of 3 million packages shipped handling of decommissioning work, annually). Only a small number of and contaminated materials have to I those accidents have involved any be shipped to a low-level radioactive l release of the radioactive contents. In waste disposal site for burial. these instances, radioactive contami-nation has been generally minor with The NRC has identified two principal no public safety consequences. plans for decommissioning a nuclear power plant -imm'.' ate dismantling or safe storage for a period of 30 to 50 DECOMMISSIONING years followed by dismantling. A third option, called entombment, may also be available in some cases. This Dismantlement of Decommissioning is the term wouldused involve sealing off radioactive the Trojan Nuclear for ending the operation of a nuclear components with concrete and steel. Power Plantin facility. Nuclear power plants are Entombment would require less main- Oregon, licensed for a term of 40 years. Some plants may be closed before that time elapses; others may seek an extension of the license period. Several nuclear power plants have been de-commissioned, and
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gTM, some others are under- ' going decommissioning. h,\ " The NRC has adopted - extensive regulations for dealing with the techni-cal and financialissues associated with decom-missioning. These regulations 4 apply to nuclear power plants and to other facilities that handle radioactive materials in forms 21
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Thephotographs to the right show the remediation stages a ofthe Babcock and Wilcox site un - V' Apollo, Pa. The site Before :: formerly housed a Remediation - ' ' ' ' ~' --= ~~ ^~ , uraniumfuel processing and
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fabrication plant l that was decommissionedin i995. Operations at ' the site ceasedin i983. Soil contaminated with uranium and other low-level waste was shipped to a disposalfacilityfor g . hurial. When y During surveys and ; Remediation monitoring indicate the site meets NRC release criteria, the license willbe isrminated and the site releasedfor unrestricted use. After Remediation I i 22
tenance and fewer security provisions Similar financial procedures are also than the storage option. required for other types of nuclear The storage and entombment facilities, including plants that prepare methods allow for a reduction in the fuel for nuclear power plants or pro-levels of radioactivity over time. NRC cess radioactive materials. studies have shown that after 50 years, the volume of radioactively Some facilities that previously used contaminated material would be nuclear materials in processing or reduced to one-tenth of the original manufacturing activities require special management attention to ensure volume as a result of radioactive decay. Delay in dismantling a plant proper remediation. The NRC devel-would also result in lower radiation oped a Site Decommissioning Man-exposures to the workers involved. agement Plan to compel timely cleanup of certain unusual and difficult Cost estimates for decommusioning sites, particularly those with a lot of a large nuclear plant are $300 million soil contamination or with old, contami-or more, plus the cost of demcation of nated buildings. About 40 sites are non-contaminated materials. The NRC listed in the plan. Remediation can decommissioning rules require utilities usually be completed in four years. to establish funds to pay for the future decommissioning of their plants. Afterwards, the site can be used safely for any purpose. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION, CONTACT: - Office of Public Affairs U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Washington, D.C. 20555-0001 301-415-8200 E-Mait: OPA@NRC. GOV Internet Home Page: http://www.nrc. gov REGIONAL PUBLIC AFFAIRS OFFICES Region i Region ill 475 Allendale Road King of Prussia, PA 19406-1415 801 Warrenville Road Lisle, IL 60532-4531 610-337-5330 630-829-9663 Region 11 Region IV 61 Forsyth Street, S.W. 611 Ryan Plaza Drive Suite 23T85 Atlanta, GA 30303 Suite 400 Arlington, TX 76011-8064 404-562-4400 817-860-8128 Walnut Creek Field Office 1450 Maria Lane f i Walnut Creek, CA 94596-5368 510-975-0346
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