ML19259B481

Ack Receipt of Which Noted NRC Reponse to Petition Limiting Consideration of Alternative Electrical Energy Sources to Coal & Oil.Forwards Evaluation of Alternative Energy Sources for EIS

ML19259B481
Person / Time
Issue date:	01/24/1979
From:	Hendrie J NRC COMMISSION (OCM)
To:	Judith Weaver HOUSE OF REP.
References
NUDOCS 7902260029
Download: ML19259B481 (40)

Text

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,,p {,.?g NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION J$

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January 24,.1979 copR

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CHAIRMAN The Honorable Jim Weaver IMited States House of Representatives Washington, D. C.

20515

Dear Congres:

iman Weaver:

As you noted in your letter of December 5,1978, the. NRC staff response to Mrs. Honicker's petition lirdts the consideration of alternative electrical en'ergy sources to coal and oil. When we spoke about the staff's response, I could not remember whether or not a full discussion of alternative energy sources had been given, but I thought.it had probably been included.

,I was wrong, as you pointed out.

The staff informs me that in the context of the Honicker petition, which requested an immediate shutdown of all nuclear power plants, the staff felt that its response could deal only with facilities using currently proven sources of electrical power which could be available as replacements.

Presently, the staff has no information that other alternative energy sources, such as solar, waste, wood, and wind would be cheaper than coal.

Therefore, to calculate long-tenn economic impacts, for purposes of the Honicker petition, the staff conservatively made the simplistic assumption that the long '. era deficit in power generation would be made up by the addition tf coal-fired plants, so that the economic impact would not be exaggerated.

However, a more comprehensive evaluation of alternatives to nur. lear power is done by the staff in reviewing each application for a con-struction permit for a nuclear ponr plant that is intended to supply power approximately a decade in the future, since there is a much broader range of alternatives available.

Staff prepares an environ-mental statement to be filed with the Council on Environmental Quality in keeping with HRC's responsibilities under the National Environmenta]

Policy Act (NEPA), which is implemented by the NRC regulatioas in 10 CFR Part 51.

Many energy source 3 are considered, even those that are only remotely likely to provide measurable output in the time frame of. current NRC licensing decisions.

Although conservation efforts have often been effective in delaying the need for additional base-load generating capacity, it is the staff's present tvaluation that only coal is a viable alternative to nuclear power to meet the case-load generating needs for the late 1980's.

New-20/3 106 79mccrog9

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Honorable Jim Weaver technological developments, changes in relative prices, and other factors could change this conclusion.

The staff keeps abreast of these devel-opments and incorporaces them as appropriate into its NEPA reviews. As an example of the staff's current work in this area, a copy of the evaluation of alternative energy sources done for the forthcoming New England Power, Units 1 and 2, (NEP 1 & 2) Environmental Statement for the Construction Permit is enclosed for your information.

You will note the following alternatives to construction of a nuclear power plant are considered:

purchased power from neighboring utilities reactivation or upgrading of older plants nature.1 gas hydroelectric coal magreto hydrodynamics fuel cells synthetic fuels from coal oil shale geothermal municipal solid waste controlled nuclear fusion solar thermal conversion wind ocean thermal gradients organic wastes cogeneration The staff's evaluation of these al'ternatives is subject to examination in hearings before an Atomic Safety and Licensing ~ Board on a given construction permit application and, on appeal by any party to the proceeding, may be reviewed further by the NRC Appeals Board, the Commission, and a Federal Court of Appeals.

Please let me know if we can provide further information on these matters to you or your staff.

Sincerely, Joseph M. Hendrie

Enclosure:

As stated 2073 107 e

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P. EMAii'/ES

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.s :.>nt.'Or !.i? I f, E, Se 5:2ff eval.1:+d altar. ati.c c er;y ::.rces tad st 2. s:1.;

jste-s, altar native sites, alttrna.ive plant designs, a!!ernative routes for trans::ission linas, and 1: tar. a-* as to v 11 trans;. rtati:n ;recei.res. The staff's assess ent and ::rclasi:ns relative to each of the alter.:ati/es c:nsidered tre ;resanted in this saction.

9.1 :!.TEF;4TIVE E:;ERGY S0' RCES /30 CE: E?.ATI?:0 SYSTE.G To assess the practicality of the a;plicant's proposal to build a 2300.We tsc-unit nuclear, power station, the staff evaluated alternative energy sources that require and that do not re ufre the -

creation of nea generating capacity. The results of this evaluaticn are prasented in the follcw-ing. discussions.

9.1.1 Alt =rnatives not racuiriaq creatien of new cenersting ca:.acity d,

e Several.altarpativas not requirin<j the creation of new gar. crating capacity by the applicant were considered. These alternatives include purchased power, reactivatier. cr upgrading of older plants, ant! tase-load operetien of existing peaking units.

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9.1.1.1 P_ughesed power The applicant c nducts its syst:7 planning studies 'n c:ncert with all Nis England utilities threu;h t.)e New England Pool (NEFGOL). The studies that led to the auth:rt:1 tion to censtruct

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t E? 1 12 included evaluation of the pctantial for p: er intarchange a.cng the N:w England utiliths and with utilities in areas adjacent to the iew England regi:n, parti:ularly in New York ar.d Canada.

In 1975 the applicant discussed p:wcr purchase with re.-bers of the New Y:rk Pcwer Pool.' It was

'Micated that dalaved siting of new generation facilities by New Y:rk T:-er F:ol tc.: bars -as placing these facilities in a vulnerable position with respect to adegacy of capacity for the paried of 1920-ic85 (ER, Sect. 9.1.1).

In the past three years, h:.ever, ;: war dc.nnd ferc asts 2073 008

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fer *re 13 e.1;M s vs.e *..--

... d fr- - the level par:tived in 1975. 2.dfitice.tlly. pinned and

.:.pla r.2d delejs h:<e c:c,rred in the ;r dict 2d c;3ratir; dates of ;:.er plants ;rcy::ed fsr the e

tid-te latter 1:::s.

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tr.;es in s ;;iy of ind d r ind fa. th-ri:!!y nd trr dif ficulty 4e

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cf pr;IIctin; c r;y cen:.-;ti:,n ;3tteras of the next decade, the staff 1:es not expect that the U t"-t -ill be able to purchase fim p: tr froa fle.t York Peaar 7:31 rarbers in the late !S30s.

l The a;;1icant and ether utility traebers of fiEP03L have investi5sted the potential of po er pur-ch:sts in CanMa fr= the Q;ebec Hydro-Electric Cermission and the New Bruns ick Electric Pcwer Cm:r.ission. A high-capacity transe.ission line fec:a Quebec, proposed for cperatten in t.he 1930s, would su;;1y cout 1200 PJ each to the fiew York Power Pool and to t;EF00L. Obviously, po.er, if available full time, would only peruit delay of one nuclear unit in all of !;ew England by one year. Lens-ter:n, year-rcund availability is uniikely because Canadian dorestic dec.and vould eventually catchap with supply. In addition, the cyclic seasonal nature of electric power dt.Tand places Canadian surplus capability in the availability category of sessenal diversity exchange.

The Car.adian surplus available for sale would occur in the su r er, and their need for purchtse frc.m U.S. utilities vauld occur in the winter. Because the applicant also has a winter peaking

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system, r.o excess capability would be aveilable for sale to Canadian utilities..Jhus, a r:ntually I

advantageous energy'or capability diversity between the applicant and the Quebac *iydro-Elec'tcic <

r Cc mission is not likely.

j In 1976 the i;ew Ec;1and utilities began to receive 400 M,'e fro., the ::aa 3runswick Electric Po.cer Cc:aission. The a;plicant, receives about 100 l'Je of this purch:se until 1935. !;rw Brunswick has not c:.mitted itsaf f to any sales to New England utilities beyond 1535.

With respect to'the reliability of electric power service to c:nsu ers, it.Tust also be recognized that the C3.nadian gcverm.2nt could cut off sales to the U.S. utilities in the event of a dce estic en :rgy crisis. Finally, iirports of power from Canada in excess of that discussed in this section mld require cerstruction of additienal transe.ission lines %rcush undisturbed r.atural areas of northern ;e.t York and'i'aine. The current degree of envirencental concern seriously i. pedes the c;; revel of construction of such transmission lines.

Pu.c'..de of electric pc,.Er and r:ner;y frcen utilities in regicas b2y::.d the adjacent areas d escrit< d M:ve is not censidered feasibic on a leng-tem L: sis for the folic,fr.g reascas.

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Tsedic-'r; e..llability of e< cess generating capacity Of any utility in the late lH:s is D@

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elhery of ! rge biccks of anargy fr:a distant un'itiet - :uld. t;uire instalint!' n of_

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, trart.,issi n circuits not curr.:ntly prop: sed, thus in:. tesia; the er.vir:nrental irpact

. ai c:: :2 tr n:,iss'c1 Ifras :: pared with the ;r:.:2+

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t.cr.g distir.:a pcaar transatssion would ir. cur substantial er=rgy icsses, thus requiring incen:d.3;4ct f and fr.:rets+d r.:nsu.rptica of fu21 c sneces.

4.

Cistant uttif ties raight evantually raquire ca;acity assista:ca frca the epplicent, thus.

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necissitating pc ar plant constraction in the applicant's service net.

In censideration of these issues, the staff does not believe that pc,.er purchases can be cc.n-sidered a viable alternative to ecnstructing, and operating,t<EP 1 & 2.

9.1.1.2 Eeactivatten or ucgrading of older plants I;ew England ?cwer Cunpany has not scheduled the retiretent cf any units hatween 1978 and 1990

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4 (ER, Table 1.1-21).

The other..'iew England utilities propose to retire at:ut 40 W of peamag

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capacity in t$e same period (ER Table 1.1-20). Thus, &

'.y :t capacity retirenent wculd'have

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virtually no effect on satisfying the capacity gro th rQ..ce. ents of the e;plicant or the !!cw England egicn.

There is little opportunity to increase Senerating capacity by upgrading existing facilities that are cperating at des'ign capacity. Majer increases in output v:ald require replacement cr codiff-cation of ::st major cceponents, frt:n fuel yard to switchyard, within the pc ar plint ccmpims.

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More than likely, older plants will be modified to meet air cnd water quality regulations, which

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r=y infuce plant derating or plant requirements (ER, p. 9.1-2).

In addition, a Fedacal order to c:a -rt uaits fre a oil to coal may lead to the same resht.

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~'.ere ray te s e opportunity to increase the energy ge..arited frce the applicant's existing

wer plants. T'

e pcwer; systr.<a includes about 1300 We of fossil-fueled ;1 ants cperated as

• tc:- ditt.e 1:ad genera tors (ER, Table 1.1 21). If the plant fact:rs wcre f.cr' ned by as c

uch as 20t (Ji.alute), the additienal energy generated -:uld be epi.ilcnt to the en::rgy frsa 5 550 We ;;..:e ;i nt opcrating at a 70t plant factor. This is caly stqut c c-f urth of the

v. ccity :f

• he prc;c>cd *:EP 1 & 2.

-:diticn.el use of W!!!rg f !sil-f.eled oly.t. ould

.ti!!:2 4.re + ;. - !.e fuel end.:uld n:,t b c:nsistat -: th the

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reliability cf cwati:n or to provide fr.:raased p:lluticn atue ent r.ipt also be requirad.

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Excludin; hjde ali.;tric facilities, the epplicant has abcut 133 C'a of pak lead capacity (ER, Tabl e 1.1-21). The generating units are fueled with oil or gas, and their use for base-load ca city is n:t ra:5:.seble for the folle.-ing adnese rasons.

1.

The capacity is not suffisient to.::eet ".he grcwth requirer.ents of the applicant for r.are than three.cnths.

2.

The sye'e::: seneration cost might be increased nore than with the proposed nuclear plant.

3.

The oil cor.sumption would be increesed.

4.

Because peaking units are designed for infrequent use, excess..a use could result in increased c:rp:n'ent failures and increased overhaul requirenents.

'The applicant also has 535.T.,'e of hydrcelectric capacity. Because cperation of thse units is deter..ined by the rainfall and runoff in the ~ region, they cannot he relied upon to fulfill base.

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Thus, the staff d:es not find that base-lead operation of existing fossil-fueled peak load or hydrcelectric facilities is a stable altercative to NEP 1 & 2.

9.1.2 Alter atives recuirine creation of ne.i cenerati_ng ca:acity To diter.ine whether the new generat.ng capacity should be nuclear, the staff evaluated possible

- alternative energy s:urces. Alternatives to the two proposed ll50-itie nuclear units can be Srr..;ed autording to type in two broad categorics: connntienal energy scurces and potantial future energy s:urces 7.nd syste.ns.

9.1.2.1 C_.: nntic: al energy sources T:.e ::... wit:r.al r.nergy !,ources evaluated inclufe (1) oil, (2) natural gas, (3) 5.ater or by'ro-clectric ;:-er, a.d (4) ccal. These tources were evaluated with respect to.their availchility and ;ms!51e eat 'n the applicant's ser. ice area.

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C11,revi'as r.ncly half cf the anargy c:nsumed in the ';nited States.:

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ductica has not kept pace with c

nsuratien. Therefore, tath the quantity and proporticn.of

fr oil.._ ;ti:n Gr.11 fr:a i ;crtaticn has studily 'n:rened, en:h'n; G: in 1975 tr.d 15:ut 5C: in the early :0nths of 1977.2 In the Nmv En;1and ragf oi,2 ;etroleva ;reducts pre-vihd ?3.M,f all 2nergy consu ed in 1973. In Rhod? Island, the ;r:;:rtion wss 33.M.3 This c:rcu ;*'en -ss d::.inated by i.';crts.

This depenhncy en imports, expected to continue for many years,">5 necessitates dualing in an intarnaticnal oil cirket supplied mainly by the Middle East and Nc African cc:;ntries, who produce alcost half of the world's cil. The availability and cusc of imported oil are quite often subject to the politically motivated production ar.d pricing ;olicies of these fcreisk pro-

'ducers. The reifability of fuel supplies fro:n such sources cannot te censidered' dependable over the long term. Currently, the U.S. foreign trade balance-of-payant prchierr.s are sericusly aggravated by the annual expenditure in 1977 of mere than $40 billicn for icported oil.

d The rapid grewth of oil censumption, both in the United States and arcund the w$rld, has led to international, con ~cern Ibcut the potential depletien of,the world's oil rescurces. Many industrial nations have tr. ken steps to reduce their future dependence cn oil-darived energy. In the United States, the effort to central srewth of dc astic censu. ; tion has be:n led by the federal Er.ergy M.ainistratica (new the Npart.. ant of Energy) and is curr1ntly the ajor thrust of the President's Naticnal Energy Plan.1 This plan has three princf;tl c5jectives:

1.

to re?.,ce dependance en foreign oil and vulnertbility to se;;1y interruptiens; 2.

to r.aintain frports sufficiently Icw to avoid ic;3 cts of depleticn of the world's oil

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supply; and 3.

to develcp renwable and essentially innhaustible si; plies of enar;y to su.tain ec:ncMc.

greuth.

With res; x t to the t'nt naticnal effort to centrol the grcwth of cil cer.sumptien, it is ricagnized that transportatica systc.s and certz'n industries, such es ;etrochdcal :nd fertilizer, are highly da;s. dent en oli and its products with little or no choica for an alter-nate resoarce. Thus, e 2Jcr thrust of recent 1s ;islatkn ar.d currr.: national ;olicy is

<lirect;d t:qrd 2nccurse;ir.g cr directing electric utilities to *.,Wh to ccal as a t ciler fu21 20/3 112

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wh+n ;: '.ible or ::-trd liriting their use of oil ten satchir.; is rat ;es si:le. In adfitten, an all-fir /d ;lant i: ra -::.rically : ;etetive at Pe :t.r ~.t ;-i:e :f at ;t 1N/:31 far 4 p.,r td :11 % ;;;rdix 0.).

In : cary, the s af f finds that the uncertain r.ature of the cil supp!!es, their hi;n cost, and

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..rt_ re !.i ctF er espects of the U.S..::' ry prt:lvfe c: :!dera-i:n af cil-fired, steam-els:tric, itss-load pc-er stations as an alternative to the 2200.N Ni? I & 2 plant.

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Trem an envir:nrental standpoint, natural gas is the preferred f:ssil fuel because i:s sulfur and ash contents are negligible. The demand for this, energy form, P: ever, has recently exceeded its domestic availability in all but the few southwestern and west coast states where it is produced.

The total domestic consumption of natural gas incretsed 72.3% from 1951 thecush 19705 and acccanted for rore than one-fourth of the national er.ergy ccesur.ption in 1976.2 Electric utility consu ption of natural gas increased 113.4% during that period, with natural gas account-ing for cne-third of the total fossil fuel consumption by electric utilities in 1970.

.. con-trast, natural gas provided caly 8.5% of the total energy input and 6% of the electric fuel for the trav Ecgland region in 1973.3

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The results of a 20-year forecast trade by the Bureau of ?;atural Gas for the Federal Fc er Com-c.ission (FPC), published in 1972, indicate that the rate of duelc;..ent of natural gas supplies.

bath cor.ventional and supplemental, will be inadequate to tr.2et current projecti:ns cf future demand.7

.This prediction includes ccasideration of future pres;ects fcr aditicns to domestic reserves, imports of pipaline and liquified natural gas, Alaskan ge*, and synthetic gas from coal ard liquid hydr::arbons. A succetsful program of develo; ?nt cc i. plerentatien as~ asset.ed for each of these rafor current or future supply prtgrams.7 Recurring short-tern sh rtagt-s in the early 1970s and the projected pretable long-tarn decline of

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r.atu:a1 Sts su;;11es resulted in priority-setting regulatcry acti:n by the FPC to re trict the use of net rsl gas as an industrial er utility boiler fuel.8 In addition, the Energy Supply and l

Envircr.meital Cc:rdination Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-319 FSEC*) pr:vided the Tedaral Energy' If.inistrati:n with the toc 1s to prchibit of regulate the use of ne' ural gas as a baller fuel in

wer ' plants and large i.-&strial installatiens.

These activities are re.< ur. der the jurisdiction of the F.:deral IEergy P+gulatcry C rtission in the Departant of Er.srgy (COE).

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,T e fa!1ere of naturel gas s.;;1y to r.3:t de.tnd is tectuse of sti ulati n ;f de ar.1 and c:n-strair.ed ras: rca disc:.ery and devalc; ent resulting fr:a re;ulatad ; rices that Pave i+c: e artificially 1:4 when c: ;tred to th:se for c::peting fuels.S Cere;ulati:n of the ;rica-of erwly fe<el:;ed nat.ral gas su; plies is cepected to srulate supply and to restrain groatn of

. Inj,5 *8 'Fus ali-in= ting the cur. :-t stor:2se ;r:ble. s.

' :-ever, f:rt;. ated ; rices 2;;.-:sch-ing $2.0C/1000 ft, which' are typical in the unregulated intrastate triet, would ha equivalent 3

to the currer.t cost cf f.el oil and, therefore, too castly for 5ciler fuel. C:ns:q::ntly, the 3:aff fic.ds that icth the high price and the nati:nal palicy to rest-ict gr:,th of denand for natural ses re.sve natural gas from c:nsideration as a toiler fuel for a lar;e, base-1 cad scwar a

station.

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Hyde:alectric ae 2,

The utilities in New England have historically used the hyde: electric res:;rces. 'In 1970 the hydroelectric capacity in the region accounted for nearly 10% o,f the total generating ca;acity, but the proportion has decreased to less than 6 in 1977 (ER, Table 1.1-20). A similar history is exhibitad in the grcwth of the applicant's system (ER, Table 1.1-21). *'ith respect to electric a

energy generaticn, hydrcelectric facilities provided ebeut 7% of the electricity in New England s

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in 1973.3

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s Since 1970, the "aw England utilitics have addcd 74 Ka'e of hydroelectric ce;ecity (6:), which is caly about 1: of the total capacity addition of.m re than etC0 MW in t.5e r2;ien (ER, Taole 1.1-20).

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The app 11 cant has added similar pre;ortion's of hydro facilities (ER, Table 1.1-21).

The principal reesens for the abserce of new hydralectric facilities are 1.

The 1:ck cf sites for large projects that c:ule have pr vided a e anin;ful shara of the required capacity adiftfons, and

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2.

Societal and regulatcry envirencental protecticn restraints en devel:; ent of r:sarvoirs for power production. An exa:ple was the decisicn to abandon the lir.c:In Echcci-Dickey Cam projc:t in northern' Maine te:ause the pcwer pruduction and flcod centrol benefits d'id not warrant tha less of ervirenc:ntal values.

20/3 014 T!.e.' deral oder Cc.:.:is sicn ha s esti.rtt the hydr: electric ca;,gity in New Er. gland can te e '?=n d:4.tled princf; ally by raking..a.: ef fici-ot use of ex:stie.g sit!5, such as rtising the

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,h of in eisting dem ce c;nstructf Ng e.m> high d:a if w:r4 antad.13 V:-1.cc, s,;h :diit ;ns

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., ' 6. :Jid * :at to :..ly d out the epivalent of.iEP 1 & 2 and cr.ly abe::t 7.2t cf the n:s ertrating

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ca;a.I:r :r:;,. sed : r ?..

I:, land by I??? (IR, Tetle 1.1-I]).

i K uavar 16e e::n--ics are fa<orable and the envircn. ental a;;reval n;, ears pr:bable, utilities I

are - n 1,.erse to ky f. o21ectric devel:;. ment. !>:vever, su:h hydro facilities would usally be 1

> if ts ;:dir;. nits. Tr erefcre, the ::aff c:ncludes that 5;dro f *.e'.:; :nt is r.at a rers:r.2tle alternative to NEP 1 & 2.

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.3 Cnl is the reit ahndant fossil fuel in the United States, accounting for 73t'of the 1::a1 recoverable fossil fuels.it Currently, its primary u e is in the canufacture of steel 'and other goods and in the generation of electricity. Coal su; plied 54% of the energy used in thermal

ower generatim in 1970 2 but decreased to about 44t by 1975.13 In tents of contained er.trgy, 1

electric utilities used about 65t of the coal consumed in the United States in 1975.13 In the New England region, ho.,ever, coal has played only a minor role in recent ycars. For example, in 1973, coal was used to generate about 3% of the electricity pr:duced in !!ew England.1

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Saticnal enercy policy goals preposed by both Presidents Ford and Carter have included the expanded use of coal, particularly for generation of electricity and production of synthetic liquid and gaseous fuels. The Naticnal Energy Plan 13 calls for r.early d:ubling the annual use of coal by 1935. In combination with conservation, increased efficier.cy of energy-consuming equip-rent and use of renesable resources, the plan is e7pected to halt, or rewarse, the trer.d toward incretsad dependence en idported oil.

Essed on these ccr.siderations of national policy and d;mstic a.ailability, the staff finds ! hat

' coal is a t-chnically feasible alternativ,3 fuel fo$ the prcpesed f: er station for the applicant's syst m.

The ecci. r.ic end environ..antal censid :ratier.s will te ciscussed in a latcr section c.f t :is Stata ant.

9.1.2.2 F.,tuttal future enVgy sources and systems Fettntial future energy ' sources applicsble to central-statica ;:w:r ::ncrati:n ray be the result of technolt.ical s'svale;2 nts that eitli. -

1.. prove enargy c:r..cr:i:n effichqcies ar.d te:hniques I

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-d n: :les f 0.rgy c: r.ersien t. hnf r,--s c.,. utly teing ' c.es ti;sted.

9.2rgy f;n:s fr:r. Othe c:.ersi:n :chniques c:rs t '2-ed 'nci de :ynt' etie '.ei, and ea. rgy -

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s.ar;j.;.r:!; c-st:

-:d in this avi%2ti:n are (1) r.-other 31 er.ergy, (?) solar energy, and (3) : :-111ed nuclear 'usion. In addition, tott.1

'-' gy s: ricies -S!:h c:.~:r c enarstion, art il so dist.s:ed.

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.he MSD generator is a heat engine that ccebines cha features of a conventiceal turbin:-genb ator.

into a single apparatus by elle.ina+ing the turbine and replactr.g the ror; ting c:nductor of a

~ c:=ercia! senJatcr by an electr cally conductive plasr.a or fluid ficwing in a conduit thrcugh a ragnetic field. P.HD concepts include both open-cycle and cicsed-cycle systers. In the cpen-cycle sy s t e-7, fossil fuel (most likely coal) is burned at sufficiently high te' peratures tc produce tenized gas plasmas; concoctivity is enhanced by seading with c nductive ionized salts. In the 4

closed-c,ycle system, icnized gase. "and/or liquid retals, heated by fessil or nuclear er.argy, are s

causcd to flo-a through the PPD ganerator.

.l.

As noted in the ERDA Final Envirem.antal Statement far the liquid Metal Fast 3r a:dar 2: actor

~

- 7ecgram,18 all MMO pcwer ge',eration c:ncepts are currently in the devele;:ent stage. A number of letccatory-and pilot-plant-scale plaira-P.MD genecst:rs have ;rcduced significant accunts of f r-tr (several segr,.atts) for a few r.inutes at a ti e, whereas these erplcying liquid i.:etal systcms hase,;roduced energy en a cuch smallcr s: ale.

A t Mtion has l'acn directed to 'ard testing various syst u cc :;.r.ents, but entil recently, no c:nt!nvously opcrating P.:-D pilot plants have scen built. In the spring of 1977, it was ann:Jnced that the l'oiversity of l'ennessca Spac: Institute (UTSI) %d succaedad in turning high-sulfur coal

.j in *n :'MD plant to ;roduce electricity while centaining.cre than 95% of 'the sulfur with:ut using 4.n a;er.:i'.e d:solfuriatien process. U The UTSI r+s:1rchers c4;sct their c:al-burning Ma plant to have a c nv r:f n efficiency of 55 by certining t'.e high-t:r;erett.ra F/-:D plasma process with

".cn[cr.al,1:wcr tr.. periture, st;.t::-el-ctric turtir.e steerster.

0 a

A ::c:rd-stasa pil:t plant, i

s:' '.'21ed for c. ;1etion in lHS, witn a ripeity r,f 3 :.*e is c,rrently Mirg toilt by Ui5I. In i

. ' f f t i:n, Sv v: t t',.ica r-s:li d.er E:.1 a vrtr dly :, r:tt d 1 :t.ral ;;:-fircd P-0 plant i.:...d 2073 116

t 4

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cr. t* ! t *SI edel.":r ?53 cv.se utive ha.,rs. D T%se ad.an:es in % t>:- :le;y are tel'e.ed by

{e tSe UiS! researchers to offer si nificant confidence that P.r:D r.y enter the cc.werciai.arket 5

sc etire tet-een 19E5 and 1990.

F:-:

til  ;.straticn projects et rech higher c: ~-r 12,el s.re s.ccr. fully c;.- C.e tid, tha staff'daes not ererse P.HD as an alternative to ine prcpased nu: lear p:-er plant in the late

:Os.

I-Tu?1 cells Fuel cells, which are similar 'o conventional electrolytic batteries, produce electricity thrcugh the electrncherical reaction of hydrogen or hydrocarbon fuels (such as oil, gas, or r; ethanol) with cxygen. The electric conversion efficiency using currently proven electrolyte solutions is en1. t:ut 35 to 40t. Hewever, the packaged, rr5ular design of fuel cells pernits the "pplication a

of this technology to dispersed siting at point of use, such as industrial plants, integrated cc.a rcial-residential complexes, and utility substations.1s In the first.wo siting exarples, the reject heat e.ay also be raadily applied to process or space heating and cooling systems, thus increasing the overall fuel-use efficiency. In the utility application, the fuel cell can be operated as an u.nattended Icad-follo,<ing_ device, thus reb [cir.g the quantity of centralized base-I load capacity requi/ed and substituting for the snare cc.r. plex turbine or diesel-type peak-capacity scnerating units.

Fuel-cell research ;saked during the early 1960s when the problera of providing electric po.,ar for space vehicles was a crit dal is:,ue.

Research and develeprant then declind until the energy crisis d2velcpad in 1974 and the Federal gevernr. ant began to ex;znd its interest in danloping a greater variety of,energ'y sources.

i In 1976 the U.S. En: rey Research cnd Develop.2nt Adainistration (nc,< the Department of Energy),

- 1

~

the Electric Pc,er Rescarch Institute (EPRI), and United Technolosics Ccep;ratica announed their 1r. tent to construct a 4.8-lNe fuel-cell derenstration plant.n This effort is expected to result l' a certi.'ied r..dule of a fuel-cell pcwer plant by about 1950 and to help with the introduction n

of larger plants qtortly thereafter. Censo1'idated Edison in New York City has been chosen to cperate this dt :nstration plant begir.ning sc.i.atice in 1978."

20/3 H7 i,

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?.11 Carr.nt r::-:-:n also ie.:lves se f rvestynf:, of '.iper te pers::.re eMt-01 tes.21 ;r :,ses, d ve1 4 +n:: sre :s::essful, tre ef ficiency of fuel.se,.::nsi'eri g the ::a1 energy c:ncept n

c:nta ;bted, ::ald te signif t:tr.tly inertssed.

Al tt : ;h '.21 cell tecknalc;y affars :ni ce ;;ssibilities f:r incrused =r.ce;y efficiency and invira :-n:al 2dvantag:s asscch:3d.ith dis;2rsed siting and ret. cad ;rsa:us ;cilution (fw21s are c.ot Srned), the question of ccmercial accaptability and ec:ncaic viability trains to be

m ired thr:.55 &n:: -tratier.s in th2 rext the t: ten years.

C.u 'tering the 1.2 'k's,: tr level of dancastration redels pro;csed for the near future, the staff foes not believe that fuel-cell pc er plants can be considered as an alternative to central-statica plants planned for ',

cperation in the late 1980s. Also, widespread use of fuel cells is not likely until liquid or gasecus fuels derived fro:s coal are also available. There is no fir., develegant date for these fuels. Thus, fuel cells in broad use threughout the energy-consuning sectors are unlikely to reduce significantly the need for electricity by 1H0.

mm a

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Synthetic fuels fron coal j) co c

u..

m Synthetic fuels fro:a dcmestic coal cannot be censidered as an alternative s:urce.of energy for d,

the ti.ne parfod under study because, the p,rocesses for pr:ducing rest cf the synthetic fuels are in the d'avelc;s. ental or prototype stages. In a 1973 study,22 the.Natienal Petroleu. Council cencluded that. production facilities for synthetic liquids and gases frco ccal c:uld r.ot be developed fast enough to replace the nation's sepanding fr;cris of ;etr:leum. Coal gesification

._ and lig.af2ction plants represent cc:?licated engiruring ; recesses r. t praviously tried in the United States. Prototype facilities have been prc;cscd cr are t.r.dar ccnstruction to test pro-cesses and to delineate potential problems, but c;eraticn is still in the future. Ccmerical davelc;ce,t leading to a significant prcducticn capacity of synthetic fuels is not currently comitted, although a gasificatien plant for 1.4 x IGi r.1(~.0x107 3

ft ) cf natural gas per day will be built by the Depart. ent of Er.ergy and Msphis light, Gas, and k*ater Civision for opera-tion in the early 1980s.23 T.o i. p:rtint proble:ns are eccccmics and the environ int.

It has been esti.- ated that synthetic fuel; -taid cost the equivalent of SIE/bbi of oil (1975 collars).3 A recent fr.fomatica cver-viu !.ts ;Unted out the environmntal hav.rds, inc!Lding the ;ot:ntial leliege of cancer-inducing

olycyclic-aceratic hydecetrbcns during the ;ceducticn of s.nthetic fals.2s 2073 118

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~, n 'di .::11 Cil Sq:-= *ien S-ior Vice Fresident C.tyton M C. e-ell sta ted, at the Third I + ;y 7 :.. :' :;y S r f -tm e i a *?ashington. 0.C., that sr.thetic f els will su;, ply ebut 2.50 f ; e r e.. r 's e.+ r ;y r.t :-d s by I MO. 2 5 !;o significant davele; t ts r.r.-a c::,rred to alter his

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..C e is ::.3 in:nd cost abedant s.'urce of ena gy 3.ailable ia t'e ';nind States, axc efed caly by : cal. Vast oil-shale deposits exist in the Green P.tver area of Colorado, Utah, and

'lycn in g. 2i, This area covers about 41,400 to 44.000 km2 (15,003 to 17,000 sq r.iles) of land and l

is esti. rated to contain sca2 2.6 trillion bbl of potentially recoverable oil. Although.not included in the published figures on " proved reserves," the shale oil in the Green P.iver area is ruch greater than the oil in the entire tiiddle East.27 Shale oil, h: wever, is not expected to play a r.!jor s'.pply role betaten nce and the IS80s. P ro-duction ans esticat'ed to begin at about 50,000 bbl / day in the early 1930s ar.d to reach parhaps ZIO to 500 thousar.d tbl/ day by 1935, if production probl:- s are overco.e.27 t:: ever, this csti..ste now ap;2ars overly optiraistic tecause large-scale develeprent has teen slowed pending csr.nercial econccic feasi,bility. Finaliy, A2CO, President Thorten Eradshew believes that limited

/

water availability will lir.it ultimate shale-oil production capacity to near 2.5 miu ton tbl/ day unless new tech.alcgy' is develo;ed.2s This ax:unt will only help to hold tha level of icparts of petroleum to current levels but will not reduce the r.ation's de;3c.dence en in;crts.2s Thus, as a t ;p;1e.ent to the nation's oil reserves, oil shale is r.ot ege:ted to result in ir. creased future use of oil as a boiler fuel in the Ne.< England region.

C.sth rni _er.a rn.

In the United States, th2re are basically four types of Scother 11 e iergy reservoirs: steam, hot water. abncr.nl ;ressure zcnes, and hot mck. The rest cenver.ient and e:ennical form of sco-thcrr.al cr.ergy for elc-ctric ps,.er production is stcam.

l'c ever, dry stean reservairs are known caly in t?.e Larderelle'-Mt. A.T.14ta region of Italy and at The C2ysers in California'.30 At 500 Ce, the C:ys-rs is ;.resently the largest geotherr.31 po.,ar plar: in the w rld. Fat ater reservoirs

re the rest c

..cn type., but the areas in the United States ' eatir.g the criteria for c14ssifica-tion as 1. :n ;e3th'r:al res:urce arcas are fcund priearily in f:;rt en wstirn states. 31 l

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.ir. : r t : 5,r ?. es tre st t'rtir.can tedire3tiry $1 sins cf highly pcr: s sards sat.fitid with fF.'ts (; tit ter) at wi;5 ter;erature I,d pressare. The c:1 fined fluid su;;;rts rest or all of t'e.aight of the :.trtarden. These acres are th:';;ht to 0::ur as a result of ncn al hist ficw fr m the strib's antle. Uncoepacted clays in the cvert.rden serve as insalsting layers and.

ti:

r 11 c:nt.cti;n 13 the surfice. As t r2? ult, tF ;a 2tures up to 23]:0 (55t*F) and

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sur:s up to 1000 atn tve hten r?asured in these systecs, which are located princi; ally at de:t5s of 1 to 2 miles te.,:-sth *he U.S. Oulf Coast.32.33 The caly rafor knc n abnormal pressure cr ;.-:;re::; rad ste::a 2:ces ia the. Unitad Stat:s are in the r.crthern Gulf uf M xico basin.34 The t-o main are=s of ge: pre:sur si strata are in scuthern Te7as and southern Louisiana, extending of f:hore.in tot's areas. C+:;ressured strata have also tien re;crted in.1f ssitsi;pi.34 22c:use techno1c2y to use the resources frca the geopressured strata is cnly ccw being investigated,35 OQ O

ccanercial feasibility is imprehable before 1990.

D'9-

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The greetest prca.ise for larga-scale develeptent of ceothernal energy lies in the use of the

~ heat content of hot rock. The western part of the United States holds excellent ;rcspects for finding enorr::s hot-rock formations. Research cn this prcble has been ccnd cted at the los Alamos Scientific Latoratcry in New. Mexico.35 Fc-ever, current activities in the naticnal effort directed tcward the use of the heat c:ntent of hot rocks prir.arily involve assesi ent of resource availabill'ty and preliminary da"el.o;: ant of hardsare for heat recovery.35 Thus-significant use f

of the hot-rock resource will pectably not occur until scretine in the 1990s.

Because the.'?ew tagland area is not.ecesntzed as a regicn c:ntaining cecther:11 rascurces currently ca;able of use wi'th existing technology, the staff has concluded that geotharcal anergy is not a practicable. alternative for the applicant.

"unicical solid siste A snall, but useful, source of energy exists in the refuse generated in this natten each year, and.any cities and ccuaties in the United States ar2 studying > ys to take advintage of Sarbage as a :Ource of energy.

Three ;.ie:ric ; rec 2dures are censidar+d for usicg r_nicipal and ind;strial eastes:

1.

Cccve?tirg scr$sga foto fuels, such as oil, rathanol, synthetic r.itural gas, or fuel gas.

(Pv.ici;al sewage and e..!ral >;stes can alto te u:=d.)

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~; :..-l.n :f g -i ;; t a ;.r: if e it.-:r cr het iter f:r i f;st-fil ;r::er res :r s;ne het.

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~ "usticn cf ;1rrage in ste: -ela:tric p: er steticns, usually as a fuel su;;*e en in 1

OO a!-f' :f plants.

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r. t ;a:ans :.- I t.id f.312 is 5:ir; tt.f L:

tcr.s '-i ;;orn ental agancies. ?'ast of the activity, be,ever, c:rsists of rescarch into the

n. '. s ' ;1v:: and tufy cf r:Iniv:ly :all d Outrathn projets. pr:gress in tr.is aran ap;eers to offer hcpe for successful co mercial use of some processes within the IS?Os.

Cr%sthn of.J nicipal solid wastes to obtain process steam or hot.;3ter is a technologically

.rsven ccncept. For example, in Eurcpe some units have been in operatien since before ilorld

• 'a r 11. 3 7 The adoption of these processes in the United States is dependent on factors such es e:cr.c..ics, institutional and legal prebices, and governr.ent encourager.ent. Examples of current energy-frc:-refuse projects can be found around the country. In Tennessee the city of h:ashville ha~s a refuse-fueled. steam supply system providing space and process heat to a portion of the deonicon area,3s and in Crossville a local industry is installing a boiler to obtain process stcm S.hile burning 50 tons per day of mste collected by the countywide collection syste:c.29 i

'*heelabratar-Fr.ye is involved with seve/ai projects for burning runicipal S.astes: for example,.

g a 1200-tpd operation near Boston, Massachusetts, to provide crocess heat to a local industry,60 and arcther project at a central New Jersey location in conjuncti:n ith.*ersey Central Power and j

r I.ight Cc: piny.41 The use of refuse for sup;,ierental fuel at coal-fired, steam-electric power staticns is also a prevantecr$nique. An existing model for the design and operation of large, dry-caterials separatten plants is the existing 300-tons-per-day naterial separation plant being cparated by

'the city of St. Louis in a cooperative pro;rm with the Unicn Electric Ccrpany. The city collects erd processes refu:e by dry shre:' ding and ragnetic separation and then delivers the shredded 5.este to '.'nica El:ctric, where it is burned in the furnaces of two 125-5:e stea.a generators. Tulverized c:al is the prirary fuel for these boilers, and 10 to 20 of the total heat input is derived fro,n refuse.42 I

2073 J21 j

Ddles of cur.ent prop:tals are (1) 207-tens-p:r-day project of I':nroe County, N.Y., to,u;;1y

,d.hd f el to.tchutcrfes tnd Electric C: ;9ny } oilers *3--

s!a c.r,d (2) a 7CC-!.*.e c:al-fired plant of t.a F;.cr N19.rity of the sic,,te of '-:a Ycri, (p;MY).:t Arthur Mill, v.!.ich ill le able to turn

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• f r -fe s e ; 2 r.'a y, ' ' a s -es t i t u] for aSut 15'; of the cual r guire..nt.

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' D e use si reh:2 es the ;rinry fuel f r ;c-er getretia is n:.: as lik21y. T:tsntial ;r:bl= s associatd with the dsily collection of rafuse ard d2livary to the ;:-er plant suggest that the

't;;..f tbility of f;.el su; ply is q,esticnable. In addition, s"::kpiling strbigs in order to ;ro-wide f+;tnistility intr:dsces pettntial hetith-and testhetic:. oriented problems. Finally.

2;P:.p de ::s: cf rtfus2 S el 1f te h. raiative :s the :st of ::11, the :uical cW and cptrating and aintenance costs can be highar than ;rasant gentreti.n cotl-firad plants.%'s To place cner;y-fr-

~ - - "..rsp-ctive for the a;;1tcent's ser< ice area and for all of !;aw England, the.following calculatic<t illustrates that solid -tstes can contribute cnly a s:111, porti:n of the region's energy requirerents. The '?w England regica has baen 5.idividad by tht

~

tinited States Bureau of Econe:aic Analysis (BEA) of the Cepart. ant of Cc=erce into areas nu Sered I to 5 for statistical analysis of economic data.6' BEA arers 4 and 5 (which include cost of Cennecticut, all of Rhode Island, 60% of Massachusetts, and about half of !?ew Ham; shire) contain.

about ES: of the 1970 pspulation of !Mw England. i~nese pc;ulated areas wculd ta'e the c:ncentration v

~

of c:unicipal qste necessary for_potantially econcaic collection.

The EEA estfrated populatten for 1990 in areas 4 and 5 is a'> ut 12 millien. Assu2ing 3 lb of

~

turnable wastes per capita per day and 4700 Btu par Ib,62 an E4: recycle throughout these areas 4

w:uld re,sult in the availability of abcut 52 trillion Stu per year of energy fres refuse. Tais amount is equivalent to ateut 1.7% of the gross energy censu ed in !;w England in 1973. Based en a Icw gewth of energy dennd (1.5: per year), this pre;ortion -oald he equal to abyut 1.2%

in 1990. This esti.ste is consistent with independent calculaticas for the !;ortheast regicn.63

~

Thus', recycle of refuse wili not centribute substantially to reduced requirements for electricity cr othar'cenventional energy sources.

/srzaing tha,t a ICCO-!"r.'e pcwer station requires 10,000 Stu/Whr (heat rate), the annual electricity pruiuctico at 60: plant factor requires about 52 trilli:n Stu. Thus, the refuse rc<overad in I?00 in SEA areas 4 and 5 ould fuel caly cne basa-Icad ;c-tr station co.n; arable in i

size to cna unit of the preposed nucicar facility. Ccnsiderir.g the probable higher capital En'd cp+ rating and nintenance costs and the exp nse of delivering the refuse frc.s the rather large area involved, it does not appear that refuse is a viable eptica as a primary pc ar plant fuel in

'a England.

e It is evident that socicty in the highly ppulated areas cf "N Eng!:nd is c:ncarnet abost the f

'nici al m :0 ad cr.ergy pr ehl.us in thst Cc.re ticut. "Ir e.s ett s, and "o 'e Isla..d have f

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,. a d:;ted sta te,.ide n s e.re:f:lir.; p' ans.8 Ccr.necticut is the ros: ad.

ed :-ced

.. ;, h..--ta:i n.

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.: n -: :less. sit':.;h the s:sif believes

• hat refuse can te recycled to regain lost energy or t: '. tis; in ref.:f rg *he pt:513 s of landfill r.ane;2. 2nt in hi;hly :pulated artes, it is not i

,.: 2: :a this C m ativ? ::ald a;;re iebly lessen Pe sed far MP 15 2.

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<.n It his buen estir.ited that an orderly research and daveicp;;.2nt pr:gra.r. c.i;nt provide c::.cercial fusion ;

,c.- by abcut the year 2030 and that fusion could then have a si;nificant effect on electrical p:wer production by the year 2020.47,

T'.'sica prtgram activities based en the tradittenal ragnetic plasca c:nfinerint technologyue are no,< af t;ed at constructing and operating the experimental Tokerak Fusion Test Reactor (TFIR) at Pi-inceton University by 1981 or shortly thereafter.khso The Federally directed progrant plans -

include a prototype experimantal powar reactor (PEPR) by the nid-lS50s, an experirental power

.u, or (EFR) by at ut 1992, and deronstration of a toiard-type fusion pe,.er reactor of several hundred c.e:aw.tts by about 1938.50 ' Utility" industry applicaticn of fusi:n anergy is trprobable

=

for tessibly another decade after the deronstration, gor early into the r. ext century.4s r

Tecent resca.rch also include; efforts at La..rtnce Liver.1:re Laborutcry te. card achieving fusien I

cf dect-rium and tritium by laser teem h ating.51 This pr: cess, called " inertial confinn. nt,"

offers an 'lternative to c.agnetic confinement. Whereas recent results have been rapid and a

1 drwatic, f r.?rtial ccnfineIr.cnt technole;y is scre years behir.d. ;netic c:.nfinnent and is not cur rently included in the national fusice.-p -er de::nstratien-;regra'. plan for this century.'8

~ Cor.iidering tha prop sed 1998 derunstration of a fusien pc,er reactor ar.d the r.any scientific

~

cad sn;in2ering pr:51 ems re.aining to be solved'.a to reet this ;;al, the staff cer.cludes that fesica power is not an available alternative en.srgy system for the prc;; sed ;;sar plant.

i 4

Solar er. pray Slar e,crgy i:,rer.ognized as an ir.exhaustitle c.3tural rescur:e t!.st can te u 2d to re?,ce !!.e world's 67.+ndence cn d:pletatie r=scurce fuels, such as c:al, oil, otural ses, ard' t.ranium, b J'ition, tha r,-d to rtdu:e U.S. depend nce ca ir;crted oil Ss rc:cl*;d in..:ricus Tedcral

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• icisie:Sa :-" t'st vines re:surch, dev::1:; rent, and dr.:nstrati:n lesding to the in: ::::.d t

app 11:ati:,3 Of solar r'er;y. The r^ cent prcposed *ht10nal Ir.ergy Plan!i has placed even strco;er

;>.esis :n T+deral ;31!cy 2nd fi. ancial su;; ort f:r de:nstrati:n of the use of "rene sable and unntially inuMustible sources of e_nergy for. su_sta. ired e::n:2ic. g n:sth. "....

There are c.tny appr:2ches to the collection of solar ener;y f r tha ;r:dactico :( electricity or is a ntst:t;ta for 21.:tricity ani :!' er energy ':r s.

In 1dditha ta direct r:dist4n, solar accr;y ranif.:sts itself as wiad, ocan tharsal gradient, and ; hot:,5yr.th= sis. W avar, thare is c:nsiderable.varistica in the estirites of the contributi:n t* at solar er.argy night cake to 9.ar e.wrgy n uds. A receat s o ury'57

~

sh:wed that the average nati: 11 c;ntributbn of s:lar energy by the year 2000 ceuld be about 7% of national, enargy requirerents and 10% of national electricity consucption, with a range of plus cr minus a factor of 2 for each.

In the follcwing discussion, the staff su:r. arizes the current status of developdnt and de-en-straticn to use the various solar energy forms and assesses the likelihcod and time frame of cc:p r.arical use of these developing enargy technologies.

Solar th?r al conversien. Solar thernal conversi:n systms to previde heat er to generate d a electric!.y F; ave f.2en studied fo[thny ycars by private researchars alth funds too lir.ited to sustain a progran leiding to cc.rc.ercialization. Federal involvement in rescarch and devale;;. ant of solar energy applications began to increase in 1971 up:n the realizati:n that chesp anergy resourers are being depleted toc rapidly. Since the 1973 oil c:targo, Fedaral funcing has

~

-~ incr' cased significantly for research cnd de.:nstration of solar ther.a1 c:nversicn applicatiens in the e.aas of eledtricity pr:ducticn, precess heat, and heating and c:oling of buildfr.gs. The technological c:ncepts to convert sclar radiatica to thar al energy and than to electricity have bcen devel:2ed, but they are not ecer.cmically cc:;etitive ith c nventi:nal cath:ds of electric

c,cr generaticn.

The ( otri d receiver concept 57.53 consists of a field of individually guided cirrcrs (helfes't'ats)

~

that reflects the solar radiaticn to a receiver en top of a t:wer. In the receivar, the solar energy is abscried by a circulating fluid that drives a c:nvantional stee turbine-sene'ratcr or ein te stc.;cd for later use.

e The distribt:d collect:r c:ncaptS7 c:nsists of an essa-bly of ;;ratclic-shved tr:c;hs,F:se c.fi n or.like sui fsce r. flects the ~1n's esys onto a ;ipe *ha t is 10 cit-:1 at the~facal p int 5f the 20/3 J24

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,. pera'cle. The fluid f;:.fcg in the pipe transfers the ebsorhd e. rgy to a the - al stora;? system 4

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The c entral r-:eiver :, stem is inheently rare efficient than the distriisted c:17e: tor system becat.se 't is ctp2' e of h!!'ng the. :rking fluid te hi;'.ar te ;arttur!1.57 In 1974, syst2m i

cn (r:4 Z I) 315: four.d that 8

st.: cs - +..e u., e,

.gr;y ;- m r;h and 03 e l: m -

if-1,;; r3:3 the cer.t.11 r>ce'.or :ystem with its higher ccnvarsica ef fician:y and less com; lex plu.-bing i

re n i: M ir P.3 m: c:;t.:f f nti.e _rd c:t-; fi3ly-t:-succeed 1;:r:ach t3 s:Iar-2cer;/-pr 22:ed e14:tricitj s) 1

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C;rr2nt ME prc;rers are desi ned to assist industry in the resesrch and d:,ai:) ant of it;reved 5

and cheaper system com;cnants leading to the deanstration of ecccc ic fessibility of piants of the central-receiver solar-then.al-conversion type.50 Thus far, a 5-L't solar-therral test facility has t:en placed in operation near Albuqu'erque. This facility provides the ceans to test systt;n ec:ponents such as the central receivers, nirrors and tracking equi;:e,nt, and thermal storage concepts. Tha next step in the program includes a 10-L'e sciar-tharsal central-receiver' pilot plant to be tuilt by 1930 (ref. 50) at Earstow, California, by DOE in ccnfunction with Souttern California Edison, the los Angeles D2partment of Water and pcwer, ar.d the California Energy, pescurces, Conservation, and D: velo; cent Ccenission.ss 7he final Fedaral ; cal is to

~.

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develop, in conjunct.fon With industry, a-100-FMe deenstration plant for c;.tratica by a5 cut 1985.50 Ecca;;nic, envircre. ental, and instituticnal prebices cc75fne to f rn a censiderable barrier to the intrchetten of solar-electric pc ar piants into the power generaticn cix cf prisate utilities.

Eased en extrapolation of the 10-fNe pilot plant to c=rercial scale, the pr:daction cost (in 1977 dollars) of electric ehergy has betn estinted to be in excess of 100 -f'.ls/iVhr,58 which is r are tkn five tfurs the current cost of electricity using nuclear or fossil fuels. In terns of land use, the IC4N; pilot plant will use nare than 30 ha (73 acres) for the helfestat systea.se

-Thus, a 100- f..*a cnmercial plant would use rare tha, 295 ha (730 acres), which is ru:h nore land

• than a nuclcir or fossil-fueled ;cwer station uses for upa trds of 1000 &'e e.;3 city. It has also been r.otad thst c:.nstruction of a central-r eceiver solar-thermal ;:42r plant :uld be laber-ir.tmsive, using eMut 10,000 ran-years to construct a 100-FMe plant.58 Ee:2use a conventional 1000c','e peaar station requires 25 cut 5000 can-years of labor, ccrstructicn of the solar-electric phr.t is 7.'.: t twenty tices as lat,or-int:r.sive.

20/3 J25 1

O

9-19 Ita q!ar-e'e: ric ::ncapts Fave teen develo;ed for the s:.thwest regi:n of t':e United States

. hire thz s:lte irtut and reteorolo;ical factors c:rbir.e to f:r. the test solar plant siting

rdi-i; s.

• s a result of the less favorable cliatic c:nditiens in b Er.g!!nd, a 100-L'e irs allat!$n w:uld te significantly 13rgar than the plant lonted in r.e s:uth-est. The capi al

t s.1 sed use, and labor intensity ould also incrase ;r p;rtionately.

Sectuse an e::rcaically viable solar-electric pc-er plant will not te available until after 1935 ia 93 iaA.:st ard prohbly,ch latar for the.'ics ingland 2res, 'he >ttif fieds 154: so!ar thar-al c:nversion for production of electricity is not a viable alternative to eitbar the pro-pcsed nuclear plant or its fossil fuel alternatives.

Producticn of process steam and hot yatar for industrial and agricultural application is a potentially important use of solar radiatten as an alternative to cur.ent use of fossil fua'Is and electricity. Evaluatica of energy consu:rption pattarns indicates that fr.dustry ar:ccunts for

~ about 40% of national enargy consumption,st.62 and agricultural pursuits use about 2t.51 In both cases the rajor share of the energy is derived frco fcssil fuels.

A breakdcwn of the industrial energy use indicates that about 63.4% is used for process steam and direct heiting applicatien and about cn -half of this arot.nt can be rat with cencentrating solar

~

s collectors with fluid temperatures up to 23S'C (5 0*F).s2 D

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The nati:nal policy to attain independence f rom ie;orted oil includes ;r:grats" to enc:uragS

~

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individuals and industry to participate in devAo; rent of solar-thmal conversicn systeris designed to substitute for fossil fuel use in industrial and agriculturel thn cal processes.

The Er.crgy Research and Develop = ant Ad.ainistratica (ferrerly EF.0A nas tre e;ar'.r. ant of Er.ergy-)

ha esti::ted that about 10: of industrial energy could be supplied by solar-therral energy by the year 20 3.61' This estir. ate is cer.sistent with c.arket ;enetratica studies for fr.dustrial applica-tien of solar er.ergy.62,63_ ERDA has also esticated that 50% of agricultural er:rgy usa night be r.et by solar er.ergy in the year 2000.59 Elsctricity prevides cnly about 5% of the energy used to eaet industrial ther al ;rocess requirc-cen t s. E

Thus, the use of solar enargy in industrial (and agricult;ral) a;;1icati:ns is desicr.ed

?.? trily to :;1ac,e fossil feels, and it is presently r.ot clear that this use of solar er.ergy will have a c:t!.reble impact en the d.r.cr.d for elec ricity cr the r.2sd for tast-leid ;;*:r plants.

F:-ever, with the cost of fossil fcals incrnsing relati.e te the cest'of electricity, tNee.is

tutial f;r i.

. e sing the ese of ?be

tr icity in k fut.y 'nd 5.'cul.re.

5:lar-t' u. al 2073 J26 s

s e ergy, th:refore, could c: ;tte with ele:tricity as the substit.te f:,r f:ssil fuel use and could 1

r, 3

t:ye ;n influence en the need fcr add;tio al generating stati:ns.

O g

TM tesic er;ineering and te:hnological principles related to use of salar radiation for space h:eting and cooling ". buildings have teen de.onstrated. Fsr example, h:t otter systars were i

n:d a.xtw si.ely in ricrida taginning stou-1923.65 C- ;etiti:n ' :- 1: -::st sjstas using cenvenient fcssil fuels led to their near-extinction by the early 1;!0s. Rising fuel prices and -

stwtial sh

rtag2s er supply interrt,ptices have led to etnmd int +. >st in ssler e.argy as a reliable 2nd passibly chaapse energy supply. Recent develc;;ents ru;e front srall hat--ater hiating units to integrated systems for homes and co r.ercial buildings. Solar cnergy ab crption techni;ues include the use of both pas'ive structural cembers and dynwie (active) forced-fluid s

systers. De cnstrations of solar heating and cooling systems for residential and corr.arcial but? dings have be::...e too num2rous to list, but examples include designs by individuals,85 Institutices.57 and builders.ss The c.anufacture of solar collectors has expanded trer.,endously, as indicated by the fact that 1975 production was five tirres greater than that in 1974,88 although the tolar thernal energy collected

-with this collector capibility would have heated less than a thousand residences, or less than 0.1% of the typical national requirement for new residences.

Th*rs, a significant expan'sion of a, nufacturing caiability-for solar collecfors and ancillary equip.=nt w:uld be necessary in order i

to replace a;;reciably fossil fuels and electricity as energy reso_rces for heating and coaling of buildings.

The Natienti Prograra for Solar Hasting and C;oling,70 which is ralated to residential and cc -

cercial a;plications of solar energy, includes the folicsing goals: (1) da anstratien of techical fatsibility of existing solar energy systems in bsth r.c.c ar.d retrofit installattens when and cere specific applications are com;etitive; and (2) research a,d develepunt to !mprove the

.psrfer, ance of solar cr.ergy systems, includir.g en:rgy stora;e, which leads to Ic.er costs and a fn:.nble cc.rpetithe positien for a ida ruge of buildi.,9 ty;is thr u;hcut the natten.

This r.ational plan stipulated a target of solar energy ap;licaticas in 1 of annual building starts by 1920 and in 10% of a.v:ual building starts by 1925 in addithn to some retrofitting.70 khhv6'.-nt of these tarpts w:uld. result in an eccc ulatien of s:lar energy syste s capable of praiding an e.:rcy su; ply =quivalent to 100,Cr.0 lbl of oil ;sr 33y,7C cr about 1% of residential i

e lli (c7#U;rCia1 sh0U"3 nI*'n 3 ter-ICating en2rgy rt-CuirLOints. I'*

Ee tuSe elYctriCity curruily su; plies caly :ic;t U of these space.r.d

.ter-h'a tir.; 2

'r;y

..pis

its cn naticini i

2073

)27 l

S-21

~

besis,56 t-d less in R.s de Island,71 it does not a;; ear at solar energy systrs.til :i.e an e

z;preciable ' ;act on the d: and (cr base-leid electricity for resi:w.ial and c::. rte:tal t'tr al-

.ar;j c m ira.tnts by 1935. H:-ever, to the extant tht elec:ricity :an, aad ;retably.4111, 1.5: tit.;te in the 1:ng tara for s:::.e particn of the resider.tial and c:.rercial thar al-energy ruaire Sits caretotly ':up;1ted by licaid fossil faels, s:%r sye.ees can pr: vide an additic.a1 a;t-enati,e, ;articularly.aluable in their use of a rera,.sbia c.ar;y 5:arce.

.'at.oi nic c

r..ersicn. Solar era.cy can be c:nvarted direct!y :: eixtricity by tans of solar cells using photovoltaic c:nversien, which does not involve rcving parts, circulating fluids, or c:nsw.stica of fuel resources. The theoretical eaxi.wa c:nversicn efficiency of silicen sblar, cells is 2n, and efficiencies of 15% have been obtained.72 Fewever, pi otovoltaic c:nversion is econ::.ically quite unattractive because of the high cost of silicon solar cells.

The Energy Rassarch and Cevelop.ent Adainistration paid about $21,0:0/kW for solar calls in aarly

~ 1976 and about $15,500 iater in the year.73 Julius Hald an of Shell Oil Co. indicated that his fira intended to increase production capability in 1977 and thus to reduce unit cests ta about

$5CC0/kW,74 which is st.ill cuch too high for any use except for unattended ;coer supplies in ren te locations.

cp p

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The current 00E solar-electric-conversion program includes research and da.elo; ent directed to ard 1-to 4.MV2 demenstraticn plants with array costs ndu. 55C0/k'Je.75 7.escarch efforts will be directed t:sard crystal Srowth, enc:psulaticn, conc ntr!t:rs, and tr.e ;rct"cti n of Icw-cost

- silicon crrays, with em;r.tsis on the use of autcr.aticn and afforts to raduce nterial cost. It is estimated, heuver, that solar cell costs cust be reduced tc about $200/k'.le bafere they will Ne ec:nc.r.fcally facsible for large-scale ;cwer ganaratien. These g;als are not ex;2cted to be.

r:ected before the mid-lMOs.73 Therefore, basc-load powar prejucti:n using ;hotevoltaic can-version devices is not expected to be ec:ncr.ically feasible as an altarretive to.EP 1 f, 2.

h Wind c n-r3y,.

Wind cc:rgy c:n te c:nverted to elf-ciric +nergy f e diract c:rst.w; tion orTsed to electrcly e uter and produce hydec;en for use in fuel cells or ther al electric cenerating s t'a tic es. In a. report to Cce.;ress. W. L. Hughes, head of the school of electrical engi.:.cering at Ckiahc;ta Sttte t'niversity statcd that wind generatien runot total; r?placa ; -ar plants usi.g cil, ps, c:al, or nuclear fuel.78 Tre r:1e of wind ;: er in s:1ving the tr.segy crisir d:;cr.ds ;.-1".arily cn '!.

devticprent of ecouc.ical, c:..r.ercially availtale, :nar;y storese syste-s. The. cst significant pussible use of wind ;c-er -ald be is bra electricity into pist-io; al -tric e.ra.aissien sy :cs ' en &

,.ind is 51:,.ing.77 75a li-! f r.g fnt:r in the !arg:-

2073 128

9-12

.I s

scale direct a;;1i::tica of wind p:.er is a et?bir.athn Of e.tilahle ird ener;y and ;;ssible

{

..e s ther rc:! fica-f on.

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m

'The currut m ret...r1 solar-21: tric-cenversien ;r:; sm in:1udes restsrch and devel ;:ent of th. t e p 11 :1::s :f wied-: rat y devices, n.:se are s:111 t;'ines fsr f er use,12r;2-s:tle

.ea;tricatal...its (:ver 100 kW), and n;1tiunit facilities (clusters for.~. ;1 tic +ge-stt scale).75 L'nder M~ s;:n>srship the ::stional Aerenautics and 5;ece Af inistration (. USA) desisted and is p-rdr.; a iO}-i *e h:riz:ntal-axis wind turbine ;=r. erat:r at its Plu.7 Sr::k Stati:n at Sedusky, Ohio.7s The capital cost of this first-of-a-kind test rodel with its 15-ft-diam twin-bladed rotor was $5500/k'Je of rated capacity. but the cost of the follewing 200-kVe test rodals is esticated at $2240/kWe. A six-story-high vertical-axis wind turbine with an output capacity of 60 k'J is being designed at Sandia Laboratories in Albuquerque, it a Pexicc, as part of the DOE wind-cnergy program. M The output from the generator will be 60-cycle ac power that can be sync *.rcalzed with Srid requirements of existing power distribution systems. Recently it was announced that Eceing will build a 2.5-P'4 wind turbine under a joint prcgram of EROA (nos DOE) and W '.80 The unit, which is the largest in history, with blades spanning 300 ft, is scheduled to be Luilt in 1979 at a site with a r.ean wind speed of 231.'-/hr (14 rph).

These era ples illustrate that wind-pc-ered large-scale electrical generatic. facilities are caly

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now in the stage of.r'est n, develes.r.ent, and testing of er;erirental prototypes. Cemnstration of rultireg:witt-scale rechines (10 to 100 L'e), including site certificatien and c:r;1etion of system djnenics studies, r.ay be possible in the early 1,S 5.81 Inf: ratien cbtained trea such dvcostraticas w:uld include estimates of the eccnomic, envircnmentel, and cperational feasibility of wind-;:.ered p: war stetions. In order to eake use of wind pcwer for base-1:ed electric power generation, energy stora;e fecilities v.:uld also have to te included in utility systea design.

Currce.tly, only p. ped storage facilities are tech.,ologically available. F.es: arch and develop: ent on othar larg:-c?pdity energy starage syst::s su:h as batteries or f1pheels ace ;resently undar way, but econcaic acceptability has not ban drr.onstrated. Ceneration and storage of hydrogen is ; s:ihle, but rethods for production of electricity using this feel have nut cere into practice in the p r..er industry.

Etccuse the !;sw Cr. gland plant lies in a ger.:ral arca where rian arr.us1 wird ;:..er is hi;h (N'.0 U/..2), e 2 w{,,'d ;;-:r h'.s ler.g bs II. orated as a scarte of cr.ercy. Therefore, it is of hiernt to place-a;;1icdien of wind-;See generatcrs in :::specti.e.

E> t ed on the p.5-!'4e,

."0-f t-d!#m, ;.rctc:y;e wind-pwrt:d generator, atwt D0 ar.'t s w:ald be rt;vi' red to 5 bstitute fer it.: HCO '*ic C P 1 & 2.

h:uing a 1# -it >;acirg of - ir.d-;

eced ::w=Mrs to ninh. ire 2075 329 l

9 W.

m D FD

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'j

-23 W

interfera ce i

w. en : e.d es (;:rturted air f1;d) of ad.'acer.t.ni:s, ze. ar:s of 1;;r:4!ri:ely

.;3 *.2 (25 sq.11:s or 5 nilas ::.are) -:ald be rr.;uir:d.

ith e 5:-ct :: % :r:51e reen sneual

.ird er.er;y, the ;refter3d 1: cati:n fwr wir.d.;;.ared pr.tra :rs in O':de :s'..a it alca; es;: sed c u: lines.81 In this case, f:Jr ;arallal r: s of ind-;: war?d g?rarnt:rs (aith a IC00-ft

e

irs) al:a; the 20 6 (IC miles) :f u;;sej ::.s:.culd te requirad :: substitute far MP 1 1 2.

C5viously, applicatiens of wind ;;,.ar have the potential for c:nsiderable land-use conflicts and aesthetic ir.; acts in a highly dayeloped regica where these c:ncarns are already highly visible In regulatery a oceedings.

Because d:nonst ation and comercial availability of wind-; -tred central ;; er stettens with energy st: rage facilities are not expected Safere the middle IH0s, the staff has, ccncluded that wind c2nnot te c:nsidered a viable alternative source of er.sr;y for the ;re;csed 2300.%'e of base-

~

Icad generating capacity. With respect to land use and aesthet,ics, the staff suggests that ;ublic acceptability c.ay not be forthccMng.

Crean ther=21 credients. The difference [.20*C (s35'F)] in -star te;erature at the surface

<[

~

~

of the ccean 3nd i few thcusand feet Selc'd the surface can p::sibly be used to g+narste electricity in a conventiensi heat engine. A cullecticn of hat engires r;: red en 1.5-u (1 ile) spact qs alcng the 1er:th ard scrcss the breadth of the Gulf Strean off the s:uth:ast-rn c:est of the United States,fght pr: vide an ar.nual arcrgy prcduction of 25 x ist2 me,n r ' n tires the curr>nt ra ticnal c:nsception. This electricity could be trans-1:ted to sh:re by ;ndarsea cables, used to rt!La hydrogen for transport to land-tIse cin!v.ers, Or used cr.5:ard for ;r:ductica prs-cer:es such as al.c.inica s eltfrg.t" A 15-year rarcarch and de.eic;.. tnt ;r,; ram as preposed by the :*ati:nal'5ciwce Foundation in 1972 to stWy the technical t-d..: ::ic ;r:51+ s that cruid Influ.nce lar;c-scale use of ccean therral differences.e3 With the sr.nll tr parature diffarcnce available, the th r.il-41ectric connesion efficiency is less than H.15. Thus, very large quantities of arn and c:1d water ust he pu.;cd th,reugh the syste7 in rder to preduca significant pcwcr.25 The cc-ch.nical tysers required to pec:ess the lar;e eclte s of uter c.lght ta :n ceder cf rynitude larpe P.an the c: ;cncnts in a c:n-

.enti rel Cat -;1<..tric ;;wer shtien. This eyste.,si:2 c:. chir.ed 4th the cceso c-.-f ren aat nigests tht ?' e folicwing prc51':s mst he r.scivad:35 (1) r: liability f v.:sha Net ex-

! : r.. i r s ; ( 2 ).e* Sc t s o f c e rr :. :i v.> :r. i i r: r.:...t; (3) ;&rasitic ;-er ;: pirs 1: us; (1) bi:T 11'cg; 2073 030 e

..(5) r.f r -ster ni-:. :. e; (5) de.elc; r.t of det;--ster ;!';es; and (7) u<trc. etal i, sets C

t' aiu u -irir,; * : ;e.313.s -f f;;p e an -sta. with Lrf 2ce -::i-:

"O "D W

• n e f f't' n, the mss'.e plint size with atterdant lar;e espital c:st resul n' 3 r.nu a Y's r; c:st etti ties E:p.3r tu n c:..enti:nal 5 rer::1:n c:sts.85 Ir. -id-1975, three : ;srate resenr:h te: : :: a: 2 3 to t o.

v.f 1: e f aisi:,!11ty af tuil fic; ::~f st:ra ; - r p'e.nts t'.3: u t r m rtl

'dif ferr.:es in ocean tc ;,eratares to generate electricity, the te s are see'<in; F2 feral furding f ar. a ;.iht ;;,tr ':nt of f th. ::sst of Fhridt or F1-aii.57 The 2stfratti :csts ringe fr:a

!*5 million to 1:10 cillica for a 100.%'e plent and 5'25.5 aillion for a IC.We plant. The F+':ral salar-elt-:tci:-c;nvarsi:n pecgrar88 includes r-search and dmicpr.ent on c:.mpenents for

~

ocaan-tMenil esersy cce.versicn (OTEC)' plants with the ee;tesis en sciuti:ns to the problems enut2 rated above in additicn to develcperent of rc. ore efficient heat exchangers, fsvallahtlity of Lare efficient heat exchangers should lead to reduction in size of rany of the system ccaponents and should result in reduced cepital costs.

Constructicn and cperation of OTEC de.:nstration plants leading to c:wrcializatien of the cen-~

cept are riot expected in the near future. Further=re, 07EC plants will not be sited near Rhode Island and thus cannot te considered a viable elternative to the pr,;c:ed ruclear faci'ity.

Ph?tesvnth+ tic raterials and orotnic u stes. Photery.thet:cally produced cr;anic reterial

(;rown specifically for use as fuel r.a*.erial) ar.d cesanic sclid wastes (in:luding se a;e) can L

either Le burned directly to produce steam in equipmnt si.milar to thtt ust.d with coil or can te u:ad to pr: duce liquid ce gast-ous fuels.es To be burr.3d directly, these fels nest first te dried in.ord r for cc Sustion to be self-sustaining. If the cr;anic riterial has a high water content, the er.ergy rtquired for drying prior to ccrbustien c.2y equal or xce2d the hsat c:r. tent cf the raterial itself. The gredng of plants for er.argy g+neration is relatively i tificient tecause,the solar convarsion efficien:y of the ;'.otes;rthetic process is seldom

-over M durir.g th2 Src ing season. Th2refore, the ac;unt of lard rv, aired for a 5 ven enargy t'dpat is.uy high. hsed cn a he.eting value of 7500 Stu/lb of' dry plent tissue ar.d yields of 10 to 10 tons ef bic:.iss rer acre per year, ti,e le,d required fcr a 100h,le cr;:nic-fired r..ar plant 5.'uld b21.= tween 65 and 129 i:2 (25 and 50 sq r.iles),8? or 1554 to 31C3 km2 (fL3 to 1203 sq r.iles) for a plant equhslent to the pro;: sad E? I & 2s

!!!<.3 cn stuth.rn sof t. :c'd ferests and kr.*f t ;ulp i..ill W arctien, 5:f;c and K25p assu~cd a 1 f'. 1 gr:-th yield en a testai.:ed tesis of 2 erds (5 t:9s) ;;r a:ra ;2r ;. car to 42t tr.-ire t

"t

.t 2.5 id (1 q 1.ile) of..r.?d it st6 uld te -,;ir: ; v "'Je e t c+c i ty a t' 5 5t f

2073 031 l

e i.

9-25

.iosd fa:::r.5: Thne lini restre. +nts are at tu t.. -e Orders :f --t;nitJe greater nn '%se for the ; :,,n M ".Ep 1 1 2 site. The use of such 'tr;e lir.d trees of rara;ed f:rasts rey not te r:vir:r rntally.rac:eptible in 5::e re;i:es.

'r*:-t.ar, the land nss of Dede Isit-d ay not te lar;2 er:.;h to pr: vide insged 5f:? ass pr:isc:icn for a ;:wir pient s.bstituting fcr the.

e: e.:!2ir ;! ant. Dus, ;r: b ; plir.:s f:e.is M :21 1r-r;y ;r:ducti:n is nt te!!=.ad to

~

te ac:tptible in "hode Island, g

The t+chaical ; recess of bicc:nversicn of cr;:nic ratarial into 11;uid or gate:Us fueis.na been generally t.nderstcod for many years, but the techr.olegical feasibility and the ec:nomic-c acc2ptabliity have been seriousTy studied only rec *.ntly.

E.vamples of these proc +sses include' production of cathane fres hus.an and animal excre ent,81 ethanol or synthetic fuel cil frca p12ntss2 and plant wastes," cethanol fr:a coal or plants,14 and ethanol frca natural ses.

Enthusiastic popenents believe that production of thanot?4 and synthetic fuel o11*2 using fcrsst and agricultural pr: ducts spacifically gr:en for the purpose can effectively substitute

~ for the natural. crade oil censumption corrnitted to sasoline prefacti:n.

A product callcd gaschol com. posed of 50 gasolir.e and 10: tic:hol ( ette.nol er ethanol) is teing test marketed in st.?.a rc.idwestern states at a prica sifshtly higher than th'a gasoline -

k equi va l e.n t". haver, it can be shc", that replacament of ICt of the current r.aticast gasoline cc.nst: ptica of at.out 2.5 biliten sal / years 5 veuld require either 54 millica t:ns of coal (aScut 10% cf.,cr utic c:41 minirg efforts 5) to e,:ke the.-thnol or 4 tillica bushels of ccrn (at:ut 9

F0; of d:::stic ccrn prcducticn's) ta ; ate ;3, g;i.an31,97 The fHicaticn of such a large arount

- of ras:;r:es ccabinad with the need to build the r.ecassary alcchol ;reductica facilities cakes

ny ene-tern, large-scale c:cntrcial r.arketing of the 5:! chol prcfect i.ighly speculative.

Finally, r.ath.:01 or ethanol are r.ot ressontble ca.didates for bise-icad p:-er plant fuels.

First, it is not rcisenable to cc.iit coal to prcC,ca the c.are et;:nsive rath ncl for ;9ar phnt use, when cc:1-fired plants are s:narelly n:t ec:n hically c ;etitive cc ;ered to a oclasr po,ar plant. Second, twsed en a productica afficiency of 2.5 sal of eth:nol par bush:1 -

of corn and an ensr;y c:nteat of atcut 75,000 Etu ;te salion of atic.ol.!7 a 2?C We ethanot-fccled ;cwer sist.icn. ith a heat rate of 10,C00 Etu/t'Jhr eperating at 50% capacity fact,e would a guire an 11..m1 c.. lit int cf about 'E0 millica tushls of c:rn, Or 10 to H: cf the currtnt rati:nti pruf atica of corn.88 2073 032

5-25

,i Or rq1y, t'o:,c.;rsies cf teste nnarials into useful :ner;y f;r. s is n:t. 3:t.d t ;;;m, k

a sijaifice; fractisn of the r.stion's energy requirt.. tats. Tcr eu ple, ar.e t:r:5ic fe, entni:n 1

r:th.? cf the entire rcunt of ce; nic solid wastes believed to te e:;r:-ically rece.e-able

-:uld ri;, ;;r.: a re::. cry of 3.6 to 7.8 x 103 Btu / year, or ap;rexir.nely 2 to M of the yesely

~'

~~

,f : trine in the tlr.ited 5t3tes,f t or less ? ben 1; cf ne ::tal etths.tl :-ni. ;y

't c;9:.ytha. 3:.ever, these processes do prcvide useful r.e: hods of redscing the greaing problem v.t : d':pr.a1.

mm m

D D

D,3 f

ao5 o

m C1 a site-rpecific 12 sis, bloconversica processes pr: vide the user with a rethed to disp:se of westes, to create a supplemental energy rescurce, and potentially to redu:e cperatirg cests.

To the extent that these processes are adopted in the future locally or regionally by cunici-p111 ties and industries, the d'!;4nd for electric energy might be reduced. Currently, a rumerical evaluati:n of this effect is not possible.

R; g3ra tion Cc;tneration is defined es the process in which both electrical p ar and essful be.

fl e.<s (e.g.,, rocess steam) are produced in dual-purpose installations. Ceg.:neratten facilities can

~

g+r. crate given heat and electricity fice) with c:nsiderably less ft.el then :ald te required 4

to prcduce the sare q antities of energy indep:r.dently. Thus, with cc;en2 ration a utility cN1d adapt to prcduce and sell precets ster.m to nearby industries. C:nver:ely, industries prciuting and using precess steam ceuld install clectrical generating e g !; at as a topping cycle to produce by-preduct electricity, which could both supply fr-h use needs and provide en excess to be scid to utilities. The practicality of c:pneraticn hcwever, is governed by

~

technical, institutter.al, and fir.ancial relationships.

Coceraraticn cQ-oroduct stcem. Electrical utilities u:e high-pr:s:ura stera (e.g.,

c'O psia) that is exhtusted from tarbines at a very le,# pressure (e.g., 0.1 psia) to the c:.Ansers and is of too icw a heat quality for process ese. 'iten steam is extracted frem the turbir.e at a higher pressure. suitable for process steam applications, a de:rease in electrical p:. r scneration cccurs. To raintiin the established electrical powar cutput, lareer boilers, nd tu. bints r.st La installed to ccm;:nsete' for the high r st:2r-cxhust pretsure. Tut ciitting of an.x sting stca picr.t with lerrar boilcrs and turbin?s to prc.Me process steam Wald be

. i v.. c:.:iy u;.i tive as. ;11 as t cing technically dif ficult at riny sitas. TL:re.~cre, c ;:.r. erat! n

".:sible' f$r r.tw y. era ting by :..ility cr ar.14./.:stry to supply ty-pr:3.ict stum s:t s r nt

. ;i.iti*s.

2073

-)33 i

l

r, 9-27 D

r, r' D

1. " D M

< u f\\

~n, T1 h k

. r n%r c:v sin; is the f act *.'.at the tai ;- dist u:2 t.'st 5:en c!3 te t.1-s::rtad +::.:vicalIy is it:st 16

• .m (10 -ilts), t-1 this distance a;;1145 :P.ly for vcry lar;e sten fled rates, that is,

• x '.;S It/hr ;r cre. As the ficw of st!!n is d-ct:! sed, the t;;r.:r.fcally feasible tetns.

.rt di

tince is also decreased.18.88 C nse;uently, a ;rocess sttu c:ns rte ;st be 1ccated-ia d 2

!-ity of 1:-a u-ility pr-Actag st:5.m. 3"d erca;h c:ns_;3rs ;.: te 1;ca 33.ithin a r 2!:.utle '.. vt;crt distirce to use effectively the c;antities of steam pr:Sced.

Irdust-fes huing large steem de.. ands - that is, petroche.aical manufacturing and p2trolewn refining - c:gid be supplied by lar;ce centralized base-load-ty;e steu plants. Rare nuvirous t.n:11er industrias -fght te sardd, the utility could install s 211er decentrali:ed plants usidg standard design of 10-K4 or 20-F'4 n:Jules, alone or in cerbinatien, to minfafze cost, as su;;ested in a study!00 by Public Service Electric and Gas Ccepany of !!es Jarsey.

In a current site-s;ccific study, the Stone and *,*ebster Engineering Cetperstica is lecking at

~ alternate desi;ns and c$sts of cne or core cogeneratien pleats for Galf 5ts:e Utilities. tot Gulf State officials hope that the study, funded for $210,000 by E'. A (now Ce; arc ut of Energy),

will ley the engine: ring Sround<ork for two, and possibly three cr r.:re, cc.;enarttien plants to suply steam and electricity to industrial facilities in Gulf State's service cr2's in t.cuisiang $nd Jens.

I~

Eclisbility is 2ncthar factor that :.ast be consida.co. The cor.2 :rars of pr: cess stm rast Fave

[

a hi;h assur>.nce of an uninterrupted source of staan to : aintain ;r:Scticn. To ensure this supply, the utility stan su; plier would n'ed c.altiple toilers rather than ene lar;e sir.gle

. ii t. 5 8 Sc:e custenrs purchtshg their process stan frca utilities. ay tiso cF:cse to retain taisting toflers, w%ro available, for stct:.1 ;eaking 2.id backup.1:0 Pifnter,tnce of these toilers would be a ne:essary addition *.1 custem.2r expanse.

Cop r.aretten of Sy,creduct electcicity,. Pany frdustr'ies FN$cSg their precass st2em ceuld also pr: duce electricity by using to;;ing cyc.ics that e:c.picy sta!, t:.riin=s, cas turLi.ies.

cr diesci enginas ceu;1ed with electric generators. The latter two ;se the exhzust frc:a the

[

turbine or so;ine to heat spccialind t. oilers that t.se the exhaust teet.

U.e 6 ci :.cratica of, ty-pr:!:.ct electricity by Industrics preducing their

-n ;rcces: stcim 2150 fcvoi?csi;.? tcchnical difficJ1 tics. Proc:ss steam is us'; ally ret of s.fficiat c,u:lity f;,r ".2 af ficient ;rufucticn of clectricity with :tu1 tar'i.as, M us.u,uiring '.: 2 retrcfitting, 2073 034

'g' A

/P O

i QQ Q

3 J

or r::".s:r 5.n., cf..i s r.; tai

• srs, in 3 :ticn to irs:sile:t;n cf ;..ra-ir ; 3:.';

s with t'a c:;etre ti.- :,f ty-;.rcbct stta, *he

u.eration of ty,;r

$:t e'e:t-i;ity :et-s r. ore f:::f:lt f;r :.,ir: tilations t'en for existing or.?s.

7.tif ability 2n::ta ed ith s.;; lying c::: t tied ty-;r:S:t electricity by an in$stry or a utility is w. ally n:t es diffi: ult a

~~

=,

't>.

-f ated ith sgplyir; 'y-pr:S-staa. A,tility cr an i.-datej pr:.L:ing -

cr using

,;r.2 rated by-;.reduct electricity can, in the esent of an electrical fati. re, ;urchase ca - :O f, if ;.rni:us arranprent or c:.atract, nectssary electricsl 7:.ar '.c-tht u-i*' ties' p;.tr ret-:;rk or frcm ::c:e other utility throu;b the existing trar.smission net.:rk.

JJ.3ce N ttnt with coceneration. In conjunction with the c ;er.v etien process, spice htatir.g or district hcoting in scr:a instances can be attractive for resid+ntial ar.d cc. trcial areas. '41th steam turbines, the efficiency of electrical generation is in:ressed if the output heat fios is in the form of hot water rather than steers. S.sch hSt water r;; plied by utilities can t.e used effectively for space hseting. Although unc:..sn in the t'nited States, co;eneration syste"s for district Mating are in use in Eurcpean and Scandianavian c:ur.*. ries, ;articularly

,,5.

den.100. Use of_.h:t.. Ester for space heating appears ecor. :ically fa\\srable cnly in larse cities or locations where da. end would be sufficient to justify the cost of the festallaticn of both coger: rating facilities and the distributien sysic'n.

.r instituticr.el tarriers. Although ccgeneration is attractive and will te::ne care so as fuel ; rices increase, institutional barriers tend to impede its d+velc; int.

Ir.dustri:s selling escess electrical p:-tr to utilities cculd fall ur. der state and.'aderal ;ubife utility re;ulations.

Tre prehcer of ty-prc$ct electricity r'ust also be assured of a fair r.ariet,crice for hth the evcess electrical ;:-er he ' produces and any backup pc.ar he r.ty te re uired to purchase.

Jnat'.r it;cdira:nt.to ce;eneraticn is fir. ncing. Industry's gar.erally high required rete of

' ret.rn en a :ill:.ry I'.vot:.;ents such as these for in-plant cer.c.atten w:ald also tend to slow

~

' he ec.';. tan:e of c:;;.r.eration unless sena fin?ncial help from the gc.arment, fcr emple, I

in it: ';n cf in.vst..:-nt tax credits or guaranteed loans, were ;ro.ind.102

. y, althcu h ccgeneration appears attractive and could in ti.e future c:,ns:rve valuable'

.n s'.

N. r;y. :f.re.es,.the ;rescnt technical, institutional, tr.d finr.:ial difficulties affecting its '..;1c:..t;.tica rike it t.alikely, in the staff's esti;rttic7, thtt ind'istrial cr utility

~

o ccy. :rati:n will srbt.tr.tially alter su;. ply of, or do.rtnd for, electricity ~;r the n:xt tcn l

l vr fi '" a..a rs. {:

u;.tly, u.;,.. ratien will nat alt er t'a

'-d for, sr the tira of, b.

t-;'-

-i :ri;!:1 c,.r

. a of M.P 1 & 2.

O ^t 7 I} n

9-29 j 9.1.2.3 S':1.s has j di dj', Af ter r <i: ing toth the c ner. tic.r.31 and ;;tir.tial future ener;y s: r:es Inf systifs,.the staff res ccac.cr2d with tha t;plicant in cncinding that :nly c:al is a,iable sl:2rnstive. 1r;j fbr tha ;. s; ::3 2 2 ] !a

t. 2:11ar ;0-!r ;i-1!.

Th? *9:.r:3faty titut the ...r:n a f ~ svatiability cf natural gss and oil fr:m either derestic cr f are15n 5:urces in quantities tafficiant fc.- I!fet* e c;watha of a ;c-er plant eliminated sil-fired i r:-l':'d stan ; nits, c: Sin f sj;h.af ts, and gis-turbine uaits fr:.2 considtrati:n as alternit!.e 4..ar;y syste.?s. Tne lack cf anilable sites elininated conventicesi hydro lectric p 4sr as an afternative and the lack of 6.1:st.ated technolc;j cn a comercial basis elfiminated the ;otential fuf.ure. energy sources frea consideraticn as alternatives for central-staticn p wer generation by the late ic30s. N ither the potential energy sources nor the core efficient ccaversica processes are likely to be in use sufficient to reduce the grcwth rate of electric e.ergy required frc<a central p:-e(' stations during the next decade. 2073 J36 a ~ 4 . o O e G e m e O e

9-105 D**D

• ]O T oaA a m 11

_= REFERENCES FCR SEr.TICN 9 1. .i., 5ctionet n:eny PZen, Executive Office of the Presicent Energy Folicy and Planning, Apr. 29,1977. 2. U.S. Departeent of the Interior, " Annual U.S. Energy Up in 1976,' Bureau of Mines News, Release, Mar. 14, 1977. 3. U.S. Ceoart.m.ent of the Interior, Fuels and D:argy Cata: Uni:sd Sta:se iy st=:es and Census m isiens, 2373, Bureau of Mines Circular. IC 8722, 1976. 4 "TRC Told U.S. Oil Picture Bleak in '76," ciI -:s J. 74(13): 62-63 (1976). 5. Federal Energy Administration, NatiencE Ena.hy Cu:Zock, Report FEA-N-75/713, February 1976. Federal "Pcwer Ccenission, 27 e 1970 Jctiona: F:;<: Survey, ?:re I, U.S. Goverr.r.ent 6. Frinting ' Office, 'dashington, D.C.,197T, p. I-4-14

7., Bureau of Natural Gas, 5acional G:s swpty cr.d :c.crd, :971-:222, secll.?epc:

30. 2, Federal Power Commssion Series 218, U.S. Gonen. ant Printing Cffice, *.tashington. 0.C.,

1972. Ied..[agis. 33(46): 6334-6385_(1973)3 8. 9. Federal Pcwer Comission, KcticnaI Cas Survey, vol.1. Chap.1, Prelir.inary Draft, Februan 1975. 10. " Hydro's Fotential Should be Exp. lotted," r!ae r. "crId, p. 28, Feb. 15, 1976. 2073 037 ee 6 e op g .O

_r s i 9-105 a REFER.NC _IC't0N 9 1. Cha 5ctic.c! s.yj PZer, Exe' tive Office of the President, Ener y Policy and Planning, Apr. 29, 1977 2. U.S. Depart ent of the Interior, " Annual U.S. Energy Up in 1976," Sureau of Mines News. Release, Mar. 14, 1977. 3. U.S. Cepart.ent of the Interior Fuels and &.ergy scea: thi:4d Seceas by States cnd Census Divisicns,1973, Bureau of Mines Circular. IC 8722, 1976. 4 "TRC Told.U.S. Oil Picture Bleak in '76," Ci1 Ces.T. 74(11): 6E-63(1976). 5. Federal Energy Administration, NationaI &.e.yj cu Zeck, Report FEA-N-75/713 February 1976. P* 6. Federal Power Ccmission, The 1970 Jacicnal Feuer Eur>ey, ?.M I, U.S. Governrent ~ Printing 0ffice, 'Jashington, D.C.,1971, p. :-4-14. 7. Bureau of natural Cas, National Gas Supply and :e:.=nd, 1971 *1;2, S:cll ! aper so. 2, Federal Pcwer Coc:missica Series Z18, U.S. Governr. ant Priating Cffice, 'Jashington, D.C., 1972. 8. Fed. Regist. 33(46): 6384-6385 _(1973)._ 8 9. Federal Pcwer Corwission National Cas Su -><y, vol.1. Chap.1, Preliminary Draft, February 1975. ~ 10. 'Mydro's Potential Should be Explotted," E!se::. 'orZd, p. 28, Feb.15,1976. ~ q7% 119 ~ g 4 .p

• O

25. _W.n.~cr. enscl, :ecI:h, and Control Aspec:s of Coc! Ccr.ver:icn: An Info.mc:icn C.e.- r*ca, H.' M. Braunstein, E. D. Copenhaver, and H. A. Pfuderer, Eds., Report ORNL.'EIS-94, Draft. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tenn., August 1976.

26. " Synthetic Fuels Debated," D.sv;y pig. 6(5): 515 (May 5,1976).

D**]D "D 3~ [ 6

27. Ref.11, c. 14.

O

28. *Bradshaw Sees Crude Prices Holding at $10-12/bbt," oil Ccs J. 72(33): 32-34 (1974).

29. Ref.-5. 30. L. H. Godwin et al., CIcssifia: Mon of MIic Icnds rela: bis fcr Coo ham:I Stec cnd Associc:4d Cecche.*nc! Rese.c eas, Geological Survey Circular 647, U.S. Departmnt of the Interior, Washington, D.C.,1971.

31. " Assessment of Geother=al Resources of the United States - 1975 " United States Geological Survey, Circular 726, 1975.

~

32. Er.ergy Research and Develcp. ent Administration. Tir.=13 :,ircr entcI I:pect Soc:sment, A": art:H ve.NeIs re cr.stration P ng m, vol. 2 Report ERCA-1547, September 1977, p. III-57.

.-h

33. Division of Geothermal Energy, Energy Research and Development Administration, D.:fren en:cI I pcc: Aasess ene, Cecpressw e Saipmgr=-r, Report EIA/GE/77-3, July 1977.

34 S. R. Hise and M. F. Hwkins, Jr., A 2riefing on' Cecpressw'ed :.'cter as an D ergy Fesc.ece l: :he Ccr-greceicncI :elog=:ier.s of the 5%:es cf Lc-isi.:r.c cnd Mississigpi, LcuisianL State University, Baton Rouge, June 13, 1973, p. 1. a

35. Energy Research and Developrnent Administration, "Enviror.: ental 1: pac:. Assessment Geepressure Subprogram," Division of Geothermal Energy. EIA/GE/77-3, July 1977.

~ 36. Ref. 11, p. 24. } } I i e b

9-108 ~ ,5 37 I:.repec : Weste.0-Ir ryy Syste.s - An Over.-;e:, prepared by Resources Flanning Associates. Pnc., for Division of Buildings and Comunity Systems, Energy Research and Duelopment q Accir.istration, CONS-2103-6, June 1977. 9 P (P m n g g-d6 J u 6JuJ _J = 38. J. W. Meyer, " Solid Waste for the Generation of Electric Power," Monograph No. 7, MIT 1 1 Energy Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, June 1975.

39. Williard Yarbrough, "Cros,ville is Preparing for Incinerator Testing," The J.noc:ri1It Neus-Sentinel, Aug. 19, 1977.

40. P. N. Cheremisinoff and A. C. Morresi, Fr.ergy frcm Solid Wester, Marcel Dek'ker, Inc., New York, 1976. 41. r se:r. Fer".d, June 15, 1575, a. 19. 42. J. F, Hullen, " Steam Generation From Solid Wastes: The Connecticut Rationale Related to the St. Louis Experience," pp. 191-202 in Rescicce Recovery reau I vinerction, papers presented at the 1974 National Incinerator Conference The Am-rican Society of Mechanical Et,gineers,.New York, May 1974. .l. 43. P. M. Meier and T. H. McCoy, Solid F:ste As en Inergy Sc:c ee Icr the Ferthecs, BNL-50559, 1 Brookhaven National Laboratory, prepared for the U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration, June 1976. a4. P:wer Authn-My of the State of New York (PASNY), Annual Report 1976, New York,1977. 45,

a. E. Evenson, " Solid Waste as an Energy Source, the SIPO Cycle," pp. 11-17 in Resc u e Recevery T o Jr. ir.erction, papers presented at the 1974 National Incinerator Conference, The A,erican Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, May'lS74.

aE. U.S. Water Resources Council, 2S72 C3.'. S Prejee icns, Regior.:1 Econor-;c Ac:ivi:y in the U.S., Sc~'es E ?:puI::icn; by Eccr.:-ie Arec, Wc:er Res: a cas Regicn, cnd S:Ocrea, S:: e, ~ c.i C'!A cr.!.';c-:-r!SA ?cr:icr.s of :he Arecs, Eis:cric:: c i ?%-lee:ed, :S29-2:25, 7 voi s., West.in; ton, D.C., April 1974. 2073 040

9-109 47. 5,ecial Comittee, R. L. Mirsch, Chaiman, Tusicn ?.> err An Assess-en: of U i..::;4 ?::entic!, "eport WASH-1239. U.S. At:mic Energy Cc.=ission. Divisien of Controlled Themonuclear Research, Washington. 0.C., February 1971 D"*F"D 3' 3 A ao o a 48. " Capturing a Star: Controlled Fusion Pcwer," URI /cwnct, p. 6, Electric Power Research Institute, Pal Alto, Calif., December 1977.

49. " Princeton University to Build Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor," Ibver Eng., p. 90, Dec. 19, 1977.

Energy Research and Development Administration,1bsum ? ver by.4::gne:ce Ccnf r.emen: 50. 7:rgren ?Icn, ERDA-76/110/1, July 1976.

51. "Saving Two Decades en a Fusion Technique," Su. sir.ees Week, Nov. 15, 1976, p. 125.

52. Federal non-nu.= lear D.ergy Research and Devolcymen: Ac of 1974, Public Law 93-577, Cec. 31,1974.

53. Sc'd Esaving and ccciing :c-c1str=:icn Act of 1974, Fublic Law 93-409, Sept. 3,1974 E4 So'.c Incrgy Resecreh, re.;elc; ene, and re.:neer= icn Ac: of :274, Public Law 93-473, g-Oct. 25, 1974

55. Incr;f Recrye ncticn Ac: of 1974, Public Law 93-438, Oct. 11, 1974

56. Ref. 1.

57. H. V. Sertini, " Solar Energy as an Alternate Energy Source to Mixed Oxide Fuels in Light Water Ccoled Reactors," Report CRNL/NUREG/'6M-131, August 1977. 5 8.' ?acam eni::icns fcr the ::ncep:uct Cesig: of ?.ra ?= s:cu, Califc: :ia, Soi, r C.mm* Esceiver Pi~c: ?':n: -Ireeu:ive 5:. rc j, St.ndia Laboratories Energy Re:cr:, SA.ND 77-h 25, C::::er'1977. . 2073 )41 e

9-110 ,5 SS. Mark Davidson and Donald Grether '"The Central Receiver Power Plant: i An Environ rental, ( Ecological, and Socioeconomic Analysis, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of Calif:rnia at Berkeley, June 1977. 60. Energy Research and Developeent Acninistration, Solar N.mc2 Inergy Conversion E ERDA-76-159, October 1976. 1 61. Energy Research and Development Adainistration, SoIcr Energ; for Agriculture end Ind c Process Esce, Program Sumary, Division of Solar Energy. ERDA 77-72 June 1977 62. An:lyeis of the Eccr.:n-ic Potendct of Solcr km:1 Energy to Prcr ide Ind us: rial Process

Esct, prepared by Inter Technology Corporation for the Energy Research and Development Administration C00/2829-1, Feb. 7, 1977.

63. Irlus ric! AppI?cctions of SoIcr To:cI tr.ergy, prepared by McDonnell Douglas Astro nautics . Company for the Department of Energy, SAN /1132-7/1, April 1977. 64 URI.Tearrc!, Electric Po er' Research Institute December 1977, p. 40 65. J. E. Scott, R. W. Melicher, and D. M. Sciglimpaglia, Ic.=.4 Aralysis Solcr 3ec:i j. ng cnd Coclirg cf Ewildir.gs - Phcse I Report, National Science Foundation, December 1974.

66. '"A House that Runs on'the Sun," Ned. e.

IIZustrc:sd, May 1974 67. D. S. '~'ard and G. O. G. L6ef, :esign, cons:: ::icn, crA res Mr.; cf a ?asiden dal solcr Ee: Mr.g c-4 Cooling Systam, prepared by Colorado State University for the Division of Solar Energy, inergy Research and Develcpment Ad inistration, June 1976. P. U.S. Department of Heusing and Urban Developtrent, SoIcr Ecc:fr.; c:-d CcoZirg r A :escrigd::e E:r-cry of EQ Soicr Fesider. ial Dc~cr.strc:icns eirenstration ? reg =n- , Cycis I, 1976. 9. Feceral Energy Adcinistration. Sc'.cr CcI!sc:ce Ncr.ufce:.c ir.g Ae:id:y .7aZy threagh

s:s-ist :57!, March iC76.

20/3 142 ?, i l t I

9-111

70. I,.ergy Research and Develep:ent Ad:ninistration, 5::icn:I Progn:, fer SoIc 5e :iv :-J

ir.g ??esider.:ic;

.4 Cc rer:ia; 'p? tic :kr.s), Oivisico of Solar Energy, ECA-E3A. October 1975.

71. Ref. 3.

72. Dr. P. E. Glaser, statement from Eac-ing t before the Sabec.rittee on the Ec'izverent of the Comit:ee on Ir.:er'or and InsuIcr Affairs, E:use of Representatives, Einaty ~1:ird Can,ress, See:nd Session on.% fees Independance Blueprint, Serial No. 93-70, fl.5. Covern-ment Printing Office, Washington. 0.C., Nov. 21 and 25,1974, pp.104-112.

73. "Sola:-Cell Cost Feel 25% in six Months, U.S. Says.' FaII S:reet Jcurr 21 - 5:scem Idi: ion, Washingten. D.C., Sept. 16, 1976.

74 Cecrge Hager, " Solar Cells Cast High," Ne:.7 CrZecns, Ic., Tires-P'cayure, Aug. 23, 1976. 75. " Solar-Energy Plan Pt.alished," I ecer. ForId I84(6): 28 (1975). ~

76. " Wind Studied as Pessible Energy Scu'rce," !?.s 7.r.c:. i!!e Sc.es-Sentinel, May 22, 1974

77. Naticnal Science Foundation /Naticnal Aeronautic and Space Administraticn Solar Energy Pane 1, an a ssese.er.: cf Soic Ermi cs a ac:icn:1 tr.ergy Eescurce, Report NSFIRIRN-73-001, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington. 0.C., December 1972, pp. 65-68.

73.

7. W. Black, Megaaatts frcm the Wind," ?:cer Er.g. 20(3): 64-63 (1976).

79. " Wind T'urbine Slated to Produce 60 kW " I erv. scrZd 185(5):

32 (1976).

80. r~ee:rn:I ucrId, 183(4): 17 (Aug.15,1977).

81'. Energy Research and Oevele; ment Adainistration, reder:I vind 9.ergf ?~2pr::, 5:., : j reper, ECA-77-32, Jan; 1,1977. 32. O. L.- E11 f ett, fr. hesis of ":-kr.:!.i i I.cr;y sassi tr.:s, ENWL/ WINO-5, Ea tei't i :t"c t ': - -ts: La cra cries, July 1977. '7 0 7 7 1/ 7) ~

,,l 1 g

83. Ref. 77, pp. 58-74 1

84 M. O. Surfa:e, " Exotic Po er and Energy Sterage," 72:,:er Ing. 81(12): 36-44, (December 1977).

85. " Ocean Te=perature Gradients: Solar Power from the Sea," Science, 180(4092): 1255 (June 22, 1973).

5 f' @ @gR@n 1

85. Ref. 57.

I iI; g

87. " Power from Ocehr. Moves Ahead," IIee:r. Forld 184(2): 27 (1975).

88. Ref. 75.

89. Ref. 77, pp. 48-65.

9 0.' G..C. Szego and C; C. Kemp, " Energy Forest and Fuel Flantations," Chs.,..;ech, May 1973,

p. 275.

Si. Eirecr: version cf Agricultural ;iastes for Pollution Cor.:ro; c-:d Energy Ccr.serverion, prepared by Cornell University for the Division of Solar Energy. Energy Research and Development Administration. Report TID-27164, September 1976. ~ 92. " Chemist says a Botanical Plant Can be Used to Make Gasoline," Ileu Ierk.%es, Sept. 3, 1976.

93. ?grc;yeis of Ind sm's ;ics:es fcr Cil c.d A::'v::ed C:.:a:r..ise::;ery, prepared by Oc:idental Research Corporation for the Industrail Environmental Research Laboratory of the Envirencental Protection Agency, EPA-600/2-77-091, May 1977.

~ 94. Ref. 64, pp.17-19. 95. U.S. Departnent of the Interier, Annu:I U.S. Inergy L) in IS7f, Bureau cf Mines News Release, Ma r. 14, 1577, (See ref. 2.)

55. I:::ie:C::~ /.irn'::: cf the Wi ed E:::ee, 2. ?5, Eureau cf the Carsus U.S. Is:ar. en of C: : a-ce.

ud a Jkk

9-113 7 D* D D ' 3 '\\. f 9b ob. IL a sr ( '3T. ' Sc:.rees of Alcoh.o1.% sis fer 7shicIs F*se: Tss:s, Civisien of Transportati:n Energy Censarvation, Energy Research and Deve1opment Administration CONS /2593-1, Aug. 31,1977. 98. T. D. Anderson et al., An Assass: en of Iriardct Eher;y Cpdor.s Based on Coct md Actscr Sys:c s, Report ORNL-4995, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tenn., July 1975. 99. R. M. Earnes, A Disc:avien of Cogere:~::wn as a Cor.serxdon Alternative to the Ir.seciladon of T octing AeZecr Power Ficnts, prepared by Dow Chemical U.S.A. for Cak Ridge National Laboratory, Depar+:nent of Energy, October 1977. 100. R. F. Dettrich and K. D. Allen Pelic Sar. ries I:sceric cnd Ccs C.~peny Cc;er.cre *cn Ep Ia:ticn, Report 36.76.12, Public Service Electric and Gas Ceepany, Newark, New Jersey, January 1977. 101. "Stene & Webster and Gulf States Working Out Cogeneration Details," Tr.s D:ergy Ocity 5(162): 1-2, Aug. 19, 1977. 102. S. E. Nydic et a1., ?ir.:t Espen, A S:.dj of Iryta.: riec:ric:t 7:,;ar Ger.arcden -:n the c>c-ice!, Ps:reZe:r, Refinir.; cr.d P=pe cr.d 74 p.r.d:a: ries, Report TE 5429-97-76, Z

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• ~

103. "L. D. Haa11 ten, Ed., :he Esc 2:h crd D:Mrcer:en:at Effec:s of Eisc::-icity Genereden - A ~

re i.-r.::y. r;cre, Ercokhaven.';a ticnal Labora t'. y, July 1974, 1C4 L. D. Ma:ilt:n and S. C. Perris, "Heald Effects of Fossil Fuel Fewer Plants," In 7:p:a~cdcn E. pes.c es - Proceedings cf :he Eigh:h Midys:: lcpical Sy-pcsiwr of.:he Eecith P.;. sic, Sceis:y, Octcber 1974.

~ '105. L. D. Harailton, " Energy and Heal th." In ?:ceeedir.;s of :he ccnnse cut ccnfeence en I.ergy, Decer-ber 1975.

• 6.

5. C. "crris and K. . Novak,.= 2cck l:r :hs. ; c ::ific: den of la:::h Effcc:s '.~--- :::;

? e.,k Gr:c r, Erce(havtn ';ati nal L::cra Ory, Oraf t "e crt, Cecs-ber 1976. ~ 107 ... :<:rak et a1., E4:;:h c.i I ::.cgie:I Iffee:s cf C:::. n.:.:Mcn, Ar;: ne * : : a: ..::ra :ry, Oraf t Oe:crt, :::ve-:er 1976. 0/3 J45 .}}